Transducers - I

The primary objective of process control is to control the physical parameters such as
temperature, pressure, flow rate, force, level etc. The system used to maintain these
parameters constant, close to some desired specific value is called process control system.
These parameters may change because of internal and external disturbances hence a
constant corrective action is required to keep these parameters constant or within the
specified range.
The Fig. 8.1 shows the general arrangement of a process loop. It consists of four
elements,
1. Process 2. Measurement 3. Controller 4. Control element.

Parameter
P

Measurement
of parameter

For the proper feedback, it is necessary to measure the value of the actual parameter P.
Most of the controllers are electronic in nature and hence require electrical input. Hence
feedback signal required is in electrical form in most of the practical process loops. But
actual parameter is temperature, pressure, level etc. Hence a device is required in the
feedback path which will not only measure the output parameter but will produce
proportional analog signal in the electric form. Many times the device is required to
measure the physical parameter and produce the proportional signal which is also
nonelectric such as pneumatic pressure. So in broad sense a transducer converts one form
of energy to another form. But the electrical transducer produces an electrical signal
proportional to the nonelectrical quantity to be measureQ. But as we are interested in the
electrical instrumentation, a transducer can be defined as,
A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional electrical signal is
called a transducer.
The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency. A transducer
uses many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from one
form to other is called transduction. A transducer is also called pick up.
Actually, electrical transducer consists of two parts which are very closely related to
each other. These two parts are sensing or detecting element and transduction element.
The sensing or detecting element is commonly known as sensor.
Definition states that sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a
change in a physical condition.

The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an electrical output,
as shown in the Fig. 8.2.

Non-elect rical Sensor Elec trical

Sensing Transduction
quantity element response element sig nal

The common range of an electrical signal used to represent analog signal in the
industrial environment is 0 to 5 V or 4 to 20 mA. In industrial applications, nowadays, 4
to 20 mA range is most commonly used to represent analog signal. A current of 4 mA
represents a zero output and current of 20 mA represents a full scale value i.e. 5 V in case
of voltage representation. The zero current condition represents open circuit in the signal
transmission line. Hence the standard range is offset from zero.
Many a times, the transducer is a part of a circuit and works with other elements of
that circuit to produce the required output. Such a circuit is called signal conditioning
circuit.

A transducer is a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to
another in different form. Basically there are two types of transducers; namely electrical
and mechanical. The mechanical transducers are those primary sensing elements that
respond to changes in the physical condition of a system and gives output in different
form. For example, when a bimetallic strip is subjected to a temperature change then the
output is the mechanical displacement of the strip. The mechanical transducers are
distinguished from the electrical transducers on the basis of the output signal generated.
The mechanical transducers generate output signal which is mechanical by nature. The
electrical transducers respond to non-electrical quantities but generate output signal which
is electrical by nature. It is practically always possible to use either mechanical or electrical
 iii) Resistance of corrosion,
iv) Accessibility of the transducer for later repairs.
4. Measuring System Compatibility : The transducer selected and the electrical
system used for measurement should be compatible. The output impedance of the
transducer and the impedance imposed by the measuring system must be such
that one does not adversely affect the other.
5. Cost and Availability: General factors involved in selection are cost, availability,
basic simplicity, reliability, and low maintenance.
While selecting transducers of comparatively equal merits for a given application, the
one that is most simple in operation and contains minimum number of moving parts
would usually be selected.
Transducers are selected which do not require excessive repair or continuous
calibration checking.
The selection of a transducer for a given application is normally a compromise
beh'een a number of factors discussed above.

In electrical circuits, there are combinations of three passive elements : resistor,

inductor and capacitor. These three passive elements are described with the help of the
primary parameters such as resistance, self or mutual inductance and capacitance
respectively. Any change in these parameters can be observed only if they are externally
powered. We have studied that the passive transducers do not generate any electrical
signal by themselves and they require some external power to generate an electrical signal.
The transducers based on variation of parameters such as resistance, self or mutual
inductance capacitance, due to an external power are known as passive transducers. Hence
resistive transducer, inductive transducer and capacitive transducer are the basic passive
transducers.

