Signal Generators

A signal generator is a very important equipment in the test setups and in electronic
developments and troubleshooting. Signal generator provides an excitation to the electronic
measurement systems and processing circuits, which convert various transducer outputs
into lIseful data. The excitation provided by signal generator may be a constant d.c.
voltage or current or even stable a.c. signal. In some cases, it is required to vary the
frequency as well as amplitude of the excitation. This purpose is served by using signal
genera tors.
Signal generator provides variety of different signals for testing various electronic
circuits at low powers. The signal generator is an instrument which provides several
different output waveforms including sine wave, square wave, triangular wave, pulse train
and an amplitude modulated waveform.
In various instrumentation systems, the signal at audio frequency as well as at radio
frequency are required. In most of the cases, the signal at particular frequency is generated
using an oscillator which provides fixed frequency signal. Some other variable frequency
oscillators are also available.
The AF and RF signal generators are the equipments providing signals for general test
purposes. These two are specially designed to cover a wide frequency band from few Hz
to several GHz.

Band Approximate range

Audio Frequency (AF) 20 Hz - 20 kHz

Radio Frequency (RF) Above 30 kHz

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 15 - 100 kHz

Low Frequency (LF) 100 - 500 kHz

Broadcast 0.5 to 1.5 MHz

Video o- 5 MHz
 High Frequency (HF) 1.5 - 30 MHz

Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 - 300 MHz

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 - 3000 MHz

Microwave Beyond 3 GHz

Table 6.1
6.2 Requirements of Laboratory Type Signal Generator

There are different types of signal generator. But the requirements are common to all
the types.
i) The output frequency of signal generator should be very stable .
...-
ii) The amplitude of output signal of signal generator should be controllable from low
.' values to relatively large values.
iii)..The amplitude of output signal must be stable.
i~he harmonic contents in the output should be as low as possible. The output
signal should be distortion free.
v) The signal generator should provide very low spurious output; that means effect of
hum, noise, jitter and modulation should be negligible.

In most of the measurement and instrumentation systems, the inpl.lt signal required is
sinusoidal signal. Such a periodic, sinusoidal signal is generated by using <:Inoscillator. An
oscillator is a circuit which generates a sinusoidal signal with constant amplitude and
constant desired frequency using positive feedback. It generates an output waveform at a
desired frequency in a range from few hertz to several gigahertz. Thus an oscillator is a
circuit which acts as a generator which generates output using positive feedback.
A block diagram of a simple signal generator is as shown in the Fig. 6.1

---~"~I Attenuator

Coarse Fine Coarseine Fine

frequency frequency amplitude amplitude
control control control control

Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of a signal generator

A signal generator consists of two important main blocks,

i) oscilla tor
ii) attenuator
 Generally the oscillator uses an active device such as an operational amplifier. The
output of an operational amplifier is fed back in phase with input. This positive feedback
causes regenerative action resulting an oscillation.
The attenuator provides a~itl1de control. Basically the attenuator is a device 'vhich
reduces or iFfenuates the power level of the signal by fixed amount.

The proper functioning of a signal generator depends on the performance of an

oscillator and attenuator.

6.3.1 Basic Theory of Oscillator

As stated earlier, it is an amplifier which uses a positive feedback. T!te feed1;2ilck is a
property whic!t allows to feedback the part of the output, to the same circuit as its input.
Such a feedback is said to be positive whenever the part of the output that is fed back in
the amplifier as its input, is in phase with the original input signal applIed to the
amplifier.

Consider a non-inverting amplifier with the voltage gain A as shown in the Fig. 6.2.

Va Va A
V
Feedback
signal
Feedback
network
~

Fig. 6.2 Concept of positive feedback

Assume that a sinusoidal input signal (voltage) V, is applied to the circuit. As

amplifier is non-inverting, the output voltage Vo is in phase with the input signdl Vb' The
part of the output is fed back to the input with the help of a feedback network. How
much part of the output is to be fed back, gets decided by the feedback network gain 0.
No phase change is introduced by the feedback network. Hence the feedback voltage VI is
in phase with the input signal Vb' As the phase of the feedback signal is same as that of
the input applied, the feedback is called positive feedback.
The amplifier gain is A i.e. it amplifies its input Vi, A times to produce output Vo.

A = Vo
V.

This is called open loop gain of the amplifier.

For the overall circuit, the input is supply voltage Vb and net output is Vo. The ratio of
output Vo to input Vo considering effect of feedback is called closed loop gain of the
circuit or gain with feedback denoted as Af.
 The feedback is positive and voltage Vi IS added to V, to generate input of amplifier
Vi. So referring Fig. 6.2 we can write,

Vi V, + ~ Vo
Vs Vi - ~ Vo

Vo
Ai = Vi -~ Vo

Dividing both numerator and denominator by VI'

(Vo / Vi)
I-~ (Vo / VI)

A Yo
Ai = I-A~ ... as A = V
I

Now consider the various values of ~ and the corresponding values of Ar for constant
amplifier gain of A = 20.

