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Global Estimates

of Modern Slavery

FORCED LABOUR AND FORCED MARRIAGE

In partnership with
Global estimates
of modern slavery:
forced labour
and forced marriage

GENEVA, 2017
Copyright International Labour Organization and Walk Free Foundation, 2017

First published 2017

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Global estimates of modern slavery: Forced labour and forced marriage


International Labour Office (ILO), Geneva, 2017

ISBN: 978-92-2-130131-8 (print)


ISBN: 978-92-2-130132-5 (web pdf)

Also available in French: Estimations mondiales de lesclavage moderne: travail forc et mariage forc,
ISBN 978-92-2-230932-0 (print); ISBN 978-92-2-230933-7 (web pdf), ILO, Geneva, 2017; and in Spanish:
Estimaciones mundiales sobre la esclavitud moderna: Trabajo forzoso y matrimonio forzoso, ISBN
978-92-2-331038-7 (print); ISBN 978-92-2-331039-4 (web pdf), ILO, Geneva, 2017.

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4 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


On any given day in 2016

METRICS
40
million 40 million people were victims of modern
slavery. This includes:

25 million people in forced labour


15 million people in forced marriage

PREVALENCE

There were 5.4 victims of modern slavery for


every thousand people in the world in 2016.

There were 5.9 adult victims of modern slavery


for every 1,000 adults in the world and 4.4 child
victims for every 1,000 children in the world. 5.4
per 1,000

GENDER

Women and girls accounted for 71 per cent of


71% modern slavery victims.

50% 25%
DEBT BONDAGE CHILDREN

Debt bondage affected half of all victims One in four victims of modern slavery were
of forced labour imposed by private actors. children.

IN THE PAST FIVE YEARS, 89 MILLION PEOPLE EXPERIENCED SOME FORM OF MODERN
SLAVERY FOR PERIODS OF TIME RANGING FROM A FEW DAYS TO THE WHOLE FIVE YEARS.

5
Lisa Kristine
Table of contents
Executive summary 9

Introduction 15

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 21


1.1 Main results 21
1.2 Forced labour 28
1.2.1 Forced labour exploitation 32
1.2.2 Forced sexual exploitation of adults and commercial 39
sexual exploitation of children
1.2.3 State-imposed forced labour 41
1.3 Forced marriage 44

Part 2. Ending modern slavery: road forward to 2030 49


2.1 Building a policy response: prevention and protection 50
2.2 Building the evidence base 53
2.3 International cooperation and partnership 54

Annex: Note on methodology 57

Endnotes 63

Table of contents 7
Lisa Kristine
Executive
summary
The 2017 Global Estimates of Modern it refers to situations of exploitation that
Slavery are presented as a contribution a person cannot refuse or leave because
to the Sustainable Development Goals of threats, violence, coercion, deception,
(SDGs), in particular to Target 8.7, which and/or abuse of power.
calls for effective measures to end forced
labour, modern slavery, and human The Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
trafficking, as well as child labour in all focus on two main issues: forced labour
its forms. It is intended to inform policy and forced marriage. The estimate of
making and implementation of target 8.7 forced labour comprises forced labour
and related SDG Targets. These include in the private economy (forms of forced
eliminating all forms of violence against labour imposed by private individuals,
all women and girls in public and private groups, or companies in all sectors
spheres, including trafficking and sexual except the commercial sex industry),
and other types of exploitation (SDG forced sexual exploitation of adults
5.2), eliminating all harmful practices, and commercial sexual exploitation
such as child, early, and forced marriage of children, and state-imposed forced
and female genital mutilations (SDG labour.
5.3), ending abuse, exploitation, and
Due to limitations of the data, as detailed
trafficking of children (SDG 16.2), and
in this report, these estimates are consid-
facilitating orderly, safe, and responsible
ered to be conservative.
migration and mobility of people,
including through implementation
of planned and well-managed
migration policies (SDG 10.7).
The global figures
The estimates herein are the result
of a collaborative effort between the
International Labour Organization An estimated 40.3 million people were
(ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation, victims of modern slavery in 2016.
in partnership with the International In other words, on any given day in
Organization for Migration (IOM). They 2016, there were likely to be more than
benefited from inputs provided by 40 million men, women, and children
other UN agencies, in particular the who were being forced to work against
Office of the High Commissioner for their will under threat or who were living
Human Rights (OHCHR). In the context in a forced marriage that they had not
of this report, modern slavery covers a agreed to.
set of specific legal concepts including
Of these 40.3 million victims:
forced labour, debt bondage, forced
marriage, other slavery and slavery 24.9 million people were in forced
like practices, and human trafficking. labour. That is, they were being forced
Although modern slavery is not defined to work under threat or coercion as
in law, it is used as an umbrella term domestic workers, on construction
that focuses attention on commonalities sites, in clandestine factories, on farms
across these legal concepts. Essentially,

Executive summary 9
and fishing boats, in other sectors,
and in the sex industry. They were
The regional
forced to work by private individuals figures
and groups or by state authorities. In
many cases, the products they made
and the services they provided ended Modern slavery occurred in every re-
up in seemingly legitimate commercial gion of the world. Modern slavery was
channels. Forced labourers produced most prevalent in Africa (7.6 per 1,000
some of the food we eat and the people), followed by Asia and the Pacific
clothes we wear, and they have cleaned (6.1 per 1,000) then Europe and Central
the buildings in which many of us live Asia (3.9 per 1,000). These results should
or work. be interpreted cautiously due to lack of
available data in some regions, notably
15.4 million people were living in a the Arab States and the Americas.
forced marriage to which they had
not consented. That is, they were en- For forced labour specifically, the
during a situation that involved having prevalence is highest in Asia and the
lost their sexual autonomy and often Pacific, where four out of every 1,000
involved providing labour under the people were victims, followed by Europe
guise of marriage. and Central Asia (3.6 per 1,000), Africa
(2.8 per 1,000), the Arab States (2.2 per
Women and girls are disproportionately 1,000) and the Americas (1.3 per 1,000).
affected by modern slavery, account-
ing for 28.7 million, or 71 per cent of the While noting limits of the data in key
overall total. More precisely, women and regions, particularly the Arab States,
girls represent 99 per cent of victims of the data suggests prevalence of
forced labour in the commercial sex in- forced marriage is highest in Africa
dustry and 58 per cent in other sectors, (4.8 per 1,000), followed by Asia and the
40 per cent of victims of forced labour Pacific (2.0 per 1,000).
imposed by state authorities, and 84 per
cent of victims of forced marriages.

One in four victims of modern slavery


were children. Some 37 per cent Forced labour
(5.7 million) of those forced to marry
were children. Children represented
This study examined different forms of
18 per cent of those subjected to
forced labour, distinguishing between
forced labour exploitation and 7 per
forced labour imposed by private actors
cent of people forced to work by
(such as employers in private businesses)
state authorities. Children who were
and that which was imposed by states.
in commercial sexual exploitation
Of the 24.9 million victims of forced
(where the victim is a child, there is
labour, 16 million were in the private
no requirement of force) represented
economy, another 4.8 million were in
21 per cent of total victims in this
forced sexual exploitation, and 4.1 million
category of abuse.
were in forced labour imposed by state
In the past five years, 89 million people authorities.
experienced some form of modern
FORCED LABOUR EXPLOITATION
slavery for periods of time ranging
from a few days to the whole five years. An estimated 16 million people were in
The average length of time victims were forced labour in the private economy in
in forced labour varied from a few days 2016. More women than men are affected
or weeks in some forms imposed by by privately imposed forced labour, with
state authorities to nearly two years for 9.2 million (57.6 per cent) female and
forced sexual exploitation. 6.8 million (42.4 per cent) male. Half
of these men and women (51 per cent)
were in debt bondage, in which personal

10 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


debt is used to forcibly obtain labour. and do not benefit them, or prisoners
This proportion rises above 70 per cent forced to work against their will outside]
for adults who were forced to work in the exceptions established by the ILO
agriculture, domestic work, or manufac- supervisory bodies.
turing.

Among cases where the type of work


was known, the largest share of adults
who were in forced labour were domestic Forced marriage
workers (24 per cent). This was followed
by the construction (18 per cent), man-
In 2016, an estimated 15.4 million people
ufacturing (15 per cent), and agriculture
were living in a forced marriage. Of this
and fishing (11 per cent) sectors.
total, 6.5 million cases had occurred in
Most victims of forced labour suffered the previous five years (2012-2016) and
multiple forms of coercion from the remainder had taken place prior to
employers or recruiters as a way of this period but had continued into it.
preventing them from being able to
While men and boys can also be victims
leave the situation. Nearly one-quarter
of forced marriage, most victims
of victims (24 per cent) had their wages
(88 per cent) were women and girls, with
withheld or were prevented from leaving
more than a third (37 per cent) of victims
by threats of non-payment of due wages.
under 18 years of age at the time of the
This was followed by threats of violence
marriage. Among child victims, 44 per
(17 per cent), acts of physical violence
cent were forced to marry before the
(16 per cent), and threats against family
age of 15 years. While noting limits of the
(12 per cent). For women, 7 per cent of
data in key regions, particularly the Arab
victims reported acts of sexual violence.
States, the data suggests prevalence
FORCED SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF of forced marriage per 1,000 people is
ADULTS AND COMMERCIAL SEXUAL highest in Africa (4.8 per 1,000), followed
EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN by Asia and the Pacific (2.0 victims per
1,000).
An estimated 3.8 million adults were
victims of forced sexual exploitation
and 1.0 million children were victims
of commercial sexual exploitation in
2016. The vast majority of victims (99
Data sources and
per cent) were women and girls. More methodology
than seven in ten victims were exploited
in the Asia and the Pacific region. This
was followed by Europe and Central As no single source provides suitable
Asia (14 per cent), Africa (8 per cent), and reliable data for all forms of modern
the Americas (4 per cent), and the Arab slavery, a combined methodology has
States (1 per cent). been adopted, drawing on a variety of
data sources as required. The central
STATE-IMPOSED FORCED LABOUR
element is the use of 54 specially
There were an estimated 4.1 million designed, national probabilistic surveys
people in state-imposed forced labour involving interviews with more than
on average in 2016. They included citizens 71,000 respondents across 48 countries.
recruited by their state authorities to Administrative data from IOM databases
participate in agriculture or construction of assisted victims of trafficking were
work for purposes of economic used, in combination with the 54 datasets,
development, young military conscripts to estimate forced sexual exploitation
forced to perform work that was not of and forced labour of children, as
military nature, those forced to perform well as the duration of forced labour
communal services that were not exploitation. Forced labour imposed
decided upon at the community level by state authorities was derived from

Executive summary 11
validated sources and systematic review of forced labour prevention, while
of comments from the ILO supervisory improved victim identification is critical
bodies with regard to ILO Conventions to extending protection to the vast
on forced labour. majority of modern slavery victims who
are currently unidentified or unattended.
The methodology used to build these Finally, we know that much of modern
Global Estimates combined this data, slavery today occurs in contexts of state
which covers a five-year reference period fragility, conflict, and crisis, pointing to
from 2012 to 2016. All the data on cases the need to address the risk of modern
of forced labour and forced marriage slavery as part of humanitarian actions in
that took place between 2012 and 2016, these situations.
representing a total of nearly 89 million
people, was analysed and processed Further efforts are needed to improve
to build the main estimates of modern the evidence base on modern slavery
slavery presented in this report. in order to inform and guide policy
responses in all of these areas. Key
measurement priorities identified through
the preparation of the Global Estimates
Conclusions include the improved measurement of
modern slavery affecting children and
and way forward specifically cases of commercial sexual
exploitation involving children and
child marriage. There is also a need to
Ending modern slavery will require a more effectively capture specific sub-
multi-faceted response that addresses populations such as adult victims of
the array of forces economic, social, forced sexual exploitation and victims
cultural, and legal that contribute to in conflict contexts. The ability to track
vulnerability and enable abuses. There changes in modern slavery over time
can be no one-size-fits-all solution; will be critical for monitoring progress
responses need to be adapted to the in the lead-up to 2030. But perhaps the
diverse environments in which modern most important priority is to strengthen
slavery still occurs. But it is nonetheless and extend national research and data
possible to identify some overarching collection efforts on modern slavery to
policy priorities in the lead-up to 2030 guide national policy responses.
from the Global Estimates and from
experience to date. International cooperation in addressing
modern slavery is essential given its global
Stronger social protection floors are and cross-border dimensions. Alliance
necessary to offset the vulnerabilities 8.7, a multi-stakeholder partnership
that can push people into modern committed to achieving Target 8.7 of
slavery. Extending labour rights in the the Sustainable Development Goals, has
informal economy where modern an important role to play in this regard.
slavery is most likely to occur is needed The Global Estimates indicate that the
to protect workers from exploitation. majority of forced labour today exists in
Given that a large share of modern the private economy. This underscores
slavery can be traced to migration, the importance of partnering with
improved migration governance is vitally the business community alongside
important to preventing forced labour employers and workers organisations,
and protecting victims. and civil society organisations to
eradicate forced labour in supply chains
Additionally, the risk and typology of
and in the private economy more broadly.
modern slavery is strongly influenced
Cooperation should be strengthened
by gender, and this must also be taken
between and among governments and
into account in developing policy
with relevant international and regional
responses. Addressing the root causes
organizations in areas such as labour law
of debt bondage, a widespread means of
enforcement, criminal law enforcement,
coercion, is another necessary element
and the management of migration in

12 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


order to prevent trafficking and to
address forced labour across borders.