In general, the resistance of a metal conductor is given by,

pL
A
where p -- Resistivity of conductor (D m)

L Length of conductor (m)

A Area of cross-section of conductor (m 2)
The electrical resistive transducers are designed on the basis of the methods of
"arintioll of anyone of the qnantities in above equation; such as change in length, change
in iueil of cross-section and change in resistivity.
 The sensing element which is resistive in nature, may be in different forms depending
upon the mechanical arrangement. The change in pressure can be sensed by Llsing
~nsitive resistive elements. The resistance pressure transducers may use Bellow,
Diaphragm or Bourdon tube.

Resistance
leads.

Resistance
Resistance lead
contact.

Fig. 8.17 Resistance pressure transducer

8.9 Resistance Position Transducer
In many industrial measurements and control applications, it is necessary to sense
position of the object or the distance that object travels. For such applications, simple
resi~tanceposition transducer is very useful.

It works on the principle that resistance of the sensing element changes due to the
wiations in physical quantity being measured.

A simple resistance position transducer is as shown in the Fig. 8.18 (a).

-
Shaft ~
:::====== Wiper

R1
W
Vin
+
R2
W Vout

(b) Equivalent circuit

 The transducer consists a sliding contact or wiper. A resistive element is mounted with
the sliding contact which is linked with the object whose position is to be monitored.
Depending upon the position of the object, the resistance between slider and the one end
of resistive element varies. The equivalent circuit is as shown in the Fig. 8.18 (b). The
output voltage Vout depends on the position of the wiper. Thus depending upon position
of the wiper, the output voltage is given by,

Thus You is proportional to R2 i.e. wiper position. The output voltage is measured
I

using voltmeter which is calibrated in centimeters and allows direct readout of the object
position.

)1). Example 8.1 : A resistance position transducer uses a shaft with a stroke of 50 CI11.The
total resistance of the potentiometer is 5 ill. Calculate output voltage when wiper is 10 em
frol11 extreme end if applied voltage is 5 V.
Solution: The equivalent circuit is as shown in the Fig. 8.19.

R2 = 10 cm x 5 K = 1 kn
50cm

VOUl

The strain gauge is a passive resistive transducer which is based on the principle of
conversion of mechanical displacement in to the resistance change.
A knowledge of strength of the material is essential in the design and construction of
machines and structures. The strength of the material is normally characterized in terms of
stress, which is defined as the force experienced per unit area, and is expressed in pressure
units. Stress as such cannot be directly measured. It is normally deduced from the changes
in mechanical dimensions and the applied load. The mechanical deformation is measured
with strain-gauge elements. The strain is defined as the change, (td), in length, (I), per unit
length and is expressed as t:.;{ in microstrains.
 Breaking
stress

It is observed that the curve is linear as long as the stress is kept below the elastic
limits.Strain measurements are usually carried out on the free surface of a body. Normally
 The most common materials used for wire strain gauges are constantan alloys
containing 45% Nickel and 55% Copper, as they exhibit high specific resistance, constant
gauge factor over a wide strain range, and good stability over a reasonably large
temperature range (from O°C to 300°C). For dynamic strain measurements, Nichrome
alloys, containing 80% Nickel and 20% Chromium are used. They can be compensated for
temperature with platinum.
Bonding cements are adhesives used to fix the strain gauge onto the test specimen.
This cement serves the important function of transmitting the strain from the specimen to
the gauge-sensing element. Improper bonding of the gauge can cause many errors.
Basically, the cement can be classified under two categories, viz, solvent-setting cement
and chemically-reacting cement. Duco cement is an example of solvent-setting cements
which is cured by solvent evaporation. Epoxies and phenolic bakelite cement are
chemically-reacting cements which are cured by polymerization. Acrylic cements are
contact cements that get cured almost instantaneously.
The proper functioning of a strain gauge is wholly dependent on the quality of
bonding which holds the gauge to the surface of the structure undergoing the test.

8.10.2 Derivation of Gauge Factor

The gauge factor is defined as the unit change in resistance per unit change in length.
It is denoted as K or S. It is also called sensitivity of the strain gauge.

S = ~RjR
~l/l

Length of the gauge wire in unstressed condition

~l = Change in length in stlessed condition.