A ~ Ai
20 0.005 22.22
20 0.04 100
20 0.045 200
20 0.05 CJ:)

Table 6.2
The above result shows that the gain with feedback increases as the amount of positive
feedback increases. In the limiting case, the gain becomes infinite. This indicates that circuit
can produce output without external input (Vs = 0), just by feeding the part of the output
as its own input. Similarly, output cannot be infinite but gets driven into the oscillations.
In other words, the circuit stops amplifying and starts oscillating. Thus without an input,
the output will continue to oscillate whose frequency depends upon the feedback network
or the amplifier or both. Such a circuit is called an oscillator.
It must be noted that ~ the feedback network gain is always a fraction and hence p < l.
So the feedback network is an attenuation network. To start with the oscillations Ap > 1
but the circuit adjusts itself to get Ap = 1, when it produces sinusoidal oscillations while
working as an oscillator.
 For the oscillator, we want that feed_back should drive the amplifier and hence Vt must
act as Vi.
Now if Vi has to be equal to Vi,

1- 1 + jO I
1

And the phase of Vi must be same as Vi i.e. feedback network should introduce 180 0

phase shift in addition to 180° phase shift introduced by inverting amplifier. This ensures
positive feedback. So total phase shift around a loop is 360°.
In this condition, Vi drives the circuit and without external input, circuit works as an
osciHator.
The two conditions discussed above, required to work the circuit as an oscillator a're
called Barkhausen Criterion for oscillation.
The Barkhausen Criterion states that:
1. The total phase shift around a loop, as the signal proceeds from input through
amplifier, feedback network back to input again, completing a loop, is precisely 0°
or 360°, or ofcourse an integral multiple of 211: radians.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier (A) and the
feedback factor P is unity i,e. I A P I = 1.
Satisfying these conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator producing sustained
oscillations of constant frequency and amplitude

The signal generators which provide sinusoidal waveforms in the frequency range of
20 Hz to 20 kHz are called audIO fre ncy(A.F.) signal generator~ Depending upon the
load, in modern AF signa generators a provision is made to select output impedance
either 50 n or 600 n. To generate al:rdio frequency signals, in practice RC feedback
oscillators are used. The most commonly used RC feedback oscillators are Wien Bridge
oscillator and RC phase shift oscillator. Let us discuss both the types of oscillators in
detail.
 6.4.1 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Generally in an oscillator, amplifier stage introduces 180° phase shift and feedback
network introduces additional 180° phase shift, to obtain a phase shift of 360° (2ITradians)
around a loop. This is required condition for any oscillator. But Wien bridge oscillator uses
d noninverting amplifier and hence does not provide any phase shift during amplifier
stage.As total phase shift required is 0° or 2 nIT radians, in Wien bridge type no phase
shiftis necessary through feedback. Thus the total phase shift around a loop is 0°. Let us
shldy the basic version of the Wien bridge oscillator and its analysis.

6.4.1.1Wien Bridge Oscillator using Op-amp

The Fig. 6.5 shows the Wien bridge oscillator using an op-amp.

R1
'Feedback
network
t
Op-amp non inverting
amplifier
wien bridge

Fig. 6.5
nle resistance R and capacitor C are the components of frequency sensitive arms of
the bridge. The resistance Rf and R1 form the part of the feedback path. The gain of
noninverting op-amp can be adjusted using the resistance Rf and R1. The gain of op-amp
is,
 1 1+jwRC
R+ jwC = jwC

RII_1_ =- R
jwC l+jwRC

Then the feedback factor ~ is given by,

R
l+jwRC
l+jwRC R
---+----
jwC l+jwRC
Fig. 6.6 Simplifed feedback net-
work of Wien Bridge oscillator
jwRC jwRC
1+ j2wRC- w2R2C2 + jwRC 1+ j3wRC- w2R2C2

jW~C + 3 + jwRC

3+{ wRC- w~C)

1
If w = RC' we get value of ~ real. Hence it gives the frequency of oscillation which is

given by,

dc i.e·1 fo =~
1 1
- then ~ =-
RC 3

To satisfy Barkhausen criterion that A~ ;::: 1, it is necessary that the gain of

non-inverting amplifier must be minimum 3.