Executive summary 13
ILO
Introduction
The new Global Estimates presented in partnership with the International
in this report indicate that more than Organization for Migration (IOM).2 They
40 million people were caught up in benefited from inputs provided by other
the grip of modern slavery in 2016. This UN agencies, in particular the Office of
alarming figure is a wake-up call to the the High Commissioner for Human Rights
global community, which, through the (OHCHR). The estimates are based
adoption of the 2030 Sustainable Devel- on a jointly developed methodology
opment Goals (SDGs), has committed to summarised in the annex and described
the target of ending modern slavery and in detail in the methodology report
human trafficking by the year 2030. produced along with this Global
Estimates report.3 They are derived from
Thirteen years is but a moment in hu- various data sources, as no one source
man history, and doing away with co- was considered sufficiently suitable
ercive systems that in some cases have or reliable. The principal sources are
been around for centuries and that in the Walk Free Foundations survey
other cases are emerging from new and data for 2014 and 2015, as well as data
illegitimate business models, large-scale from an additional 26 national surveys
migration, crisis, and conflict will be a jointly conducted by ILO and Walk Free
monumental challenge. Meeting the am- Foundation in 2016 and data drawn from
bitious 2030 target to end modern slav- the IOMs database of human trafficking
ery will require renewed political will, cases since 2012. The terminology utilised
matched by the commitment of suffi- in the report is described in Panel 1.
cient resources, and a major acceleration
of national and international efforts. The report, and the global estimation
exercise that underpins it, forms part
To be effective, policies and programmes of a broader multi-partner effort to
must be grounded in the best possible measure and monitor progress towards
understanding of the root causes of Target 8.7 of the Sustainable Develop-
modern slavery at both the national ment Goals. This effort is taking place
and global levels. This requires not only within the framework of Alliance 8.7, a
more and better information on the multi-stakeholder partnership commit-
numbers of people affected by modern ted to ending forced labour, modern
slavery, but also on its various forms and slavery, human trafficking, and child la-
manifestations, and the ways in which bour in accordance with SDG Target 8.7.
people are caught up in it. This report is
aimed at informing global efforts towards The report charts how far we must still
the 2030 target by helping to fulfil these travel to honour our commitment to
information requirements. It is also hoped ending modern slavery by 2030. Part 1
that the findings presented in the report presents the most complete possible
will encourage further research and profile of modern slavery in todays
data collection efforts by governments, world: the main forms of forced labour
focused on the national and local and forced marriage, their extent and
dimensions of modern slavery. characteristics, the means by which per-
sons are trapped in them, and the dura-
The global and regional estimates tion of the abuse. Part 2 discusses key
presented in this report were developed policy priorities emerging from the Glob-
by the International Labour Organization al Estimates in the drive to rid the world
(ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation of modern slavery.

Introduction 15
Panel 1

Statistical concepts and definitions used in this report

In the context of this report, example, a woman forced her parent or parents being
modern slavery covers a set into commercial sexual engaged in forced labour.
of specific legal concepts in- exploitation is in a forced The coercion may take place
cluding forced labour, debt situation because of its during the childs recruitment
bondage, forced marriage, involuntary nature and to force the child or his or her
slavery and slavery-like prac- the menace she is facing, parents to accept the job or,
tices, and human trafficking. regardless of the dangers once the child is working, to
Although modern slavery is and hazards she faces in force him or her to do tasks
not defined in law, it is used as this work or whether it is that were not part of what
an umbrella term that focuses permitted by law. In recent was agreed to at the time of
attention on commonalities years, the ILO has focused on recruitment or to prevent the
across these legal concepts. the two criteria embedded child from leaving the work.
Essentially, it refers to situ- in the Convention No. 29,
ations of exploitation that a namely, involuntariness and
person cannot refuse or leave menace of penalty with
because of threats, violence, regard to determining forced
coercion, deception, and/or labour of adults and forced
abuse of power. labour of children.5

In order to make this set Forced labour of adults is de-


of complex legal concepts fined, for purposes of meas-
measurable, the Global urement, as work for which
Estimates focus on two key a person has not offered him
forms of modern slavery: or herself voluntarily (criteri-
forced labour and forced on of involuntariness) and
marriage. which is performed under
coercion (criterion of men-
Forced labour is defined ace of penalty) applied by
by ILO Forced Labour an employer or a third party.
Convention, 1930 (No. 29) The coercion may take place
as all work or service that during the workers recruit-
is exacted from any person ment process to force him or
under the menace of any her to accept the job or, once
penalty and for which the the person is working, to
said person has not offered force him or her to do tasks
himself voluntarily.4 While that were not part of what
forced labour may be was agreed to at the time of
particularly widespread recruitment or to prevent him
in certain economic or her from leaving the job.
activities or industries, a
forced labour situation is Forced labour of children
determined by the nature is defined, for purposes
of the relationship between of measurement, as work
a person and an employer performed by a child under
and not by the type of coercion applied by a third
activity performed, however party (other than his or her
arduous or hazardous the parents) either to the child or
conditions of work may be, to the childs parents, or work
nor by its legality or illegality performed by a child as a
under national law. For direct consequence of his or

16 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Modern slavery

Forced labour Forced marriage

Forced sexual exploitation


State-imposed forced labour Forced labour exploitation of adults and commercial
sexual exploitation of children

TYPOLOGY OF military, compulsory partic- That is, forced marriage in


FORCED LABOUR ipation in public works, and these estimates includes all
forced prison labour. marriages of both adults and
Forced labour can be found children that were reported
in its various forms in practi- Forced marriage refers to by the survey respondent to
cally all countries and all eco- situations where persons, have been forced and with-
nomic activities. The typology regardless of their age, have out consent, regardless of
depicted above, which was been forced to marry without the age of the respondent.
developed for the global es- their consent. A person might Accordingly, the estimates
timates of forced labour, is be forced to marry through do not include every instance
based on three main catego- physical, emotional, or fi- of child marriage, as child
ries of forced labour defined nancial duress, deception by marriage is not currently
as follows: family members, the spouse, measured adequately at the
or others, or the use of force, scale or specificity required
Forced labour exploita- threats, or severe pressure. for a global estimate.8
tion, imposed by private Forced marriage is prohibited
agents for labour exploita- through the prohibitions OTHER RELATED
tion, including bonded on slavery and slavery-like CONCEPTS
labour, forced domestic practices, including servile
work, and work imposed marriage.6 Child marriage is The other main concepts
in the context of slavery or generally considered to be of modern slavery are slav-
vestiges of slavery. forced marriage, given that ery, institutions and prac-
one and/or both parties by tices similar to slavery, and
Forced sexual exploita- trafficking in persons (often
definition has not expressed
tion of adults, imposed by referred to as human traffick-
full, free, and informed con-
private agents for com- ing). These are not included
sent. However, there are
mercial sexual exploitation, explicitly in the estimates but
exceptions. For example,
and all forms of commer- are closely linked to them.
in many countries 16 and 17
cial sexual exploitation of Slavery was first defined in a
year-olds who wish to marry
children. This encompasses Convention adopted by the
are legally able to do so fol-
the use, procuring, or offer- League of Nations in 1926
lowing a judicial ruling or pa-
ing of children for prostitu- as the status or conditions
rental consent.7 It is impor-
tion or pornography. of a person over whom any
tant to be clear that for the
or all of the powers attach-
State-imposed forced purposes of these estimates,
the measurement of forced ing to the right of ownership
labour, including work
marriage is limited to what are exercised. It thus refers
exacted by the public au-
was captured by the surveys. to control of one person or
thorities, military, or para-

Introduction 17
persons over others, and is isation, it is also accepted Organized Crime, adopted in
also considered a serious that the eradication of these 2000. The definition specifies
criminal offence. The concept slavery-like practices can that the crime of trafficking
of slavery-like practices was be achieved only over time is a process constituted by
first addressed in internation- through the necessary leg- three distinct elements act,
al law in 1956 by means of a islative and other program- means, and purpose (ex-
United Nations instrument, matic measures. ploitation). Coercion is one of
supplementing the earlier the means enumerated in the
Slavery Convention, covering While the concept of traffick- Protocol, which states that
a range of institutions and ing in persons was addressed when coercion (or any other
practices similar to slavery, in a number of earlier instru- means) is used to get victims
including debt bondage, serf- ments, the most recent and into an exploitative situation,
dom, and forced marriage.9 widely accepted definition is actual exploitation need not
While the instrument places that contained in a Protocol happen for a trafficking crime
some emphasis on criminal- to the United Nations Con- to have taken place.
vention against Transnational

Table 1

Modern slavery: global results

Number and prevalence of persons in modern slavery, by category, sex and age

Forced labour sub-categories


Total
Forced sexual Forced Modern
forced
Forced labour exploitation of adults State-imposed marriage slavery
labour
exploitation and commercial sexual forced labour
exploitation of children

No. (thousands) 15 975 4 816 4 060 24 850 15 442 40 293


World
Prevalence
2.2 0.7 0.5 3.4. 2.1 5.4
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 6 766 29 2 411 9 206 2 442 11 648
Male Prevalence
1.8 0 0.6 2.4 0.6 3.0
(per thousand)
Sex
No. (thousands) 9 209 4 787 1 650 15 646 13 000 28 645
Female Prevalence
2.5 1.3 0.4 4.2 3.5 7.7
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 12 995 3 791 3 778 20 564 9 762 30 327
Adults Prevalence
2.5 0.7 0.7 3.9 1.9 5.8
(per thousand)
Age
No. (thousands) 2 980 1 024 282 4 286 5 679 9 965
Children Prevalence
1.3 0.4 0.1 1.9 2.5 4.4
(per thousand)

18 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Table 2

Modern slavery: global results

Number and prevalence of persons in modern slavery, by category, sex and age

Total forced labour Forced marriage Modern slavery

No. (thousands) 24 850 15 442 40 293


World
Prevalence
3.4 2.1 5.4
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 3 420 5 820 9 240
Africa Prevalence
2.8 4.8 7.6
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 1 280 670 1 950
Americas Prevalence
1.3 0.7 1.9
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 350 170 520
Region Arab States Prevalence
2.2 1.1 3.3
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 16 550 8 440 24 990
Asia and
Prevalence
the Pacific 4.0 2.0 6.1
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 3 250 340 3 590
Europe and
Prevalence
Central Asia 3.6 0.4 3.9
(per thousand)

Introduction 19
Lisa Kristine
Part 1.
The scale and
manifestations
of modern slavery

1.1 Main results who were being forced to work against


their will under threat, or who were living
in a forced marriage that they had not
agreed to. In terms of the prevalence of
AN ESTIMATED 40.3 MILLION PEOPLE
modern slavery, there were 5.4 victims
WERE VICTIMS OF MODERN SLAVERY
for every thousand people in the world
IN 2016
in 2016. Due to limitations of the meth-
In other words, on any given day in odology and data,10 these estimates are
2016, there were likely to be more than considered to be conservative.
40 million men, women, and children

Figure 1

Modern slavery

Number and percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by category

Forced labour

Forced marriage

15,400,000
38%

24,900,000
62%

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 21


OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF VICTIMS This reflects highly gendered patterns
OF MODERN SLAVERY, 24.9 MILLION of employment and migration and helps
PEOPLE WERE IN FORCED LABOUR shed light on where prevention and victim
AND 15.4 MILLION PEOPLE WERE identification efforts should be focused.
LIVING IN A FORCED MARRIAGE But the data also suggests the relevance
of broader patterns of human rights
It is worth reflecting on what these fig- abuses that disproportionately affect
ures mean: women and girls, including domestic and
24.9 million people were being forced sexual violence and discriminatory beliefs
to work under threat or coercion as and practices around access to property,
domestic workers, on construction education, and even citizenship.
sites, in factories, on farms and fishing
boats, in other sectors, and in the sex
industry. They were forced to work by
private individuals and groups or by
state authorities. In many cases, the
products they made and the servic-
es they provided ended up in seem-
ingly legitimate commercial channels.
Forced labourers produced some of
the food we eat and the clothes we
wear, and they have cleaned the build-
ings in which we live or work.

15.4 million people were living in a


forced marriage to which they had
not consented. That is, they were en-
during a situation that involved having
lost their sexual autonomy and often
involved providing labour under the
guise of marriage.

WOMEN AND GIRLS ARE


DISPROPORTIONATELY AFFECTED
BY MODERN SLAVERY, ACCOUNTING
FOR 71 PER CENT OF TOTAL VICTIMS

The estimates suggest that far more fe-


males than males are affected by modern
slavery (71 per cent versus 29 per cent).
This varies across forms. Women and
girls are disproportionately victimised
above all for forced labour in the private
economy (including domestic work and
the sex industry) and forced marriage.
Women and girls represented 99 per
cent of victims of forced sexual exploita-
tion and 84 per cent of victims of forced
marriages.

22 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Figure 2

Modern slavery and sex of victim

Percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by sex and category

100% Female

Male
80% 40.6%
57.6%
71.1%
60% 84.2%
99.4%

40%

59.4%

20% 42.4%
28.9%
15.8%
0.6%
0%

Modern Forced labour Forced sexual State-imposed Forced marriage


slavery exploitation exploitation forced labour

Forced labour

The Global Estimates indicate that ONE IN FOUR VICTIMS OF MODERN


men are disproportionately subject to SLAVERY IN 2016 WERE CHILDREN
state-imposed forms of forced labour, BELOW THE AGE OF 18 YEARS
reflecting the impact on men of abusive
conscription and imprisonment, and to One of the most alarming findings of the
forced labour in sectors that traditionally modern slavery estimates is the extent
involve manual labour (construction, to which children are victims. One-quar-
manufacturing, and agriculture/fishing). ter of all modern slavery victims
They also confirm that men and boys 10 million persons in all were children.
can be victims in all aspects of modern Children were especially likely to fall
slavery, including forced sexual exploita- victim to forced marriage. Some 37 per
tion and forced marriage. Accordingly, it cent, or 5.7 million, of those forced to
is critical that preventative efforts reflect marry were children. Children represent-
this risk profile and also that national laws ed 21 per cent of the victims of forced
and responses to victimisation make al- sexual exploitation, 18 per cent of those
lowance for male victims. subjected to forced labour exploitation,
and 7 per cent of people forced to work
by state authorities.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 23


Figure 3

Modern slavery and age of victim

Percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by age and category

100% Children
6.9%
18.7% 21.3% Adults
24.7%
80% 36.8%

60%

93.1%
40% 81.3% 78.7%
75.3%
63.2%

20%

0%

Modern Forced labour Forced sexual State-imposed Forced marriage


slavery exploitation exploitation forced labour

Forced labour

There is in fact only a small difference


between children and adults in terms
of prevalence of modern slavery. There
were 5.9 adult victims of modern slavery
for every 1,000 adults in the world and
4.4 child victims for every 1,000 chil-
dren in the world. When examining the
rates of prevalence by form of modern
slavery, adults were more likely than chil-
dren to be victims of all three forms of
forced labour; however, children were
more likely than adults to be victims of
forced marriage. For every 1,000 chil-
dren, there were 2.5 victims of forced
marriage, while for every 1,000 adults
there were 1.9 victims of forced marriage.