Derivation: Consider that the resistance wire is under tensile stress and it is deformed
by ~I as shown in the Fig. 8.14.

= Length of the wire in m

A = Cross-section of the wire in m2

When uniform stress (J is applied to th.is wire along the length, the resistance R
changes to R + ~R because of change in length and cross-sectional area.
 r
R changes
to

1
R+LiR

I I

: d :
~
J-l-J
I I

Fig. 8.21 Deformed resistance wire

f'..1
a = Stress =-
I
f'.. II I = Per unit change in length
f'..A/A = Per unit change in area
f'..p/p = Per unit change in resistivity
(specific resistance)
pi
Now R =
A

dR
d( ~
A )
I
P 01 pi oA I op
.. - --=-----+--
da da A oa A20a A oa

1 oA
Note that = ---
o~(~) A20a

Multiply both sides by i,

1 dR p 01 1 pi oA I op
- -------+--
Rda RA oa R A 2 oa RA ca

Using R ~ on right hand side,

1 dR 1 al 1 oA 1 (lp
= ---_._+--
Rda loa A OG P oa
 dl
---+-
dA ap
I A p

/').1 /').A /').p

---+-
I A p

Key Point : ThliS for finite stress, total change in resistance is dlle to fractional change in
length, area 17nd resistivity.

For a circular wire, A = ~d2

4
aA ~(2d) ad
as
= 4 . as
1 aA ~~(2d)ad
A as
= A 4 as
1 aA 1 (2d) ad
A as
= (d2) as

aA /').A 2/').d
Cancelling as, ~ad i.e. ---- ... (2)
A d A d
Now the Poisson/s ratio 11 for the wire is defined as the ratio of strain In lateral
direction to strain in the axial direction.
/').d/d
11 = - /').Ij I = Poisson' s ratio

/').dd = -11 ( ~/)

Using (2) and (3) in (1)/

t.R .t.l_ nd + t.p = t.1_2 [_11 t.l]+ t.p
Rid p I I P

t.R /').1 t.p

R = [[1 +21l]+p-

Neglecting piezoelectric effect, /').p can be neglected.

p

t.RjR
Gauge factor = --/-
/').1 I
= 1+ 211
 S = G = 1 + 2 f.l + t:.p/p
t:.l/ 1

where last term is due to piezoelectric effect.

))). Example 8.2 : A resistance strain gauge with a gauge factor of 4 is cemented to a steel
member which is subjected to a strain of 1x 10-6. If the original gauge resistance is 150 n,
calculate the change in resistance.
Solution : The gauge factor is given by,

S = t:.RjR
t:.l/l
t:.l
SRi

8.10.3 Types of Strain Gauges

Depending upon the principle of operation and their constructional features, strain
gauges are classified as mechanical, optical, or electrical. Of these, the electrical strain
gauges are most commonly used.
1. Mechanical Gauges : In these gauges, the change in length, t:.l, is magnified
mechanically using levers or gears. These gauges are comparatively larger in size,
and as such can be used in applications where sufficient area is available on the
specimen for fixing the gauge. These gauges are employed for static strain
measurements only.
2. Optical Gauges: These gauges are similar to mechanical strain gauges except that
the magnification is achieved with multiple reflectors using mirrors or prisms. In
one type a plain mirror is rigidly fixed to a movable knife-edge. When stress is
applied, the mirror rotates through an angle, and the reflected light beam from the
mirror subtends an angle twice that of the incident light. The measurement
accuracy is high and independent of temperature variations.
3. Electrical Strain Gauges : The electrical strain gauges measure the changes that
occur in resistance, capacitance, or inductance due to the strain transferred from
the specimen to the basic gauge element. The most commonly used strain gauge is
the bonded resistance type of strain gauge. The other two, viz., capacitance and
inductance type are used only in special types of applications.
8.10.4 Basic Forms of Resistance Wire Strain Gauges
The resistance wire strian gauges of metallic type are available in two basic forms;
bo,r/ded and lInbonded type Tire banded metallic strain gauges are furtner cIassified as fiat
grid, helical grid and thin foil type strain gauges.

A. Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge :

In bonded resistance wire strain

gauge resistive element is cemented
to the base which may be a thin
sheet of paper, a thin sheet of
bakelite or a sheet of teflon. The
resistive element may be in the
form of wire, foil or film of the
material. The most common types
of bonded strain gauges are as
shown in the Fig. 8.22.
In metallic bonded strain gauge
a fine wire element about 25 ~m or
less in diameter is looped back and
forth on a base (carrier) or mounting plate. The base is cemented to the member subjected
to stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thinsheet of paper,
bakelite, or teflon.
A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decreases
its cross-sectional area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance.

In this gauge, the strain is detected using a metal foil. The metals and alloys used for
the foil and wire are nichrome, constantan, isoelastic (Ni + Cr + Mo), nickel, and platinum.
On account of their larger surface area, foil gauges have a much greater dissipation
capacity. Therefore they can be used at a higher operating temperature range. The
characteristics of foil type strain gauges and wire type strain gauges are sim.ilar, including
almost the same gauge factor.
The advantage of foil type strain
gauge is that they Cfln be fabricated on
a large scale, and in any shape. The foil
can be etched on the base.
The Fig. 8.23 shows the foil type
strain gauge.
The etched foil strain gauges can be
made thinner than comparable wire
units. Also they are mOTe flexible.
Because of these properties, the etched foil can be mounted in remote and restricted
places and especially on curved surfaces.
The resistance film formed is typically 0.2 mm thick. The resistance value of
commercial foil gauges is between 50 and 1000 Q.

B. Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge

In general, the basic usage of the unbonded strain gauge is as displacement transducer.
It can be constructed in variety of configuration. The unbonded strain gauge consists of a
stationary frame with an armature supported at the centre of the frame as shown in the
Fig. 8.24.

Supporting
pillars
Moving
armature
Movement of
armature

Stationary
frame
Resistance
wire
Fig. 8.24 Unbonded strain gauge
The strain gauge is constructed such that an armature can move only in one direction.
Its travel in that direction is limited by four filaments of strain sensitive wires. These wires
are wound on the rigid insulators. These insulators are mounted on the frame and on the
armature.
On the application of the external force, the armature moves in the indicated direction.
The length of elements A and D increases, while the length of elements Band C decreases.
Then proportional to the change in length, the resistance of the four strain elements
change. To detect this change in resistance, we can use Wheatstone bridge as shown in the
Fig. 8.25.
 Resistance temperature detector is a primary electrical transducer which is used to
measure the change in the temperature. It is commonly known as resistance thermometer.
The resistance thermometers are based on the principle that the resistance of the conductor
changes when ~he temperature changes. Basically the resistance thermometer determines
the' change in the electrical resistance of the conductor subjected to the temperature
changes.
The temperature sensing element used in this thermometer should exhibit a relatively
large change in resistance for a given change in temperature. Also the sensing element
should not undergo permanent change with use or age. Another desirable characteristic for
the sensing element is the linear change in resistance with change in temperature. When
the sensing element is smaller in size, less heat is required to raise its temperature. This is
suitable for me~surement of rapid variations in temperature. Platinum, nickel, and copper
are the metals most commonly used to measure temperature. The relationship between
temperature and resistance of conductor is given by equation:

IR t = Rref[ 1 + a L\t ]