. Rf
l.e.l+~;:::3

Thus the ration of Rf and R] must be greater than or equal to 2. The feedback is given
to the noniverting terminal of the op-amp which ensures zero phase shift. Practically value
of Rr is selected as 2Rj. The values of Rf and R1 are selected such that the gain is adjusted
exactly to 3 in practical circuits. But due to the component tolerances and temperature
variations, it is very difficult to provide exactly gain of value 3. In such cases, amplitude
stabilization circuits are used so that automatic gain correction is possible. The amplitude
sttlbilization circuit may use thermister, light dependent resistor (LOR), field effect
trtlnsistor (FET) and low power lamp. Thermistor has negative temperature coefficient. It is
generally placed instead of Rt, so when the temperature changes, it automatically
maintains the ratio of Rf to R1. The light dependent resistor (LOR) has high voltage limit
and produces good results. The main advantage is that it can be used in place of either R1
or Rf. But in practical circuits, Rf is replaced by LOR which makes circuit simpler and
minimizes voltage across the device. The disadvantage of using LOR is that it requires
,Kidition'll circuitary which is not the case with a thermistor. Low power lamp is used in
place to Rf. Its filament has positive temperature coefficient. As compared to the
thermistor, it requires more power. The field effect transistor (FET) works as a voltage
controlled resistor only within limited peak voltage. Hence it is necessary to maintain peak
level of the voltage to maintain distortions in the limits.

The/arious advantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows.

liThe output is perfect sine wave.
2. It has low distortion and excellent frequency stability.
3. It has wide frequency range i.e. few Hertz to 200 kHz.
4. The different frequency ranges can be obtained easily.

RC phase shift oscillator basically consists of an amplifier and a feedback network

consisting of resistors and capacitors arranged in ladder fashion. Hence such an oscillator
is also called ladder type RC phase shift oscillator.
To understand the operation of this oscillator let us study RC circuit first, which is
lIsed in the feedback network of this oscillator. The Fig. 6.7 shows the basic RC circuit.
 The capacitor C and resistance R are in series. Now Xc is the capacitive reactance in
ohms given by,

1
Xc = 21tfC

Z = R - j Xc = R - j (_1_)
2nfC
Q Z
= I I L-<j>°Q

The Lm.S. value of the input voltage applied is say Vi volts. Hence the current is given
by,

\Ii L+<j>
Z

I Z I = ~ R 2 + (Xc )2

The drop VR is in phase with current I while the drop Vc lags current I by 90° i.e. I
leads Vc by 90°. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.7 (b).
By using proper values of Rand C, the angle <j> is adjusted in practice equal to 60°.

As stated earlier, RC network is used in feedback path. In oscillator, feedback network

must introduce a phase shift of 180° to obtain total phase shift around a loop as 360°. Thus
if one RC network produces phase shift of <j> = 60° then to produce phase shift of 180° such
three RC networks must be connected in cascade. Hence in RC phase shift oscillator, the
feedback network consists of three RC sections each producing a phase shift of 60°, thus
total phase shift due to feedback is 180° (3 x 60°). Such a feedback network is shown in the
Fig. 6.8.
 c
~
i
Input R
i
Output

! !
----+ ----+ ----+
60° + 60° + 60° = 180° Total phase
shift

The network is also called the ladder network. All the resistance values and all the
capacitance values are same, so that for a particular frequency, each section of Rand C
produces a phase shift of 60°.

6.4.4 RC Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp

RC phase shift oscillator using op-amp uses op-amp in inverting amplifier mode. Thus
it introduces the phase shift of 180° between input and output. The feedback network
consists of 3 RC sections each producing 60° phase shift. Such a RC phase shift oscillator
using op-amp is shown in the Fig. 6.9.

Op-amp as
inverting '"
amplifier ~

R1

Vf
Vf~FeedbaCk
voltage
t

Fig. 6.9 RC Phase shift oscillator using op-amp

The output of amplifier is given to feedback network. The output of feedback network
drives the amplifier. The total phase shift around a loop is 180° of amplifier and 180° due
to 3 RC section, thus 360 This satisfies the required condition for positive feedback and
0

circuit works as an oscillator.

 The frequency of sustained oscillations generated depends on the values of Rand C
ilnd is given by,

The frequency is measured in Hz.

At this frequency the gain of the op-amp must be at least 29 to satisfy A~ = 1.

Now gain of the op-amp inverting amplifier is given by,

-> ~R1 -> 29 for oscillations

Thus circuit will work as an oscillator which will produce a sinusoidal wilveform if
gain is 29 and total phase shift around a loop is 360 This satisfies the Barkhausen
0

criterion for the osciJlator. These oscillators are used over the audio frequency range i.e.
about 20 Hz upto 100 kHz.

6.4.5 Advantages
The advantages of R-C phase shift oscillator are,
1. The circuit is Simple to design.
2. Can produce output over audio frequency range.
3. Produces sinusoidal output waveform.
4. It is a fixed frequency oscillator.

6.4.6 Disadvantages
By changing the values of Rand C, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed. But
the values of Rand C of all three sections must be changed simultaneously to satisfy the
oscillating conditions. But this is practically impossible. Hence the phase shift oscillator is
considered as a fixed frequency oscillator, for all practical purposes.

And the frequency stability is poor due to the changes in the values of various
components, due to effect of temperature, aging etc.

m. Example 6.1:
± 72 V supply.
Design the phase shift oscillator to have Olltpu t frequency of 500 Hz. Use

Solution As f is less than 1 kHz, Use op-amp 741 with Ib(max) = 50 nA.

II = 100 Ib(max) = 5 pA