24 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Figure 4

Modern slavery and age of victim

Prevalence (per 1,000 persons) of modern slavery, by age and category

Children

Adults

5.9

4.4

2.5 2.5
1.9
1.3
0.4
0.7 0.1 0.7

Modern Forced labour Forced sexual State-imposed Forced marriage


slavery exploitation exploitation forced labour

Forced labour

Forced labour of children takes two pre- days or entered into a forced marriage.
dominant forms. It can result from their Of these, 82.7 million were victims of
guardians themselves being in forced forced labour and 6.5 million had been
labour, in which case the children work forced to marry against their will. There
with their parents or at least for the is wide variation in how long victims of
same employer. Or the children may be modern slavery remain in their situation.
in forced labour on their own as a result While some manage to escape after a
of trafficking, deceptive recruitment, or few days or weeks, others are trapped
coercive means used by their direct em- for years, as is the case for those in tradi-
ployer. In the former case, parents are tional forms of hereditary bonded labour
more likely to be aware of their childrens and some forced marriages. For victims
situation and working conditions. In the registered by IOM after 2012, the average
latter case, parents are less likely to be duration in forced labour exploitation was
aware, as with children who migrate slightly over 20 months and for the vic-
alone or are trafficked into forced labour, tims of sexual exploitation it was 23
particularly domestic work. months. Victims of forced labour im-
posed by state authorities were exploit-
THERE WAS A TOTAL OF 89 MILLION ed for a duration that varied from a few
VICTIMS OF MODERN SLAVERY OVER days per month (for example, when au-
THE PERIOD FROM 2012 TO 2016; thorities force people to participate in
THE TIME DURATION VARIED WIDELY illegal communal services) to several
Over the five-year period from 2012 to years for some cases of prison labour or
2016, 89 million people were either in forced labour in the context of military
forced labour for a minimum number of service.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 25


Figure 5

Regional prevalence of modern slavery

Prevalence of modern slavery (per 1,000 population), by region and category

7.6
Forced labour

Forced marriages
6.1
5.4 2.8

3.9

3.4 4.0 3.3

4.8 1.9
3.6 2.2

1.3
2.1 2.0
1.1
0.4 0.7

World Africa Asia and Europe and Arab States Americas


the Pacific Central Asia

THE PREVALENCE OF MODERN bearing in mind critical gaps and limita-


SLAVERY IS HIGHEST IN AFRICA tions of the data.11 This is especially the
case in Central Asia and the Arab States,
There were 7.6 victims for every where few surveys have been conduct-
thousand people in the Africa region. This ed despite numerous reports of forced
was followed by the Asia and the Pacific labour and forced marriages occurring.12
region (6.1 per 1,000), Europe and Cen- Far more research and survey work is re-
tral Asia (3.9 per 1,000), the Arab States quired at the national level to provide a
(3.3 per 1,000) and finally the Americas more comprehensive picture.
(1.9 per 1,000). Regional prevalence rank-
ings differed for the two main categories
of modern slavery forced labour and
forced marriage. Asia and the Pacific had
the highest prevalence of forced labour
(4.0 per 1,000) and Africa the highest
prevalence of forced marriage (4.8 per
1,000). The regional figures are impor-
tant but should be interpreted with care,

26 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Figure 6

Regional distribution of modern slavery

Number (in thousands) and percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by region

Asia and the Pacific

Europe and Central Asia

Africa
3,600
Americas
9%
Arab States
25,000
62%

9,230
23%

1,950
5%

520
1%

THE POPULOUS ASIA AND PACIFIC


REGION IS HOST TO BY FAR
THE LARGEST ABSOLUTE NUMBER
OF VICTIMS OF MODERN SLAVERY

Figures for the absolute numbers of


persons in modern slavery underscored
the importance of the Asia and Pacific
region, where 62 per cent of all victims
of modern slavery worldwide were locat-
ed. This was followed by the Africa re-
gion (23 per cent), Europe and Central
Asia (9 per cent), the Americas (5 per-
cent), and finally the Arab States (1 per
cent). The Asia and the Pacific region has
the highest share of victims across all
forms of modern slavery, accounting for
73 per cent of victims of forced sexual
exploitation, 68 per cent of those forced
to work by state authorities, 64 per cent
of those in forced labour exploitation,
and 42 per cent of all those in forced
marriages.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 27


1.2 Forced labour

Table 3

Forced labour

Number and prevalence of persons in forced labour, by category, sex and age

Forced labour sub-categories


Total
Forced sexual exploitation of adults forced
Forced labour State-imposed
and commercial sexual exploitation of labour
exploitation forced labour
children

No. (thousands) 15 975 4 816 4 060 24 850


World
Prevalence
2.2 0.7 0.5 3.4.
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 6 766 29 2 411 9 206
Male Prevalence
1.8 0 0.6 2.4
(per thousand)
Sex
No. (thousands) 9 209 4 787 1 650 15 646
Female Prevalence
2.5 1.3 0.4 4.2
(per thousand)
No. (thousands) 12 995 3 791 3 778 20 564
Adults Prevalence
2.5 0.7 0.7 3.9
(per thousand)
Age
No. (thousands) 2 980 1 024 282 4 286
Children Prevalence
1.3 0.4 0.1 1.9
(per thousand)

This section of the report presents the on farms in Latin America, begging in
main findings related to forced labour European cities, and constructing high
using three broad categories: forced rise buildings in the Gulf States, among
labour exploitation,13 forced sexual other sectors and geographic areas.
exploitation,14 and state-imposed forced Regardless of the setting, an identifying
labour.15 feature of situations of forced labour is
lack of voluntariness in taking the job or
Forced labour, as set out in ILO Forced accepting the working conditions, and
Labour Convention, 1930 (No.29),16 refers the application of a penalty or a threat
to all work or service which is exacted of a penalty to prevent an individual
from any person under the menace of from leaving a situation or otherwise
any penalty and for which the said person to compel work. Coercion can take
has not offered himself voluntarily. many forms, ranging from physical and
Men, women, and children are forced sexual violence or threats against family
to work in various settings across the members to more subtle means such as
globe, with examples of forced labour withholding of wages, retaining identity
found in garment making in South Asian documents, threats of dismissal, and
factories, digging for minerals in African threats of denunciation to authorities.
mines, harvesting tomatoes on North
American farms, working as domestic
workers in East Asian homes, working

28 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


victims of forced labour exploitation in
economic activities such as agriculture,
AN ESTIMATED 24.9 MILLION construction, domestic work, and man-
PERSONS WERE VICTIMS ufacturing, 4.8 million were victims of
OF FORCED LABOUR IN 2016 forced sexual exploitation, and 4.1 million
were victims of forced labour imposed
Among the 24.9 million people in any
by state authorities.
form of forced labour, 16 million were

Figure 7

Forced labour

Number and percentage distribution of victims of forced labour, by sub-category

Forced labour exploitation

Forced sexual exploitation

4,100,000 State-imposed forced labour


17%

4,800,000
19%
16,000,000
64%

A SIGNIFICANT SHARE OF VICTIMS


OF FORCED LABOUR WERE
EXPLOITED OUTSIDE
THEIR COUNTRY OF RESIDENCE17

Almost one of every four victims of forced


labour were exploited outside their
country of residence. As illustrated
in Figure 8, victims of forced sexual
exploitation appear most likely to have
been exploited outside their country of
residence, while, not surprisingly, almost
all forced labour imposed by state
authorities took place within the borders
of their own countries. It should be
noted, however, that these differences
by typology were driven in part by the
differences in the data sources used for
measuring them.18

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 29


Figure 8

Forced labour and migration

Percentage of victims of forced labour living outside their country residence, by form of forced labour

100%

80%

60%

40%
74%

20%
23%
14% 1%

0%

Forced labour (total) Forced sexual Forced labour State-imposed


exploitation exploitation forced labour

The large share of victims exploited This point is taken up further in Panel 2.
outside their country of residence points The fight against modern slavery is thus
to the high degree of risk associated with integrally related to global initiatives
migration in the modern world, particu- to promote orderly, safe, and regular
larly for migrant women and children, migration, such as the global compact
who are likely to be the most vulnerable. for safe, orderly and regular migration.

Panel 2

Migration and the risk of exploitation

Although most migration is smugglers and become traf- reduced bargaining power.
voluntary and has a positive ficked along the way. Once Large-scale displacement
impact on individuals and so- they reach their destination, caused by humanitarian crises
cieties, migration can increase migrants who have travelled such as armed conflicts, nat-
vulnerability to human traffick- through regular and irregular ural disasters, and protracted
ing and exploitation. Irregular channels remain vulnerable to unrest can also create vul-
migrants, for instance, trafficking in persons and oth- nerable populations who can
may be subjected to kidnap er forms of exploitation due to become victims of traffick-
and ransom demands, extor- language barriers, challeng- ing.19
tion, physical violence, sex- es of social integration, and
ual abuse, and trafficking in unscrupulous employers and Migrant workers and job seek-
persons. They may start their landlords who take advan- ers, who constitute the major-
journeys by willingly placing tage of their limited knowl- ity of international migrants,
themselves in the hands of edge of local conditions and are vulnerable to human
trafficking throughout their

30 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


migration process. Labour documented the clear links among children and youth on
migration is an increasingly between human trafficking the move through the Medi-
complex and dynamic phe- and migration. The United terranean Sea.23
nomenon taking place within Nations Office on Drugs and
and between all regions of Crime (UNODC) reports that Opportunities for exploita-
the world. In certain migration approximately 60 per cent of tion of migrant workers can
corridors, such as between victims of trafficking in per- include charging recruitment
Asia and the Arab States and sons detected between 2012 fees, providing false promis-
within South-East Asia, the and 2014 were from outside es about salaries or working
number of international mi- the country where they were conditions, or even the na-
grants, the large majority of exploited.21 IOM also docu- ture of the job itself. Migrant
whom are migrant workers, mented the predatory behav- workers may find themselves
has tripled since 1990. Tem- iour and the kinds of enabling employed under substand-
porary labour migration, par- environments in which human ard working conditions, be-
ticularly of low-skilled work- trafficking and associated ing paid at wage levels be-
ers, is exceeding permanent forms of abuse and exploita- low national standards and
flows, and this presents a sig- tion flourish along key mi- counterparts, and sometimes
nificant governance challenge gration routes. For example, kept under these conditions
in terms of ensuring decent approximately three-quarters due to their immigration sta-
work and reducing migration of respondents in IOMs Flow tus, difficulties in changing
costs for this category of mi- Monitoring Surveys conduct- employment linked to re-
grant workers.20 Many migrant ed on the Central Mediterra- strictive visa regimes, and/
workers are concentrated in nean route to Europe from or debt bondage. While pro-
specific economic sectors North Africa (primarily Libya) tections for migrant workers
such as domestic work, man- reported direct experiences are increasing in some areas,
ufacturing, construction, and of abuse, exploitation, coer- particularly through bilateral
agriculture. Special attention cion and practices that may agreements, there is a con-
is required for domestic work- amount to human traffick- tinued need to reform the
ers, who are among the most ing.22 Findings from a recent recruiting and contracting
vulnerable groups of workers. report by UNICEF and IOM systems that place migrant
also shed light on the risks of workers at risk of forced la-
Several recent reports have trafficking and exploitation bour and human trafficking.

NINETY-FOUR PER CENT OF MODERN cal data providing insight into the connec-
SLAVERY VICTIMS WERE EXPLOITED tion between income levels and forced
IN A COUNTRY IN THE SAME labour movements. To explore this issue,
INCOME-BASED REGIONAL GROUPING the estimates of victims of forced labour
AS THEIR COUNTRY OF RESIDENCE were examined according to the income
levels of the victims country of residence
Poverty is often cited as an important risk and of the country where the exploitation
factor for modern slavery, and relative took place. The results suggest very lit-
wealth disparities between countries are tle movement across income groupings.
often cited as a pull factor. While poverty Ninety-four per cent of victims of forced
can drive a decision to migrate for labour, labour were exploited in a country that
it can also act as a barrier to migration, was in the same income-based regional
as members of the poorest groups are of- grouping as their country of residence.
ten unable to raise the money required to People who were exploited in the low-
reach their destination, whether through and lower-middle-income groupings were
accessing loans in their local communities almost exclusively residents of countries
or from others in the migration industry. that were in the same income grouping.
But to date there has been limited empiri-

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 31


1.2.1 Forced labour Females accounted for a significant-
ly larger share of total victims (57 per
exploitation cent) than males (43 per cent). Nearly
20 per cent of the victims of forced la-
bour exploitation were children, who
This sub-section refers to persons in may have worked alone, far from their
forced labour exploitation imposed by families, or together with their parents.
private actors other than for commercial Among cases of forced labour exploita-
sexual exploitation. tion where the type of work was known,24
the largest share almost a quarter was
AN ESTIMATED 16 MILLION PEOPLE in domestic work. This was followed by
WERE VICTIMS OF FORCED the construction (18 per cent), manufac-
LABOUR EXPLOITATION IMPOSED turing (15 per cent), and agriculture and
BY PRIVATE ACTORS IN 2016 fishing (11 per cent) sectors.

Figure 9

Sector of forced labour exploitation

(a) Sectoral distribution of victims of forced labour (b) Sex distribution of victims of forced labour
exploitation(a), (b) exploitation, by sector of economic activity(a), (b)

Female Male
1%
100% 4% Begging
10
7% 18 18
Mining and quarrying
9% 32
80% Personal services
10% 48 48
Wholesale and trade 61
11%
Accommodation and
60%
food service activities
92
15% Agriculture, forestries, 100
and fishing 90
40% 82 82
18% Manufacturing 68
Construction 52 52
20% 39
Domestic work
24%
8
0%
Accommodation and
food service activities

Domestic work

Personal services

Agriculture, forestries,
and fishing
Wholesale and trade

Manufacturing

Construction

Begging

Mining and quarrying

Note: (a) These figures are based on cases of forced labour exploitation where industry was reported. Informa-
tion on the industry was available for 65 per cent of total cases of forced labour exploitation; and (b) with the
exception of begging, categories are based on the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Eco-
nomic Activities, Rev.4 (1-digit level). For further detail and explanation see United Nations Statistics Division
(https://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcst.asp?Cl=27).

32 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


DIFFERENCES BY SEX IN THE Within each of these broader economic
TYPOLOGY OF FORCED LABOUR activity areas, forced labour exploita-
EXPLOITATION WERE CONSIDERABLE tion can take on a number of forms.
They range from the servile practices
Male victims were much more likely than still found in parts of the worlds poorer
female victims to be in the mining, man- countries, often the vestiges of slavery
ufacturing, construction, and agriculture or longstanding practices of ethnic and
sectors. Nine out of every 10 victims in- social discrimination, to the abuses in the
volved in begging were also male. Fe- supply chains of major modern compa-
male victims of forced labour exploita- nies. Some of these issues by sector are
tion were much more likely to be in the reviewed Panel 3.
accommodation and food services in-
dustry and in domestic work.