Rt : Resistance of the conductor at temperature t'C,

Rrl"f: Resistance of the conductor at the reference temperature, usually O'C,
a : Temperature coefficient of the resistance,
M : Difference between the temperature to be measured & reference temperature.
Almost all metallic conductors have a positive temperature coefficient so that their
resistance increases with an increase in temperature. A high value of a is desirable in a
temperature sensing element so that a substantial change in resistance occurs for a
relatively small change in temperature. This change in resistance [L\ R] can be measured
with a Wheatstone bridge, the output of which can be directly calibrated to indicate the
temperature which caused the change is resistance.
Most of the metals show an increase in resistivity with temperature, which is first
linear and then increases in an accelerated fashion. The metals that exhibit good sensitivity
and reproducibility for temperature measurement purposes are copper, nickel, and
platinum. Among these, copper has the highest temperature coefficient with the most
linear dependence. However, copper is generally not used due to certain practical
problems. Because of its low resistivity, the size of the resistance element increases to get
reasonable sensitivity. In the range below 400 K, a gold silver alloy can be used which has
the same characteristicb as platinum.
Temperature sensors made out of nickel and nickel alloy wires can be used with good
reliability in the temperature range of 100 to 450 K. It is less expensive than platinum and
has a somewhat higher tel.1perature coefficient that increases with temperature. It is less
 stable. Nickel wire element is less expensive and easier for manufacturing than platinum
to wire elements. They are often used in low range industrial applications.
er. Platinum wire is used for most laboratory work and for industrial measurements of
:or hig~ accuracy. The platinum resistance element is the best choice for many applications,
les because of its inherent accuracy and reproducibility. Since the resistance to temperature
Ire I'ariation is extremely slflble and reproducible, the sensor is recommended as an
international standard for temperature measurement. The platinum element can be used
~ly formeasuring temperatures upto 1000 K
'nt Metals commonly used for resistance thermometers are listed in Table 8.3 along with
or their salient properties.
en
is Metal Resistance temperature Temperature range °C Melting point °C
co-efficient-t °C

Platinum 0.39 - 260 ta 110 1773

Capper 0.39 o ta 180 1083

Nickel 0.62 - 220 ta 300 1435

Tungsten 0.45 - 200 ta 1000 3370

The wire resistance thermometer usually consists of a coil wound on a mica or ceramic
former, as shown in the Fig. 8.28. The coil is wound in bifilar form so as to make it
noninductive. Such coils are available in different sizes and with different resistance values
ranging from 10 ohms to 25,000 ohms.
To avoid corrosion of resistive element, usually elements are enclosed in a protective
tube of pyrex glass, porcelain, quartz or nickel, depending on the range of temperature
and the nature of the fluid whose temperature is to be measured. The tube is evacuated
and sealed or filled with air or any other inert gas and kept around atmospheric pressure
or in some cases at a higher pressure.
\

Mica strip
/'

\. ;r
/.~g ?~~
" Platinum wire Mica strip
8.11.2 Advantages of RTD
1. The measurement is accurate.
2. Indicators, recorders can be directly operated.
3. The temperature sensor can be easily installed and replaced.
4. Measurement of differential temperature is possible.
5. Resistance thermometers can work over a wide range of temperature from -200 O(
to + 650 0c.
6. They are suitable for remote indication.
7. They are smaller in size .
8. They have stability over long periods of time.

8.11.3 Disadvantages of RTD

1. A bridge circuit with external power source is necessary for their operation.
2. They are comparatively costly.
3. There is a possibility of self heating.
4. Large bubsize as compared to thermocouple.

Basically thermistor is a contraction of a word 'thermal resistors', The resistors

depending on temperature are thermal resistors. Thus resistance thermometers are also
thermistors having positive -temperature coefficients. But generally the resistors having
negative temperature coefficients (NTC) are called thermistors. The resistance of a
thermistor decreases as temperature increases. The NTC of thermistors can be as large as
few percent per degree celcius change in temperature. Thus the thermistors are very
sensitive and can detect very small changes in temperature too.

Thermistors are composed of a sintered mixture of metallic oxides, such as manganese,

nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, and uranium. Their resistances at ambient temperature may
range from 100 n to 100 ill. Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and
sizes as shown in the Fig. 8.29.
Smallest in size are the beads with a diameter of 0.15 mm to 1.25 mm. Beads may be
sealed in the tips of solid glass rods to form probes. Disks and washers are made by
pressing thermistor materia~ under high pressure into Hat cylindrical shapes. Washers can
be placed in series or in parallel to increase power dissipation rating.
 Leads ,-Glass coated

:1 (:) bead

Lea~

(e) Washer type

Fig. 8.29 Different forms of construction of thermistors

Thermistors are well suited for precision temperature measurement, temperature
control, and temperature compensation, because of their. very large change in resistance
with temperature. They are widely used for measurements in the temperature range
-100 C to +200 C. The measurement of the change in resistance with temperature is
0 0

carried out with a Wheatstone bridge.