Panel 3

Forms of forced labour exploitation in the private economy

DOMESTIC WORK 19 per cent. Moreover, umented, the fragmented


high-income countries ac- nature of recruitment can
The domestic work sec- count for 9.1 million domestic lead to excessive fees, work-
tor, which accounted for workers globally, amounting ing conditions akin to forced
24 per cent of identified to about 80 per cent of the labour, contract substitu-
forced labour exploitation total. tion, visa trading, and inef-
cases, is now receiving more fective complaint and griev-
attention for its employment With a few exceptions, ance procedures. Excessive
potential but also for the domestic workers are exclud- recruitment fees are often
abuses occurring within it, ed from the protections in transferred to workers in
including extreme violence. national labour laws. Com- the form of direct payments,
There has been a steady in- mon grievances have includ- large loans requiring repay-
crease in the overall number ed unpaid wages, the with- ment at extremely high inter-
of persons, mainly migrant holding of wages, lack of est rates, or salary deduction
women, seeking employment overtime pay, long hours and schemes.26
in this sector. Significantly, heavy workloads, inadequacy
the ILOs most recent global of rest days, absence of health The situation can be ex-
estimate of migrant workers care and maternity leave, acerbated when migrant
has a special focus on mi- poor living conditions, and is- domestic workers are tied
grant domestic workers.25 sues related to contracts and for a lengthy period of time
Worldwide, there are cur- their termination. There has to one employer by visa ar-
rently an estimated 67 million however been some progress rangements. In such situ-
domestic workers, of whom in recent years, notably since ations, they may suffer re-
some 11.5 million are migrant the ILOs Domestic Workers strictions on their freedom
domestic workers and almost Convention, 2011 (No. 189) of movement, leaving them
three-quarters are women. was adopted. isolated and alone and with
The Asia and the Pacific no effective remedy against
region hosts the largest The coercion domestic work- abusive treatment.
share, with almost a quarter ers often face, and which in
of the worlds female migrant many cases leads to forced CONSTRUCTION
domestic workers, followed labour situations, typically
stems from recruitment and In the construction industry,
by Europe with 22.1 per cent
job placement mechanisms. which is estimated to employ
and the Arab States with
As has been widely doc- 7 per cent of the global work-

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 33


force and where 18 per cent abuses in the electrical and The seafood industry, which
of identified forced labour electronics industry have also is part of the larger agri-
exploitation cases occurred, received global attention, culture and fishing sector,
employment conditions are with some major electron- has also drawn international
notoriously demanding and ics, telecommunications, and attention, particularly af-
dangerous, with high levels of technology brands encoun- ter media reporting in 2014
industrial accidents. Howev- tering criticism over labour named specific companies
er, there are indications that exploitation, including forced alleged to be tainted with
the use of bogus self-em- labour, in their supply chains. slavery in their supply chains.
ployment schemes have Another high-profile issue in- The most severe cases, doc-
contributed to the growth of volves pressure on high-tech umented on some deep-sea
coercive practices.27 companies to ensure that fishing vessels in the Asian
their products do not contain region, have involved phys-
MANUFACTURING minerals such as tantalum, ical brutality and even loss
In the manufacturing sector, tungsten, and cassiterite of life. Yet this industry pos-
which made up 15 per cent that are produced in conflict es unique challenges for
of identified forced labour zones where forced labour preventing abuses. Difficult
exploitation cases, coercion may have been imposed by conditions are inherent to
has been documented main- rebel groups. the fishing industry, which
ly in the lower-income coun- typically involves long hours
COMMERCIAL AGRICUL- of work and strenuous ac-
tries. While attention has TURE AND FISHING
long focused on the abuses tivity in a challenging marine
in small garment or footwear Commercial agriculture is environment. On top of this,
factories in the largely infor- part of the broader agricul- the proliferation of modern
mal sector of the South Asian ture and fishing sector, where factory ships and the globali-
countries, growing aware- 12 per cent of identified forced sation of the fishing industry
ness of global supply chain labour exploitation cases have greatly complicated ef-
risks has led to coercion being occurred. Much of the low- forts to protect workers on
detected in the production paid work in commercial ag- vessels, which may be at sea
of a range of products that riculture is seasonal, meaning for long periods, in distant
until recently had escaped that the coercion may be of fishing grounds, and well be-
public attention. Just one ex- short duration. A common yond the reach of national la-
ample is the manufacture of feature is the presence of la- bour inspection systems.
garments for medical use a bour providers, who can be Migrant workers are at an
large global industry produc- employment as well as re- especially high risk of coer-
ing some 150 billion pairs of cruitment agents, generally cion in this industry. They are
gloves per year and with a responsible for the payment increasingly manning ves-
market value of more than and working conditions of sels operating out of a wide
US$ 5 billion for which most the workforce. Known by a range of both developed and
production is outsourced to multiplicity of names, ille- developing countries, largely
factories in Asia that rely on gitimate agents have been because nationals of these
migrant workers. The doc- widely responsible for the countries find the salaries too
umented concerns at many typical range of abuses such low for the rigorous work and
of these factories include ex- as non-payment or late pay- the lengthy periods at sea.
cessive working hours and ment of wages, restriction And in many cases the entire
production targets, payment on physical movement, vio- business operation is illegal
of high recruitment fees, il- lence, and threats. Moreover, (involving illegal brokerage
legal retention of passports, cases of such abuse have and illegal fishing in addition
and in some cases illegal im- been widely documented in to serious violations of labour
prisonment and beatings of the agricultural sector of the law), and the vessel owners
workers.28 At the higher end wealthier as well as poorer can use undocumented mi-
of the manufacturing scale, countries. grants both to cut costs and

34 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


to escape the attention of ercive practices have also through legally recognise re-
law enforcement authorities. been documented in other cruitment agencies, leading
industry activities including to personal debts that must
Recently, IOMs Global Assis- onshore seafood processing. be repaid through deduc-
tance Fund for victims of traf- The risks of abuse are highest tions from wages. And when
ficking and other migrants in when there is extensive use the labour brokerage is in-
vulnerable situations contrib- of contract labour, and nota- formal and the workers have
uted to assisting 600 men bly when temporary workers no contracts of employment,
from foreign fishing boats are recruited from abroad there is considerable risk of
in Indonesian waters. Some under special visa arrange- further abuse.
had not been on dry land ments.
for years. One of the victims
had been separated from his Many migrant fishers enter
family, without any contact, the destination country
for 22 years. through networks of recruit-
ment agents, often incurring
Apart from the abuses high brokerage fees, even
against fishers at sea, co- when they are engaged

MOST VICTIMS SUFFERED MULTIPLE The Global Estimates have shed signif-
FORMS OF COERCION FROM icant light on these issues. Withholding
RECRUITERS OR EMPLOYERS of wages, or the threat that this would
be done, was the most common means
In cases of forced labour, it is important of coercion, experienced by almost a
to understand the means of coercion at quarter of people (24 per cent) forced
both the recruitment and employment to work. This was followed by threats of
stages. For example, were violence or violence (17 per cent), acts of physical
threats of violence used? How impor- violence (16 per cent), and threats against
tant was the debt factor? Were workers family (12 per cent). The estimates also
physically prevented from leaving the confirm that different forms of coercion
workplace? And in the case of migrant may be used depending on whether the
workers, was the coercion or decep- victim is male or female, a finding that
tion used at the initial place of recruit- can help inform victim identification and
ment, in the country of origin, and/or at responses. For example, the estimates
the workplace? The ILO has developed suggest that male victims were more
indicators on these concerns,29 enabling likely to be subjected to threats against
national statistical offices and research family, withheld wages, confinement,
institutes to undertake national surveys denial of food and sleep, and threats of
on the forced labour of both adults and legal action. In contrast, female victims
children. of forced labour suffered higher rates of
sexual violence and were more likely to
have their passports withheld.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 35


Figure 10

Means of coercion

(a) Percentage of victims of forced labour (b) Percentage distribution of means of coercion,
exploitation, by means of coercion by sex

Female Male

0.9%

Kept drunk/drugged 100%


4.1%
13 11
4.3% Sexual violence 23
5% 32
Withheld passport or 38 37 35 34
5.7% 46 80%
other documents 52 49
6.6%
Punished through 65
6.7% deprivation of food,
60%
6.7% sleep, etc.
98
Threats of legal actions
9.1%
87 89
Punished through 77 40%
11.8% fine/financial penalty 68
62 63 65 66
Too far from home 54
48 51
14.5% and nowhere to go
20%
35
Locked in work or
living quarters
16.4% 2
Had to repay debt 0%
Sexual violence

Withheld passport or other documents

Punished through fine/financial penalty


Physical violence

Threats of violence

Withheld wages
Locked in work or living quarters

Threats against family


Punished through deprivation of food, sleep, etc.

Threats of legal actions


Had to repay debt

Kept drunk/drugged

Too far from home and nowhere to go


Threats against family
17% Other

Physical violence

Threats of violence
23.6%
Withheld wages

DEBT BONDAGE, THROUGH forced labour exploitation worldwide


THE MANIPULATION OF DEBT were held in debt bondage. The figure
BY EMPLOYERS OR RECRUITING rises to more than 70 per cent of the to-
AGENTS, AFFECTED MORE tal for adults forced to work in agricul-
THAN HALF OF ALL VICTIMS ture, domestic work, or manufacturing.
OF FORCED LABOUR EXPLOITATION It is likely that these estimates reflect a
mix of cases of both traditional forms of
Debt bondage is defined for the purpose bonded labour and newer forms of debt
of the estimates as being forced to work bondage where recruitment fees and
to repay a debt and not being able to agency charges become the debt that
leave, or being forced to work and not binds. Situations of debt bondage are
being able to leave because of a debt. discussed in more detail in Panel 4.
Just over half the men and women in

36 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Figure 11

Debt bondage

Percentage of victims of forced labour exploitation who are held in debt bondage, by sex and region

100% Total
88.7
Male
80% Female
69.6

60.9
55.1
60% 54.4

40% 52.5 37.9


47.0
43.4 44.7

20% 34.3
21.3
50.9 54.9 54.2 50.8 36.3 35.9
0%

World Asia Africa Arab States Americas Europe and


Central Asia

A regional analysis found that debt debt bondage. Eighty-nine per cent of
bondage was most common in Asia, all female victims of forced labour ex-
Africa, and the Arab States, where rough- ploitation were held in debt bondage in
ly one-half of all victims of forced labour the region, compared to 45 per cent of
exploitation were in situations involving all male victims. The opposite pattern
debt bondage. In the two remaining re- prevailed in the Asia and the Pacific and
gions, the Americas and Europe and the Europe and Central Asia regions,
Central Asia, a little more than one-third where debt bondage affected a greater
of victims of forced labour exploita- share of male victims of forced labour
tion were in debt bondage. In the Arab exploitation than female victims. Similar
States, female victims of forced labour proportions of men and women were in
exploitation were much more likely than debt bondage among those forced to
male victims to be in situations involving work in Africa and the Americas.

Panel 4

Situations of debt bondage

In most cases of debt bond- the level of compensation including the interest and
age, the initial debt grows at a the worker may be getting. original amount. To give back
rate that is unable to be met, A male survey respondent the loan they made me work
and the individual (some- in Bangladesh described the forcefully and I paid back the
times together with family unmanageable increase in loan by working for them.
members) is unable to leave the debt he owed: I took loan
the work as the debt mounts to maintain the family. Lat- In these situations, the debt
and cannot be paid with er it became a high amount can last for years or even

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 37


generations. Often, such a variety of jobs including Such traditional forms of
debts transfer from one construction work, domes- bonded labour still sur-
family member to another, tic work, agricultural work, vive throughout South Asia,
as illustrated by a male sur- factory work, and quite fre- particularly in rural areas
vey respondent residing in quently for prostitution are where land and tenancy re-
Tunisia who described being often controlled through debt forms have not taken place,
forced to sell the drugs to bondage and other mech- and where landowners still
repay debts of my brother anisms.30 This is due pri- enjoy wide powers. Yet much
who was in an Italian prison at marily to the often illicit and of todays bonded labour is
that time. Others described prohibitive recruitment fees associated more with internal
the burden of such loans taken by recruiters and/or migration, the involvement
and the situations of vulner- employers to enable the mi- of labour contractors and re-
ability they experienced. For gration. cruiting intermediaries, and
example, a 30 year-old male work in a range of sectors in
victim of forced labour in In- Patterns of Asian bonded the informal economy. Min-
dia described the situation he labour have evolved since the ing, brick-making, fish-pro-
and his wife faced as having first laws and policies on the cessing, gem-cutting, and
become a curse on both of subject were adopted more carpet-weaving are among
us. We had threats against than 40 years ago,31 when it the industries, many of them
our family and we also got was seen as a largely agrarian hazardous, where bonded la-
the threat that we would be phenomenon. Most bonded bour has been detected. New
evicted from our house and labourers were sharecrop- patterns of bondage can also
the village. There were also pers who took loans from be seen in large and small
threats of violence. their landlords to cover their scale commercial agriculture,
families subsistence needs or where seasonal unemploy-
Debt bondage in the con- expenses related to ill health, ment has led to conditions of
text of labour migration and dowry, marriages, funerals, bondage involving the debt-
trafficking is a trend that can or festivals. These traditional based attachment of casual
be seen across a number of bonded labour systems were and migrant workers, though
countries and sectors. A re- characterised by feudal rela- of a much shorter duration
cent report to the UN Human tionships in agriculture and than the old forms of bond-
Rights Council said the vast by unequal power relations age in agriculture.
majority of people trafficked based on caste. Often they
to countries in North Amer- were inter-generational, with
ica, Europe and the Middle children born into bondage,
East and to other developed paying off debts accumulat-
countries are migrant work- ed by their forebears.
ers who are trafficked into

38 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


1.2.2 Forced sexual ex- 4.8 MILLION PEOPLE - ALMOST
EXCLUSIVELY FEMALE - WERE
ploitation of adults VICTIMS OF FORCED SEXUAL
EXPLOITATION IN 2016
and commercial
Women and girls accounted for more
sexual exploitation than 99 per cent of all victims of

of children forced sexual exploitation. More than


70 per cent of victims of forced sexu-
al exploitation were in the Asia and the
Pacific region, followed by Europe and
This sub-section refers to persons in
Central Asia (14 per cent), Africa (8 per
forced labour and services imposed by
cent), the Americas (4 per cent), and the
private actors for sexual exploitation.
Arab States (1 per cent).32 Information
This includes women and men who have
from the IOM database suggested that
involuntarily entered a form of commer-
the duration of exploitation was typi-
cial sexual exploitation, or who have
cally protracted; victims were exploited
entered the sex industry voluntarily but
for an average of about two years (23.1
cannot leave. It also includes all forms of
months) before being freed or managing
commercial sexual exploitation involving
to escape.
children.