8.12.2 Resistance Temperature Characteristics

The m<lthematical relationship according to which the resistance of thermistor behaves
as temperature is given by,

RT2 e[~( ~1 -;2)]

Rn =
RTl = Resistance at T1 K 0

RT2 = Resistance at T2 K 0

0 Constant depending on thermistor material ranging

between 3500 to 4500 0 K.
Resistance The equation consists of an
in n
exponential term and shows
that it is highly nonlinear in
nature. It has high negative
temperature coefficient
characteristics. The resistance
temperature characteristics of a
thermistor is shown in the
Temperature Fig. 8.30.
-100 100 200 300
°C
Fig. 8.30 Resistance temperature characteristics of a
thermistor
 Though the characteristics is highly nonlinear, for small range of temperatures, canbt:
assumed to be linear.

Voltage The voltage current

DOC
in V
( characteristics of thermistor are
shown in the Fig. 8.31.
It can be seen that as current
increases, the voltage across
thermistor increases, attains a peak
Negative value and then decreases, when it
resistance decreases, the negative resistance
region
region starts.

Current
When small voltage is applied to
in A thermistor, small current flows. This
does not produce heat so as to
change resistance of thermistor.
Under this condition, it follows Ohm's law and V and I are proportional. But large
currents produce large heat. This increases temperature to such a value where resistance of
thermistor decreases and draws more current. The current continues to increase till heat
dissipation of thermistor equals the power supplied to it. This is called self heat
characteristics of thermistor. This makes it suitable to measure flow, pressure, liquid level
etc. If rate of heat removal is fixed then thermistor is sensitive to power input and used
for voltage or power level control.

8.12.4 Current Time Characteristics

At low voltages, the thermistor takes long time to reach peak current. As voltage level
increases, the time to reach peak current decreases. These characteristics are called current
time characteristics and are shown in the Fig. 8.32.
Current
in mA

Time
12345678 in sec
Fig. 8.32 Current time characteristics
 Hence the transducers are made with two outputs. Out of these two outputs, one
corresponds to the inductance (either self or mutual inductance), while other corresponds
to the chnnge in inductance (either l:.L or Mv1). Then the subsequent stages measure the
difference between two outputs which is commonly known as differential output. The
tr'1llsducers based on this principle are called differential output transducers.
A typical differential output transducer consists a coil which is divided into two parts.
Thl' output terminals "re taken out from each part of the coil. There are two basic types 01
thl' differentIal output transducer namely, linear differential output transducer and
angular differential output transducer as shown in the Fig. 8.38 (a) and (b) respectively.

Fig. 8.38 Differential output transducer

In case of a differential output transducer based on the variation in self inductance,
only one coil is used as shown in the Fig. 8.38 (a) and (b). While for a differential output
transducer based on the variation in mutual inductance, multiple coils are preferred.
When the displacement is applied to the transducer, the wiper moves and the
inductance in one part becomes (L + l:.L) while in other part becomes (L - l:.L). The change
is nw"sured by taking the difference between the two. So the differential output measure
corresponds to 2l:.L change in inductance. As compared with inductive transducer based on
chnnge in inductance, the output corresponds to l:.L change ill inductance. Thus accuracy
and sensitivity increases while errors are eliminated in case of the differential output
transd LiceI'.
There is another type of differential
output inductive transducer based on
variable reluctance as shown in the
Fig. 8.39.
In such transducers, the differential
output corresponds to change ill the
self inductance due to change in the
reluctance. In transducer, all the cores
are iron cores.
Fig. 8.39 Differential output inductive
transducer based on variable reluctance
reduce eddy current losses. The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm
attached to the core. With the core in the center, or reference, position, the induced emfs in
the secondaries are equal, and since they oppose each other, the output voltage will be
zero volt.

A.C. input
\.
t\ ~
"
P E

"" i<-- Core Arm ~ _

"-

" '\
j Displacement .•...• ~ CORE I

-
f--

T-.

w
Core

Fig. 8.40 Linear variable differential

~F transformer

When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more
magnetic flux links the left-hand coil than the right-hand coil. The emf induced in the
left-hand coil, ES], is therefore larger than the induced emf of the right-hand [oil, Es2' The
magnitude of the output voltage is then equal to the difference between the two secondary
voltages and it is in phase with the voltage of the left-hand coil.
Output
voltage

=4@J I~I
Core Core at
@¥F
Core
atA o Null position at B