Figure 12

Regional distribution of forced sexual exploitation

Percentage distribution of victims of forced sexual exploitation, by region (in 000s)

Asia and the Pacific

700 Europe and Central Asia


14%
Africa
400
8% Americas

200 Arab states


4%
<1
1%

3,500
73%

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 39


CHILDREN COMPRISED MORE forced labour exploitation imposed by
THAN A FIFTH OF ALL VICTIMS OF the State. This includes forced labour
COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION exacted by the military, compulsory par-
ticipation in public works, and forced
More than 1 million of the victims of prison labour. The last category includes
forced sexual exploitation 21 per cent not only forced labour camps but also
of all victims were children under the work imposed in semi-privatised or fully
age of 18 years. In accordance with the privatised prisons.
ILOs Worst Forms of Child Labour Con-
vention, 1999 (No. 182), all children found AN ESTIMATED 4 MILLION PEOPLE
in any type of commercial sexual activ- WERE IN STATE-IMPOSED
ity exploitation are considered victims FORCED LABOUR AT ANY
of commercial sexual exploitation. Child GIVEN POINT IN TIME IN 2016
victims of commercial sexual exploita-
tion are particularly difficult to detect, ei- When the ILOs first instrument on forced
ther through efforts by law enforcement labour was adopted in 1930, and even
and child protection agents or through more so when the second instrument
survey data collection. The true figure was adopted during the height of the
is likely far higher than the current esti- Cold War in 1957, state-imposed forced
mates. labour was a major global issue and
cause for concern. More recently, with
the rise in the number of detected cas-
es of forced labour imposed by private
1.2.3 State-imposed actors, much of the concern has shift-

forced labour ed away from that imposed by States.


Nevertheless, with some 4 million per-
sons affected, state-imposed forced la-
bour remains a major problem.

This sub-section refers to persons in

Figure 13

State-imposed forced labour

Number and percentage distribution of victims of state-imposed forced labour, by form of state-imposed
forced labour

Abuse of conscription

Obligation to perform work beyond normal civic


591,000 obligations or minor communal services
14.6%
Compulsory prison labour
325,000
Compulsory labour for the purpose
8%
of economic development

563,000
2,582,000
13.9%
63.6%

40 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Of the total number of people in FORCED LABOUR IMPOSED BY
state-imposed forced labour, the major- THE STATE VARIED CONSIDERABLY
ity (64 per cent) were forced by their IN TERMS OF DURATION
government to work for the purpose of
furthering economic development. How- Among cases of forced labour imposed
ever, while the overall number and per- by state authorities, not only the type of
centage appears high, only a few States work varies widely, from picking cotton
actually resort to this kind of forced to constructing roads, but so does the
development work. Fifteen per cent of length during which victims are exploited.
those in state-imposed forced labour A typical case of short duration, gener-
were subjected to abuse of conscription ally a few weeks, is found in States that
and 14 per cent were forced to carry out requisition their citizens for the purpose
prison labour under conditions that vio- of economic development work, such
late the pertinent ILO standards. The re- as the forced participation of students,
maining 8 per cent were either forced to unemployed, or any individual in pub-
perform work or services going beyond lic construction, industrial, or agricul-
normal civil obligations, or to perform tural projects. This is also the case for
communal services exceeding the nature the abuse of communal services where
and scope of these activities as permit- a large share of a population is forced
ted by the ILO standards. The share of to perform community work that is
men in forced labour imposed by state not for the benefit of their communi-
authorities is higher than that of women, ties and has not been decided upon by
essentially because more men than wom- members of those communities. In these
en are affected by abuse of conscription cases, the forced labour usually involves
and prison labour in all concerned coun- a large group of citizens for a few days
tries. per month. On the other end of the spec-
trum, some countries force military con-
CHILDREN REPRESENTED 7 PERCENT scripts to perform non-military tasks for
OF VICTIMS OF STATE-IMPOSED a number of years. And forced labour in
FORCED LABOUR prison varies between a few weeks for
cases of people in administrative deten-
The main forms of forced labour in which tion to many years for long term sen-
state authorities were found to use tences.
children were in the abuse of the obli-
gation to participate in minor communal
services or civic obligations and, to a cer-
tain extent, in work for purposes of eco-
nomic development. More than half the
forced labourers in the former category
were children, specifically North Korean
children who are compelled as part of
their schooling to engage in work that
far exceeded the goals of vocational ed-
ucation and was also highly demanding
in physical terms. Globally, few children
were found in forced prison labour, or
in abuse of conscription, although data
gaps in these areas remain large.34 The
forced recruitment of children by armed
groups and armed forces was excluded
from the estimates due to a lack of reli-
able data.

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 41


Panel 5

Forced prison labour

Forced prison labour ministrative detention cen- the private use of prison
deserves separate treatment. tres. While the administrative labour (either through pri-
The ILO Conventions estab- imposition of imprisonment vatised prisons or through
lish broad principles regard- involving forced labour ap- contracts between public
ing the conditions in which pears to have declined in prison agencies and private
prisoners can or cannot be recent years, a number of companies) is widespread
required to work; and, in countries in East and South- in certain countries and can
cases where they are required East Asia have responded to provide significant revenue
to work, the limitations on the rise in substance abuse for the private agencies con-
private sector involvement in by establishing laws and poli- cerned. There have been pol-
prison labour. cies that allow for compulso- icy debates in a number of
ry detention without trial in a countries since the first steps
Generally, prisoners who court of law, and the impo- were taken as of the 1980s to
have been duly sentenced sition of compulsory labour, seek more private sector in-
by a court of law can be as a means of treatment for volvement in prison adminis-
required to work. They can- persons suspected of being tration. Proponents of private
not be required to work be- dependent on drugs. Re- sector involvement in prison
fore sentencing, or when ports on such rehabilitation industries argue that this can
they are in administrative de- centres in several countries reduce incarceration costs
tention. And even if prison- have highlighted the lack of and contribute to rehabilita-
ers have been sentenced by due process and legal assis- tion. Opponents argue that
a court of law, they cannot tance. Additionally, in some it can increase exploitation,
be required to work if they cases, migrants and refugees and that the authority for
have been imprisoned for a have also been forced to punishment is a core gov-
range of ideological, political, work when confined in de- ernment function that should
and other reasons specifi- tention centres pending ad- not be delegated to the pri-
cally mentioned in the ILOs ministrative processing. vate sector. Furthermore, in
Abolition of Forced Labour most cases, labour and social
Convention, 1957 (No. 105). The use of forced prison la- security laws are not applied
Moreover, there need to be bour for political and other to prisoners, meaning that
specific guarantees of pro- impermissible reasons is par- prison labour can constitute
tection for prisoners placed ticularly difficult to assess. unfair competition with free
at the disposal or private in- There is, not surprisingly, no labour.
dividuals, companies, or as- available data on penal sanc-
sociations, including those tions imposed on political On this subject, there has
confined in private prisons. In activists, journalists, or mem- been substantial dialogue
the latter case, guidance has bers of dissident groups in between the ILO superviso-
been provided by ILO super- repressive regimes.35 ry bodies and those Member
visory bodies on factors to States that have ratified the
ensure that labour is provid- Nor are statistics generally first forced labour Conven-
ed voluntarily and not under available concerning the var- tion. The supervisory bodies
the menace of any penalty. ious ways in which private have pointed to the need for
companies can be involved convincing indicators that
Of the 563,000 persons esti- in or benefit from compul- the choice to work is volun-
mated to be in forced prison sory prison labour. It is now tary.
labour, 202,000 are in ad- generally recognised that

42 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


1.3 Forced marriage

Table 4

Forced marriage

Number and prevalence of persons in forced marriage, by sex, age, and region

Number (000s) Prevalence (per 1,000 persons)

World 15 442 2.1

Male 2 442 0.6


Sex
Female 13 000 3.5
Adults 9 762 1.9
Age grouping
Children 5 679 2.5
Africa 5 820 4.8
Americas 670 0.7
Region Arab States 170 1.1
Asia and the Pacific 8 440 2.0
Europe and Central Asia 340 1.1

AN ESTIMATED 15.4 MILLION PEOPLE entry into the country. Once forced to
WERE LIVING IN SITUATIONS marry, many victims are placed at great-
OF FORCED MARRIAGE IN 2016 er risk of being subjected to other forms
of exploitation, including sexual exploita-
Forced marriage refers to situations tion, domestic servitude, and other forms
where persons, regardless of their age, of forced labour. Children are especially
have been forced to marry without their vulnerable in these situations.
consent.37 Forced marriage is prohibited
through the prohibitions on slavery and An estimated 15.4 million people were
slavery-like practices, including servile living in situations of forced marriage
marriage.38 in 2016. In a total of 6.5 million of these
cases, the forced marriage occurred
There are many reasons for forced during the five-year period from 2012
marriage, some of which are closely to 2016, while the remainder occurred
linked to longstanding cultural practices. prior to this period but continued into
In some parts of the world, young girls it.40 In terms of prevalence, 2.1 out of
and women are forced to marry in ex- every thousand persons worldwide were
change for payment to their families, the living in forced marriage in 2016. It is im-
cancellation of debt, or to settle family portant to note that the measurement of
disputes. In countries with significant lev- forced marriage is at an early stage and
els of conflict, they can be abducted by both the scope and the methodologies
armed groups and forced to marry fight- are likely to be further refined. Accord-
ers, enduring all manner of sexual, phys- ingly, the current estimates should be
ical, and emotional abuse. Forced mar- considered to be conservative.
riages also occur in developed nations,
with women and girls being forced to
marry foreign men for cultural reasons,
or in order to secure another persons

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 43


THE AFRICA REGION AND THE ASIA gion (2.0 per 1,000), and then by the
AND THE PACIFIC REGION HAD Europe and Central Asia region and the
THE HIGHEST NUMBER AND Arab States region (1.1 per 1,000) and the
PREVALENCE OF FORCED MARRIAGE Americas (0.7 per 1,000). These regional
figures, however, were affected by dif-
More than 90 per cent of all forced ferences across regions in data availabili-
marriages took place in two regions: Af- ty. There are numerous reports of forced
rica and Asia and the Pacific. The prev- marriage in Central Asia and the Arab
alence was by far the highest in Africa region,41 for example, but few surveys on
at 4.8 victims for every 1,000 people, the issue have been conducted there.
followed by the Asia and the Pacific re-

Figure 14

Forced marriage across regions

(a) Number and percentage distribution of victims (b) Prevalence of forced marriage per 1,000
of forced marriage persons), by region

8,444,000 5,818,000
4.8
55% 38%

2.1 2.0

1.1 1.1
0.7
667,000
173,000 4%
World

Africa

Asia and the Pacific

Europe and Central Asia

Arab States

Americas

1% 341,000
2%
Africa

Americas

Europe and Central Asia

Arab states

Asia and the Pacific

Note: These figures are based on national household surveys conducted in 48 countries, involved interviews
with more than 71,000 respondents aged 15 years or older. See methodological annex for further details.

44 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


MOST VICTIMS OF FORCED MARRIAGE of forced marriage. The share of fe-
WERE WOMEN AND GIRLS males in forced marriage is substantially
higher than the share of females in all
An estimated 13 million women and girls forms of modern slavery (84 per cent
were living in a forced marriage in 2016, versus 71 per cent).
representing 84 per cent of all victims

Figure 15

Forced marriage by sex

Percentage distribution of victims of forced marriage, by sex

100% Female

Male
80%

71%
60%
84%

40%

20%
29%
16%
0%

Modern Forced marriage


slavery

Panel 6

Forced marriage: additional considerations

The forced marriage of rapist is permitted to escape forced marriage in conflict


adults is a highly complex criminal sanctions by marry- and post-conflict situations
issue. There are societies ing the victim, usually with needs to be examined care-
where arranged marriages the consent of her family. fully. Families who are faced
are common, and it may be with physical and economic
difficult to assess the pres- Forced marriages may occur insecurity may see early
ence of compulsion. The in the context of migration, forced marriage as a way of
coercion can be manifest- for example to secure the alleviating poverty and pro-
ed in various forms, includ- documentation extended tecting girls from difficult liv-
ing exchange or trade-off family members needed to ing conditions. Similarly, they
marriages, servile marriag- reside in a particular desti- may fall prey to traffickers
es, and levirate42 marriages. nation country. Forced mar- who claim to offer their chil-
In some societies, a forced riages are also being used dren a safer place and job
marriage may occur when a by armed groups during opportunities.43
conflict. The prevalence of

Part 1. The scale and manifestations of modern slavery 45


In its latest global report on port, trafficking for marriage As these are the first-ever
trafficking in persons, the takes on different permuta- global estimates of forced
United Nations Office on tions, from organized irreg- marriage, it is important that
Drugs and Crime (UNODC) ular migration and benefit methods and data collection
has provided some data on fraud schemes in Europe to continue to evolve and grow.
trafficking for marriages, traditional practices in Cen- Some statistical information
which was reported by many tral Asia and the Middle East on forced marriage is now
countries in different parts of (involving marriage without being provided at the coun-
the world during the 2012- consent and possibly ab- try level. For example, a small
2014 period.44 Altogether, duction), as well as the trade number of countries have
trafficking for forced or sham of women for marriages in established Forced Marriage
marriages accounts for about South-East Asia. Moreover, Units, which provide impor-
1.4 per cent of the total de- a new mode of trafficking tant data on referrals and
tected victims of trafficking. has surfaced in the form of a cases.
Given the estimates of forced large transnational organized
marriage in this report, this crime group that recruited
suggests forced marriage is Central European women for
massively under-detected. sham marriages in Western
As noted in the UNODC re- Europe.

MORE THAN ONE-THIRD OF VICTIMS purposes of these estimates, the meas-


LIVING IN A FORCED MARRIAGE urement of forced marriage is limited
WERE CHILDREN AT THE TIME to what was captured by the surveys.
OF THE MARRIAGE; ALMOST That is, forced marriage in the estimates
ALL CHILD VICTIMS WERE GIRLS includes all marriages of both adults and
children that were reported by the sur-
An estimated 37 per cent of victims living vey respondent to have been forced and
in forced marriage were children at the without consent, regardless of the age
time the marriage took place. Among of the respondent. Accordingly, the es-
child victims, 44 per cent were forced timates do not include every instance of
to marry before the age of 15 years. The child marriage, as child marriage is not
youngest victims of forced marriage currently measured adequately at the
in the sample were nine years of age scale or specificity required for a global
at the time they were forced to marry. estimate.
Girls were more much likely to be forced
to marry than boys; 96 per cent of all
child victims were girls. Child marriage is
generally considered to be forced mar-
riage, given that one and/or both par-
ties by definition has not expressed full,
free, and informed consent.45 However,
it is important to be clear that for the

46 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


ILO
Part 2.
Ending
modern slavery:
road forward
to 2030
The Global Estimates clearly demonstrate struments send a clear message: forced
that forced labour and forced marriage labour, slavery, and human trafficking
have not yet been relegated to the past are serious crimes and need to be dealt
where they belong. Rather, these forms with as such. But they also make clear
of modern slavery remain tragically com- that these abuses cannot be eliminated
mon in todays world, affecting virtually through criminal law enforcement alone.
all countries. The estimates indicate that Rather, a broad-based approach is need-
more than 40 million people were caught ed, with a strong emphasis on address-
up in the grip of modern slavery in 2016, ing root causes and prevention and on
a quarter of whom were children below the protection of victims.
the age of 18 years. Honouring our com-
mitment to end modern slavery and hu- We do not have to start from square one.
man trafficking by the year 2030 will be We have already accumulated a substan-
an immense challenge. tial set of programming experience relat-
ed to forced labour and forced marriage,
Appropriate policy choices will be crit- as well as to the crimes of human traf-
ical. A number of international legal in- ficking and slavery, thereby providing a
struments provide guidance in this re- foundation and important lessons for fu-
gard, including the United Nations 1956 ture efforts.
Convention on slavery and slavery-like
practices, the United Nations Protocol to But progress must be faster and more
Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking comprehensive if we are to reach the
in Persons (2000) supplementing the UN 2030 target on schedule. There remains
Convention against Transnational Crime, a huge gap between the total number of
and the ILO Forced Labour Conven- victims and those receiving protection or
tions Nos 29 and 105, the Worst Forms assistance. And important categories of
of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. vulnerable groups have received too lit-
182), the Protocol of 2014 to the Forced tle attention until now. For example, very
Labour Convention, 1930 and the Forced few countries have instituted any form of
Labour (Supplementary Measures) Rec- response to forced marriage, and many
ommendation, 2014 (No. 203). These in- have yet to extend victim protection re-

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 49


sponses to men and boys. Legal gaps in to preventing forced labour and protect-
some countries allow forced labour to be ing victims. Additionally, the risk and
imposed by the State, and these must typology of modern slavery is strong-
be addressed. We also need to closely ly influenced by gender, and this must
evaluate existing approaches and inter- also be taken into account in developing
ventions, to identify which ones need to policy responses. Addressing the root
be adjusted or strengthened and which causes of debt bondage, a widespread
ones have been the most successful and means of coercion, is another necessary
have the greatest potential for replica- element of forced labour prevention,
tion. while improved victim identification is
critical to extending protection to the
The Global Estimates offer critical in- majority of modern slavery victims who
sight into the scale and manifestations are currently unidentified or unattended.
of modern slavery. In what follows, we Finally, we know that much of modern
use the global estimates findings to slavery today occurs in contexts of state
discuss some of the key elements of a fragility, conflict, and crisis, pointing to
policy response to modern slavery in the need to address the risk of modern
the lead-up to 2030. We also look at slavery as part of humanitarian actions in
what additional information is need- these situations. Policies and measures
ed inform and guide this response, in all of these priority areas should be ev-
and the role of international coopera- idence-based and informed by research
tion and partnership in supporting it. and statistics on the specific profile of
modern slavery in the countries con-
cerned.

2.1 Building a policy Extending social protection systems, in-


cluding floors. Vulnerabilities associated
response: preven- with poverty, sudden job loss, natural dis-
asters, armed conflicts, economic crises,
tion and protection and other shocks can play a central role
in pushing people into modern slavery.
Social protection is therefore critical to
Ending modern slavery will require a mul- mitigating these vulnerabilities. Yet, the
ti-faceted response that addresses the ILO estimates that, despite some pro-
array of forces economic, social, cultur- gress, more than 5 billion people do not
al and legal that contribute to vulnera- have access to adequate social protec-
bility and enable abuses. There can be no tion. This points to the continued need
one-size-fits-all solution; responses need to build social protection systems, in-
to be adapted to the very diverse envi- cluding floors to help prevent vulnerable
ronments in which modern slavery still people from being caught up in modern
occurs. It is nonetheless possible to iden- slavery.46 Cash transfer schemes, public
tify some overarching policy priorities in employment programmes, health pro-
the lead-up to 2030 from the Global Esti- tection, maternity protection, disability
mates and from experience to date. benefits, unemployment protection, and
income security in old age are all rele-
Stronger social protection systems, in-
vant within a well-designed social securi-
cluding social protection floors,45 is nec-
ty system in helping offset vulnerabilities
essary to offset the vulnerabilities that
that can lead to forced labour and forced
can push people into modern slavery.
marriage.
Extending labour and social rights in the
informal economy where modern slav- These schemes can also play an impor-
ery is most likely to occur is needed to tant role in facilitating the recovery of
protect workers from exploitation. victims and preventing their re-victim-
ization. In particular, microcredit and
Given that a large share of modern slav-
microinsurance schemes can play an im-
ery can be traced to migration, improved
portant complementary role in making
migration governance is vitally important
sure that vulnerable families are able to

50 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


avoid falling victim to debt bondage, as has a positive impact on individuals and
they help provide families with access societies, many migrants are vulnerable
to the financial market and enable them to forced labour and abuse. When ave-
to hedge against some of the risks they nues for regular and safe migration are
face. closed, migrants resort to irregular and
dangerous migration routes, often with
Ensuring fundamental rights for all. The the help of smugglers. Once they reach
Global Estimates indicate that much of their destination, migrants including
forced labour today occurs in the private those who have arrived regularly may
economy, most notably in agriculture, rely on informal labour recruiters and re-
construction, manufacturing, domestic main vulnerable to forced labour.
service, and the commercial sex indus-
try. People working in these sectors and Shortcomings in the governance of mi-
industries are often the most vulnerable gration help permit modern slavery to
and least protected, either because they survive and even grow. Inadequate sys-
are migrant workers, or because they tems for the recruitment and placement
are working in the informal economy, of workers and poor regulation of inter-
or because they work under contractual national marriage brokers, for example,
or geographical conditions which pose create space for the growth in unregu-
serious challenges for law enforcement, lated intermediaries, some of whom are
including labour inspection. All men, in turn responsible for abuse of migrants,
women, and children should be protect- such as the excessive rates of fee-charg-
ed from violations of their fundamental ing that have helped drive vulnerable
rights, whether they work in the formal migrant workers into debt bondage sit-
or informal economy. Criminal laws and uations. Restrictive visa regimes for mi-
their enforcement are a vital part of any grant workers also create increased vul-
national response to modern slavery. The nerability to forced labour. The unique
expansion of rights to poorly protected vulnerabilities faced by migrants should
sectors and groups including migrants be addressed through broader reforms
is also critical to reducing the risk of to migration governance that will max-
forced labour. Ensuring rights to freedom imise the benefits and minimise the risks
of association and collective bargaining, and social costs of migration.47 While
to enable at-risk workers to join workers the Global Estimates indicate that some
organizations, is particularly important in three-quarters of forced labour victims
this context. are abused in their home countries, a
substantial number of them are likely to
Ensuring rights for those vulnerable to have migrated internally, underscoring
forced marriage is also essential. Evi- that the vulnerabilities faced by internal
dence suggests, for example, that along- migrants should also not be neglected.
side the development and enforcement
of criminal laws, the promotion of the Addressing gender-related vulnerabili-
right to education helps to prevent ties. The Global Estimates indicate pro-
forced marriage. Working with com- found differences between women and
munities to deliver human rights-based men in terms of how they are affected
education contributes to raising aware- by modern slavery. In particular, women
ness of the rights of women and girls and girls are disproportionately victims
and strengthens community resilience to of forced labour in the private economy
forced marriage. (including in domestic work and in com-
mercial sexual exploitation) and forced
Ensuring fair and effective migration marriage. Men are disproportionately
governance. The Global Estimates indi- subject to state-imposed forms of forced
cate that almost a quarter of victims of labour, reflecting the impact of abusive
forced labour are exploited outside their conscription and imprisonment on men,
country of residence, thus confirming the as well as to forced labour in the con-
relevance of good migration governance struction, manufacturing, and agriculture
to prevention and protection efforts. Al- sectors. The Global Estimates also con-
though most migration is voluntary and firm that the means of coercion depend

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 51


to an important extent on whether the aimed at addressing this oversight would
victim is male or female. Female victims be an important step toward reducing
of forced labour suffer much higher rates this form of coercion.
of sexual violence, while male victims are
subjected to higher rates of other forms Focusing on victim identification and
of physical violence, threats of violence, protection. Ending modern slavery will
and use of threats against family. An ef- require the effective identification of
fective policy response must clearly re- victims and measures for ensuring their
flect these patterns of abuse and the role safe removal from abusive situations and
of gender more broadly as a determinant for promoting their recovery. There is
of modern slavery. While prevention and an enormous gap between the estimat-
protection efforts need to reflect and ed number of victims of modern slavery
prioritize the generally higher risk profile more than 40 million and the much
faced by females, they also need to make smaller number of victims that have been
allowance for male victims, who have to identified and assisted in recent years.
date been overlooked in efforts against This points to the continuing need to pri-
modern slavery in some countries. oritize and improve victim identification
by understanding both the nature and
Addressing debt bondage. The Global manifestations of modern slavery. The
Estimates reveal a very high prevalence Global Estimates indicate that domes-
of debt bondage as a means of coercion; tic work, the sex industry, construction,
more than half the victims of forced la- manufacturing, and agriculture/fishing
bour were in some form of debt bondage. are sectors where the risk of modern slav-
This finding makes clear that prevention ery is especially high. This information
and protection policies must also tackle provides an important initial indication
the roots of debt bondage and bonded of where victim identification and broad-
labour systems. Bonded labour practic- er protection efforts should be focused.
es can be deeply embedded in age-old One of the most alarming findings of the
patterns of discrimination and social modern slavery estimates is the extent to
attitudes, as well as in unequal access which it affects children. Children are vic-
to financial services. In these contexts, tims of all forms of modern slavery and
measures such as microcredit and micro- should be priority in all efforts to identify,
finance initiatives, land tenure reforms, safely remove, and rehabilitate victims.
and broader social protection measures
are of particular relevance. However, Addressing the risk of modern slav-
other forms of debt bondage, often re- ery in situations of state fragility, con-
lated to shortcomings in migration gov- flict, and crisis. Globally, more than 1.5
ernance, are also gaining in importance. billion people live in countries that are
These include cases of debt bondage affected by conflict, violence, and fra-
arising from excessive fees charged by gility. These contexts characterised by
unregulated manpower, recruitment, income shocks, a breakdown in formal
and brokering agencies. These more re- and family social support networks, mi-
cent forms of debt bondage need to be gration, and disruptions in basic servic-
addressed as part of broader reforms es provision create the conditions for
aimed at ensuring fair and effective mi- further violations of fundamental rights,
gration governance, as discussed above. including an elevated risk of modern
slavery. Modern slavery is often used as
The estimates also provide other insights a tactic of modern warfare, where armed
relating to coercion that are of relevance groups use sexual violence and forced
to prevention and protection policies. marriage as a means to subjugate a pop-
For example, while they show that with- ulation. We have also seen an increase in
holding of wages is the most common the number of unaccompanied children
means of coercing people into staying seeking to escape crisis situations and
in forced labour, this conduct is not con- obtain asylum, a significant number of
sidered serious enough under most legal whom have fallen victim to abuse. This
systems to attract the attention of the discussion underscores the urgent need
criminal justice authorities. Legal reforms to enhance responses to modern slavery

52 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


among crisis-affected populations. Pre- nal law enforcement needs to be intensi-
vention and protection measures should fied, particularly in response to cases of
be systematically included during all severe abuse. It is equally important to
phases of humanitarian action. This in- strengthen the administration of labour
cludes in countries of destination, where justice to apply both sanctions for the
the identification and protection of those offenders and remedies for the victims
deemed most at risk of modern slavery of modern slavery. Systems of labour
should considered part of the response administration and inspection also need
to influxes of asylum seekers. to be strengthened to enable effective
victim identification in the sectors of the
Strengthening policies, legislation, and economy where modern slavery occurs.
enforcement. The establishment of a le- Further research and analysis at the na-
gal architecture consistent with interna- tional level, building on the results of the
tional legal standards relating to mod- Global Estimates, is needed to help iden-
ern slavery is another critical element tify the at-risk sectors where inspections
of broader prevention and protection should be focused. Oversight positions
efforts. This includes legislation dealing such as an independent anti-slavery
with forced labour imposed by the State, commissioner or a national rapporteur
which the Global Estimates show still af- can play an important complementary
fects millions of individuals around the role. They provide a single point of con-
world. It is also essential that relevant tact at the national level whose respon-
legislation, including labour laws, apply sibility is to track modern slavery issues
to all workers and sectors of the econo- as they evolve, and to ensure that legal,
my so that certain vulnerable groups are policy, and operational gaps are quickly
not left unprotected. The criminalisation identified. Only a few countries, however,
of forced marriage and the extraterrito- have such oversight mechanisms already
rial application of these laws is critical in place.
to targeting forced marriage, which can
affect citizens beyond national borders. .
But laws alone are insufficient if not ac-
companied by adequate enforcement.
Despite the enactment of criminal laws
on forced labour, slavery, and human
trafficking in many countries, internation-
al statistics indicate the number of inves-
tigations, prosecutions, and convictions
is very small relative to the scale of the
overall problem. This means that crimi-

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 53


2.2 Building the to estimate the scale and prevalence of
modern slavery.
evidence base The need for standard survey tools for
measuring forced labour was recognized
Substantial progress has been made in by the 19th International Conference of
Labour Statisticians (ICLS) in 2013. A res-
terms of measuring modern slavery and
olution was adopted at this conference
building the evidence base on the issue.
recommending that the International
The Global Estimates capture a large
Labour Office set up a working group
part of the spectrum of abuses related
with the aim of sharing best practices on
to modern slavery and provide the best
forced labour surveys in order to encour-
available data and information about the
age further such data gathering exercis-
scale and distribution of forced labour
es in more countries. The result of this
and forced marriage today. But there re-
international working group will be pre-
mains a need for more and better data,
sented and discussed at the 20th Interna-
improved capacity of national data col-
tional Conference of Labour Statisticians
lection, and refinement and improvement
in October 2018. In parallel, discussions
in the measurement of modern slavery.
are ongoing to strengthen SDG indica-
Not all situations listed in Target 8.7 are
tors related to modern slavery.
covered by the Global Estimates. The
forced recruitment and use of children Knowledge and data sharing arrange-
by armed groups and armed forces was ments are also vital. Hundreds of relevant
excluded due to lack of reliable data. In and rich datasets, including administra-
addition, while many cases of trafficking tive data, have not thus far been made
in persons for forced labour were likely publicly available, thus limiting their use.
to have been captured, the estimates did This includes IOMs human trafficking
not explicitly seek to measure all forms case database that has been used to
of human trafficking. This should be a produce the global estimates in this re-
priority for collaborative efforts by UN port. Part of the reason for this is that
agencies and Member States.48 datasets relating to modern slavery are
Other key measurement priorities iden- often highly sensitive, raising a range of
tified through the process of develop- privacy and civil liberty concerns where
ing the Global Estimates include the the risk of identifying data subjects can
improved measurement of specific be high and the consequences severe.
sub-populations. There is a need to more Databases are diverse, dispersed, mostly
effectively capture all forms of modern disconnected from each other, and are
slavery affecting children, adult victims not standardized or comparable. IOM,
of forced sexual exploitation, and victims Polaris, and other partners are working
in conflict contexts. The ability to track to overcome these challenges and are
changes in modern slavery over time will launching a global open data platform
be critical for monitoring progress in the for researchers, lawmakers, advocates,
lead-up to 2030. funders, and other stakeholders. The
Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative
The most important priority is to (CTDC) publishes harmonized human
strengthen and extend national research trafficking datasets from various organ-
and data collection efforts on modern izations without identifying victims and
slavery. While global measurement and using a new international standard. This
monitoring of modern slavery is vital, is the first open data portal of its kind,
information on the national and local di- with primary data contributed by an-
mensions of modern slavery is needed to ti-trafficking organizations around the
guide national policy responses. A num- world.
ber of States are now preparing and pub-
lishing annual reports on modern slavery, Given the near non-existent public avail-
but only a small number of governments ability of human trafficking data to date,
have started to use statistical methods CTDC will have a wide impact that will

54 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


support the work of Alliance 8.7, a mul- Target 8.7 through the alignment of
ti-stakeholder partnership committed global, regional and national efforts, fo-
to achieving Target 8.7 of the Sustain- cusing on accelerating actions, sharing
able Development Goals.49 Alliance 8.7 knowledge, driving innovation, and lev-
also offers an important framework for eraging resources.
strengthening knowledge management
and sharing. Lessons learned from na- The Global Estimates indicate that the
tional projects and programmes are vast majority of forced labour occurs in
contained in large numbers of separate the private economy, underscoring the
evaluations and studies, which, in the ex- importance of partnership with the busi-
perience of many activists and practition- ness community alongside employers
ers, are scattered across the globe. There and workers organisations in eradicat-
is considerable value in drawing these ing forced labour in business operations
learnings together.50 Alliance 8.7 part- and supply chains. National and inter-
ners, including UN agencies and Special national civil society organizations can
Rapporteurs, workers and employers contribute strong local experience with
organizations, civil society organizations, preventive approaches and the protec-
and other stakeholders, have agreed tion of vulnerable groups.
upon the need for data and knowledge
Cooperation should also be strength-
sharing platform and have begun work
ened between and among governments
towards creating it. The platform will pro-
and with relevant international and re-
vide users with a centralized access point
gional organizations in areas such labour
to information, statistics, and knowledge
law enforcement, law enforcement, mi-
products. Knowledge areas that will be
gration governance, and fair recruitment,
prioritized include: prevalence of forced
to prevent trafficking, protect victims,
labour, modern slavery, human traffick-
and deal with forced labour across bor-
ing and child labour; vulnerable groups,
ders. Stronger national coordination ef-
vulnerability, and risk factors; legislative,
forts are needed to provide coherence
regulatory, and normative frameworks;
between different authorities dealing
national action plans; monitoring and
with education policy, social protection,
evaluation of the impacts of public and
migration, labour markets, and crime
private sector interventions; and funding
prevention, among others.
patterns.
In many countries, the cost of required
action far exceeds available resources,
meaning that governments will not be
2.3 International able to adequately address modern slav-
ery on their own. This underscores the
cooperation and importance of international technical co-
operation and support in mobilizing re-
partnership sources for national action programmes.
UN agencies, other multilateral and
bilateral organizations, international
The complex, global, and multi-dimen- non-governmental organizations, civil
sional phenomenon of modern slavery society, private foundations, and a vari-
cannot be resolved by national govern- ety of other groups involved can play an
ments or other stakeholders acting on important role in this regard. This should
their own. It requires an integrated, coor- include bilateral, regional, and interna-
dinated strategy to address root causes, tional agreements on the exchange on
consequences, and impacts, with a focus knowledge and experience.
on cross-border strategies and bilateral,
regional, and international cooperation.

Alliance 8.7 has an important role to play


in this regard, in cooperation with other
SDG initiatives, in that it seeks to achieve

Part 2. Ending modern slavery road forward to 2030 55


Lisa Kristine
Annex:
Note on
methodology
The Global Estimates of Modern Slavery reference to the total flow. The stock es-
cover two principal issues, forced labour timate is calculated by multiplying the to-
and forced marriage. The estimate of tal flow by the average duration of a spell
forced labour comprises forced labour of modern slavery. The average duration
in the private economy (forms of forced of modern slavery was determined from
labour imposed by private individuals, the database of the International Organ-
groups, or companies, in all sectors ex- ization for Migration (IOM), containing
cept the commercial sex industry), forced records of assisted victims of trafficking
sexual exploitation of adults and all who were registered during or after 2012.
forms of commercial sexual exploitation
involving children, and state-imposed FORCED LABOUR IN THE PRIVATE
forced labour. These estimates have been ECONOMY AND FORCED MARRIAGE
derived from various sources, as no
The estimates of forced labour in the
one source is considered sufficiently
private economy and forced marriage
suitable or reliable. This section summa-
are derived from 54 nationally represent-
rizes the methods used to calculate the
ative household surveys in 48 countries
estimate. A more comprehensive tech-
during the 2014-2016 period, using a
nical description of the methodology is
common set of questions on forced la-
also available.51
bour and forced marriage (see Table 1).
STOCK AND FLOW Only cases of modern slavery that oc-
curred between 2012 and 2016 are in-
All forms of modern slavery may be cluded in these estimates.
measured as both a stock and a flow.
A stock measurement refers to the The target sample for the national
average number of persons in modern surveys was the entire civilian, non-in-
slavery at a given point in time during stitutional population, aged 15 years and
the 2012-2016 reference period. A flow older. With the exception of areas that
measurement refers to the total number were scarcely populated or presented
of persons who were victims of modern a threat to the safety of interviewers,
slavery during a specified period of time samples were probability-based and na-
between 2012 and 2016. The estimates tionally representative. Typically, 1,000
calculate both the average stock and to- face-to-face interviews were conduct-
tal flow of the different components of ed in each survey country, except for
modern slavery. Russia (n=2,000), Haiti (n=504), and
countries where multiple surveys were
The duration of forced labour (meaning implemented (n=2000 in each of Bang-
the amount of time in which people were ladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Myan-
trapped in forced labour) is the key fac- mar, Nepal, Pakistan, and Thailand; and
tor in determining the average stock by n=17,000 in India).

Annex: Note on methodology 57


A total of 71,758 respondents were inter- cal parents, children, and siblings). The
viewed across the 48 survey countries. combined size of the family network of
The survey respondents were asked the 71,758 sample respondents included
questions about their own experiences 575,310 persons altogether, correspond-
of forced labour and forced marriage, ing to an average family network size of
and those of their immediate family 8.02. The family network included chil-
network. The family network includ- dren below 15 years of age as well as
ed the respondents living immediate adults 15 years old and over.
family (spouse or partner and biologi-

Table 5

Outline of questionnaire on forced labour in the ILO-Walk Free Surveys conducted as


part of Gallup World Poll surveys 2016

Questions Description
P1-P4 Identification of immediate family network
Inquiry on forced labour experience by anyone among immediate family (e.g. forced to work by an employ-
P5-P7
er or recruiter; forced to work to repay a debt; offered one kind of work, but forced to do something else)
P8-P10 Who in the immediate family, sex and age
P11 When last happened
P11I Total duration during last 5 years
P12 Country in which last spell happened
Type of work forced to do (e.g. agriculture, fishing, mining and quarrying, manufacturing, commercial sexual
P13
exploitation, domestic labour)
Coercion (e.g. physical violence, threats of violence, withheld wages, withheld passport, locked in living
P14
quarters, had to repay a debt)
P15 Inquiry on forced marriage experience by anyone among immediate family
P17-20 Who in the immediate family, sex and age at time of forced marriage
WP1220 Current age
P21 Whether consented to the marriage

As the estimate of forced labour riage. The data on forced marriage does
exploitation of adults is based on house- not include child marriage because it
hold surveys, respondents were inter- was insufficiently precise to determine
viewed in their country of residence. Nev- which child marriages constituted forced
ertheless, all situations of modern slavery marriages. However, as persons aged 15
were counted in the country where the and over were surveyed, the estimate
exploitation took place, regardless of includes information on children (15-17
the workers nationality or country of years) who indicated they were forced
residence. For example, if a woman in- to marry without their consent in the
terviewed in Indonesia reported that she last five years. The estimate of forced
was forced into domestic work in Oman marriage is presented as both a to-
during the reference period, that case tal flow figure, representing all people
would be attributed to Oman. forced to marry between 2012 and 2016,
and a stock, representing all people liv-
The global estimates of forced mar- ing in a forced marriage in the reference
riage are based on those who reported period. Given the socio-cultural context
having been forced to marry in the last of forced marriage, it was assumed that
five years, without their consent, and such marriages are likely to last for at
those who were forced to marry before least the five years of the reference pe-
that time period but remain in the mar- riod.

58 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


AGGREGATING NATIONAL SURVEY weights). In calculating the survey weights,
ESTIMATES TO GLOBAL ESTIMATES population statistics are used to weight
the data by gender, age, and, where
The survey results are then expanded to reliable data is available, education or so-
global totals with statistical adjustments cioeconomic status. The survey weights
(weights) to ensure that the sample cor- also account for the average size of a
rectly represents the global population. family (network) and the response error
The sampling weights take into consid- that occurs due to the tendency for peo-
eration both the probability of a country ple reporting on their own experiences to
in a particular region being selected as a be more accurate than when talking about
survey country (country weights)52 and experiences of family members, by giving
the probability that a person residing in a more importance to self-responses relative
survey country will be interviewed (survey to proxy responses for family members.

Figure 16

Sample scheme for the global estimate of forced labour and forced marriage

World
199 countries and territories covering 99.7 per cent of world population in 2016

Region
11 ILO Broad regions (Strata)

Sample country
48 countries/54 surveys

Area sample within country


6,000 clusters (primary sampling units - PSUs)

Household sample
71,758 sample households

Sample of individuals 15+ yrs old


71,758 respondents among household members 15+ yrs old

Family network
575,310 family members

Annex: Note on methodology 59


AGGREGATING NATIONAL SURVEY from the national surveys. For example,
ESTIMATES TO REGIONAL ESTIMATES the estimate of the number of female
adult victims of forced sexual exploita-
In order to estimate forced labour at a tion in Latin America and the Caribbean
regional level, all countries in the world (407,724) was obtained by multiplying
are grouped according to the ILO de- the odds ratio (0.435586) with the esti-
fined region. The weighted national prev- mate of the number of female adult vic-
alence estimates of forced labour in the tims of forced labour exploitation in Latin
country of exploitation for all countries in America and the Caribbean (936,035).
the region are then added up for each re-
gion and applied to the total population FORCED LABOUR EXPLOITATION
for that region. OF CHILDREN

FORCED SEXUAL EXPLOITATION For forced labour exploitation of


children, the global estimate was de-
Estimation of forced sexual exploitation termined in much the same way as for
(and commercial sexual exploitation victims of forced sexual exploitation, giv-
of children) required a different meth- en that only 5.6 per cent of cases in the
odological approach, as too few cases survey data involved respondents under
were reported across the 48 countries 18 years of age. A number of logistic re-
surveyed. The estimates, covering both gression models, based on the IOM data
children and adults, were calculated set, were tested to determine the odds
using two datasets. The first is the nation- ratio that a victim of forced labour ex-
al survey data on forced labour of adults. ploitation was a child rather than an adult.
The second is the case data collected by As with the estimate of forced sexual
IOM in the process of the Organization exploitation, to obtain an estimate of
providing direct assistance to victims of child victims of forced labour exploita-
human trafficking since 2000. The IOM tion, the odds ratios were then multiplied
dataset comprises cases of trafficking by the global estimate of adult forced
for both sexual and labour exploitation labour exploitation derived from the na-
and includes information on the profile tional survey estimates.
of the victims of human trafficking (e.g.
age, gender, income) and on the traffick- FORCED LABOUR IMPOSED
ing situation (e.g. country of exploita- BY THE STATE
tion, industry of exploitation). The esti-
mates were calculated in two steps. First, For the purpose of this estimate, forced
statistical models were used to estimate labour imposed by state authorities has
the ratio of the odds of sex to labour been classified in six main categories:
cases according to age and gender from
1. Abuse of conscription, when conscripts
the IOM database. As an estimate of
are forced to work for tasks which are
labour exploitation cases was already
not of purely military character.
known from the survey data, the propor-
tion was then used to derive the estimate 2.
Obligation to perform work beyond
of cases of forced sexual exploitation. normal civic obligations.

Three alternative logistic regression 3. Abuse of the obligation to participate


models53 were then tested, examining in minor communal services, when
the odds of being a victim of forced these services are not in the direct
sexual exploitation relative to being a interest of the community and have
victim of forced labour exploitation. The not benefited from prior consultation
best fitting model was used to derive the of the members of the said community.
estimates. Separate regression analyses
were run for adult and child victims of 4. Prison labour
forced sexual exploitation. These odds
Compulsory prison labour of prisoners
ratios were then applied to the corre-
in remand or in administrative deten-
sponding global estimates of forced
tion.
labour exploitation of adults derived

60 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


Compulsory prison labour exacted
for the benefit of private individuals,
companies, or associations outside
the exceptions allowed by the ILO
supervisory bodies.

Compulsory prison labour exacted


from persons under certain circum-
stances, such as punishment for ex-
pressing political views, labour dis-
cipline, or peaceful participation in
strikes.

5. Compulsory labour for the purpose of


economic development.

6.
Forced recruitment of children by
governments.

The forced recruitment of children by


armed groups and armed forces was ex-
cluded from the estimate due to a lack
of reliable data. For the remaining forms
of state-imposed forced labour, data was
identified through a systematic review of
secondary sources, following a thorough
assessment of each identified case by
reference to the relevant indicators. For
each country where there was an indi-
cation of the violation of the ILO forced
labour conventions by state authorities,
an estimate of the extent of the violation
was built on the basis of available relia-
ble sources. The total number of people
who have experienced some forced la-
bour imposed by the authorities during
the last five years (total flow) and the
average number of victims in this situ-
ation at any moment of time between
2012 and 2016 (average stock) are pre-
sented.

Annex: Note on methodology 61


Lisa Kristine
End notes
1. A total of 63,251 victims were detected in 106 coun- 8. This is the position taken by the Committee on the
tries and territories between 2012 and 2014. Based Elimination of Discrimination against Women and
on the 17,752 victims detected in 85 countries in the Committee on the Rights of the Child, with some
2014 for which sex and age were reported, a clear exceptions allowed in exceptional circumstances for
majority were females adult women and girls children aged at least 16 years. See: Joint general
comprising some 70 per cent of the total number of recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the
detected victims. UNODC, Global Report on Traffick- Elimination of Discrimination against Women/gen-
ing in Persons, Vienna, 2016, 23. eral comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights
of the Child on harmful practices, 14 November 2014
2. Estimates of children in forced labour exploitation, (CEDAW/C/GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18).
and of all victims of forced sexual exploitation, made
use of administrative data held by the IOM on all re- 9. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slav-
ported cases of human trafficking since 2012. ery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practic-
es Similar to Slavery, Adopted by a Conference of
3. Methodology of the global estimates of modern slav- Plenipotentiaries convened by Economic and Social
ery: forced labour and forced marriage. International Council resolution 608(XXI) of 30 April 1956 and
Labour Organization (ILO) and Walk Free Founda- done at Geneva on 7 September 1956.
tion, Geneva, 2017
10. For a detailed discussion of this point, see Meth-
4. International Labour Organization, Forced Labour odology of the global estimates of modern slavery:
Convention, 1930 (No. 29). forced labour and forced marriage, International La-
bour Organization (ILO) and Walk Free Foundation,
5. ILO: Hard to see, harder to count: survey guidelines Geneva, 2017.
to estimate forced labour of adults and children, Ge-
neva, 2012. 11. For example, only two national surveys were under-
taken in the Arab States, and none in the Gulf Co-
6. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human operation Council (GCC) countries, despite the inci-
Rights has noted, Women and girls in situations dence of forced labour reported by different sources
of child and forced marriage may experience con- in such sectors as domestic work and construction
ditions inside a marriage which meet international in the GCC countries. The regional estimate for Arab
legal definitions of slavery and slavery-like practices States is therefore built mainly from respondents
including servile marriage, sexual slavery, child ser- who were interviewed in their country of residence
vitude, child trafficking and forced labour . United and reported about their forced labour situation
Nations General Assembly, Preventing and Eliminat- while working in that region. It is likely that this led
ing Child, Early and Forced Marriage, Report of the to underestimating the extent of modern slavery in
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for this region. Moreover, the estimates of forced sex-
Human Rights, A/HRC/26/22, 2 April 2014, http:// ual exploitation and forced labour of children were
www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSes- based on the IOM database of registered victims
sions/Session26/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?- and the regional distribution of registered victims
sourcedoc=/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/ reflects where IOM has programming to provide di-
Session26/Documents/A-HRC-26-22_en.doc&ac- rect assistance to victims of trafficking. This has his-
tion=default&DefaultItemOpen=1. torically led to an overrepresentation of Europe, in
particular Eastern Europe, and underrepresentation
7. According to the Committee on the Elimination of of Latin America where IOM has fewer direct assis-
Discrimination against Women and the Committee tance activities for victims of trafficking. The figures
on the Rights of the Child, A child marriage is con- on prevalence are inevitably more robust in regions
sidered to be a form of forced marriage, given that where more survey work has been conducted, and
one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free databases are more developed, at the national level.
and informed consent. As a matter of respecting the
childs evolving capacities and autonomy in making 12. See Emma Psaila, Vanessa Leigh, Marilena Verbari,
decisions that affect her or his life, a marriage of a Sara Fiorentini et al., Forced Marriage from a gender
mature, capable child below 18 years of age may be perspective, (European Parliament, 2016), pp. 60
allowed in exceptional circumstances, provided that 68, [accessed 13 Apr. 2016], http://www.europarl.
the child is at least 16 years of age and that such europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/
decisions are made by a judge based on legitimate IPOL_STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf.
exceptional grounds defined by law and on the evi-
dence of maturity, without deference to culture and 13. This comprised all forced labour imposed by private
tradition. Source: Joint general recommendation agents other than for commercial sexual exploita-
No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Dis- tion. It included, among other things, bonded labour,
crimination against Women/general comment No. forced domestic work, and forced labour in agricul-
18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on ture and remote rural areas.
harmful practices, 14 November 2014 (CEDAW/C/
GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18). 14. This included women and men who have involuntar-
ily entered a form of commercial sexual exploitation,

End notes 63
or who have entered this form of forced labour vol- gained from quantitative surveys of forced labour
untarily but cannot leave. It also included all forms of at the country level. The indicators are broadly
commercial sexual exploitation involving children. grouped under the three dimensions of unfree re-
cruitment, work and life under duress, and impossi-
15. This included forced labour exacted by the military, bility of leaving the employer.
compulsory participation in public works, and forced
prison labour, which included not only forced labour 29. Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary
camps but also work imposed in modern semi-pri- manifestations of slavery, its causes and conse-
vatized or fully privatized prisons. quences, United Nations Human Rights Council, thir-
ty-third session, Agenda item 3, July 2016 (UN Doc.
16. Defined as all work or service which is exacted from A/HRC/33/46).
any person under the menace of any penalty and
for which the said person has not offered himself 30. South Asian laws generally define bonded labour
voluntarily. See International Labour Organization, systems as those where workers provide work or
Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), http:// services to a landlord or employer in exchange for
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPU- a monetary advance and incur restrictions on their
B:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C029. freedom of movement or occupation until this debt
has been worked off. The concept therefore overlaps
17. Only international migration was measured through with, but is not the same as, debt bondage, which is
the household surveys. The location of forced mar- defined in the United Nations Supplementary Con-
riage was also not captured. vention on Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions
and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956) as the status
18. In particular, the estimate relating to forced sexual or condition arising from a pledge by a debtor of his
exploitation is drawn from the IOM database, while personal services or those of a debtor under his con-
the estimate relating to forced labour exploitation is trol as security for a debt, if the value of those ser-
based on national datasets and the estimate relating vices as reasonably assessed is not applied towards
to state-imposed forced labour is based on the anal- the liquidation of the debt or the length and nature
ysis of secondary sources collected by the ILO. of those services are not respectively limited and
defined. The Supplementary Convention also refers
19. IOM: IOM Global Compact Thematic Paper: Combat- to debt bondage as a servile status and requires
ing Trafficking in Persons and Contemporary Forms member States to carry out national measures to
of Slavery (2017), https://www.iom.int/sites/de- abolish its practice.
fault/files/our_work/ODG/GCM/IOM-Thematic-Pa-
per-Trafficking-in-persons.pdf. 31. These estimates, however, should be interpreted
with caution, particularly as the regional distribution
20. ILO: Addressing governance challenges in a chang- of victims in the IOM database used in the methodol-
ing labour migration landscape, Report IV, Interna- ogy reflects where IOM has programming to provide
tional Labour Conference, 106 Session (2017).
th
direct assistance to victims of trafficking.

21. UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 33. As explained in the methodology annex, this figure
2016. is derived from examination of specific cases across
countries, representing different types of forced la-
22. IOM: Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Traffick- bour imposed by the State.
ing and Other Exploitative Practices Prevalence In-
dication Survey, June 2017, http://migration.iom.int/ 34. With regard to abuse of conscription, the estimate
europe/. does not cover recruitment of children for armed
services.
23. UNICEF and IOM: Harrowing Journeys: Children on
the Move Across the Mediterranean Sea, at Risk of 35. More information is available through reports from
Trafficking and Exploitation (2017), https://www. the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary De-
iom.int/sites/default/files/press_release/file/Har- tention.
rowing_Journeys_Children_and_youth_on_the_
move_across_the_Mediterranean.pdf 36. In 2006, the United Nations Secretary-General stat-
ed, A forced marriage is one lacking the free and
23. Information on the industry was available for 65 per valid consent of at least one of the parties. In-depth
cent of total cases of forced labour exploitation. study on all forms of violence against women. Report
of the Secretary-General, UN document A/61/122/
24. ILO: Global Estimates on Migrant Workers: Results Add.1.
and Methodology: Special focus on migrant domes-
tic workers, ILO, Geneva, 2015. 37. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights has noted, Women and girls in situations of
25. Marie Jos Tayah, Decent Work for Migrant Domes- child and forced marriage may experience condi-
tic Workers: Moving the Agenda Forward. ILO, Gene- tions inside a marriage which meet international le-
va, 2016. gal definitions of slavery and slavery-like practices
including servile marriage, sexual slavery, child ser-
26. D. Shields, World Disposable Gloves Market - Oppor- vitude, child trafficking and forced labour . United
tunities and Forecasts, 2013-2020, Portland, USA. Nations General Assembly, Preventing and Eliminat-
Allied Market Research, 2014, quoted in In good ing Child, Early and Forced Marriage, Report of the
hands, Tacking labour rights concerns in the man- Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
ufacture of medical gloves, British Medical Associ- Human Rights, A/HRC/26/22, 2 April 2014:http://
ation, BMA Medical Fair and Ethical Trade Group, www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSes-
European Working Group on Ethical Public Procure- sions/Session26/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?-
ment, 2016. sourcedoc=/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/
Session26/Documents/A-HRC-26-22_en.doc&ac-
27. ILO: Hard to see, harder to count: Survey guidelines tion=default&DefaultItemOpen=1.
to estimate the forced labour of adults and children,
ILO, 2012. The guidelines share the ILO experience

64 Global estimates of modern slavery: forced labour and forced marriage


39. Forced marriage is estimated based on national 49. SDG Target 8.7 calls for immediate and effective
household surveys conducted in 48 countries, in- measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern
volved interviews with over 71,000 respondents slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohi-
aged 15 years or older. See methodological annex bition and elimination of the worst forms of child la-
for further details. bour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers,
and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms.
40. See Emma Psaila, Vanessa Leigh, Marilena Verbari,
Sara Fiorentini et al., Forced Marriage from a gen- 50. See for example The Promising Practices Data-
der perspective, (European Parliament, 2016), pp. base, a systematic review of these evaluations
6068, accessed 13/04/2016, http://www.europarl. helps to identify some of these lessons about what
europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/ works, and just as importantly, what doesnt work to
IPOL_STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf. eradicate modern slavery. See www.walkfreefoun-
dation.org/resources for more information.
41. These consist of coercing a widow to marry a rela-
tive of her deceased husband. 51. Methodology of the global estimates of modern slav-
ery: Forced labour and forced marriage. Internation-
42. UNODC, Op. Cit., as above al Labour Organisation and Walk Free Foundation,
Geneva, 2017
43. UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons
2016. 52. Note that while the methodology assumes the set of
surveys constitutes a random sample of countries, in
44. According to the Committee on the Elimination of reality the survey countries were selected for spe-
Discrimination against Women and the Committee cific reasons. So the assumption is made but is not
on the Rights of the Child, A child marriage is con- realized.
sidered to be a form of forced marriage, given that
one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free 53. Regression models are used to assess the nature of
and informed consent. As a matter of respecting the a relationship between an outcome variable and one
childs evolving capacities and autonomy in making or more independent variables.
decisions that affect her or his life, a marriage of a
mature, capable child below 18 years of age may be
allowed in exceptional circumstances, provided that
the child is at least 16 years of age and that such
decisions are made by a judge based on legitimate
exceptional grounds defined by law and on the evi-
dence of maturity, without deference to culture and
tradition. Source: Joint general recommendation
No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Dis-
crimination against Women/general comment No.
18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on
harmful practices, 14 November 2014 (CEDAW/C/
GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18).

45. Social protection, or social security, is a human right


and is defined as the set of policies and programmes
designed to reduce and prevent poverty and vulner-
ability throughout the life cycle. Social protection
includes nine policy areas: child and family benefits,
maternity protection, unemployment support, em-
ployment injury benefits, sickness benefits, health
protection, old-age benefits, disability benefits, and
survivors benefits. Social protection systems ad-
dress all these policy areas by a mix of contributory
schemes (social insurance) and non-contributory
tax-financed benefits, including social assistance.
Social protection floors are nationally defined sets of
basic social security guarantees that should ensure,
as a minimum, that over the life cycle, all in need
have access to essential health care and to basic in-
come security, which together secure effective ac-
cess to goods and services defined as necessary at
the national level. See http://www.ilo.org/secsoc/
areas-of-work/policy-development-and-applied-re-
search/social-protection-floor/lang--ja/index.htm.

46. The ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation,


2012 (No. 202) provides a key framework for ensur-
ing social protection for all.

47. The Global Compact for Migration aims to provide


for an overarching framework. See also: New York
Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, 2016.

48. Trafficking for the purpose of forced labour is cov-


ered by the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and
Punish Trafficking in Persons (2000) and the ILO
Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention,
1930.

End notes
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