Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
of Modern Slavery
In partnership with
Global estimates
of modern slavery:
forced labour
and forced marriage
GENEVA, 2017
Copyright International Labour Organization and Walk Free Foundation, 2017
This is an open access work distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo). Users can reuse, share, adapt and build upon the original work,
even for commercial purposes, as detailed in the License. The International Labour Office (ILO), Walk Free
Foundation and International Organization for Migration (IOM) must be clearly credited as the joint owners
of the original work. The use of the emblem of the ILO, Walk Free Foundation and IOM is not permitted in
connection with users work.
Translations In case of a translation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the
attribution: This translation was not created by the International Labour Office (ILO), Walk Free Foundation or
International Organization for Migration (IOM) and should not be considered an official ILO translation. The ILO,
Walk Free Foundation and IOM are not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation.
Adaptations In case of an adaptation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the
attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by the International Labour Office (ILO), Walk Free
Foundation and International Organization for Migration (IOM). Responsibility for the views and opinions
expressed in the adaptation rests solely with the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by
the ILO, Walk Free Foundation or IOM.
All queries on rights and licensing should be addressed to ILO Publications (Rights and Licensing), CH-1211
Geneva 22, Switzerland, or by email to rights@ilo.org.
Also available in French: Estimations mondiales de lesclavage moderne: travail forc et mariage forc,
ISBN 978-92-2-230932-0 (print); ISBN 978-92-2-230933-7 (web pdf), ILO, Geneva, 2017; and in Spanish:
Estimaciones mundiales sobre la esclavitud moderna: Trabajo forzoso y matrimonio forzoso, ISBN
978-92-2-331038-7 (print); ISBN 978-92-2-331039-4 (web pdf), ILO, Geneva, 2017.
The designations employed in this publication, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and the
presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the
International Labour Office or the International Organization for Migration concerning the legal status of any
country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.
The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with
their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour Office or the
International Organization for Migration of the opinions expressed in them.
Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by
the International Labour Office or the International Organization for Migration, and any failure to mention a
particular firm, commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval.
Information on ILO publications and digital products can be found at: www.ilo.org/publns.
Funding for ILOs work on the 2016 Global Estimates of Modern Slavery leading to this reportwas provided
by the United States Department of Labor under Cooperative Agreement numbers GLO/10/55/USA and
GLO/11/11/USA. This report does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department
of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the
United States Government.
METRICS
40
million 40 million people were victims of modern
slavery. This includes:
PREVALENCE
GENDER
50% 25%
DEBT BONDAGE CHILDREN
Debt bondage affected half of all victims One in four victims of modern slavery were
of forced labour imposed by private actors. children.
IN THE PAST FIVE YEARS, 89 MILLION PEOPLE EXPERIENCED SOME FORM OF MODERN
SLAVERY FOR PERIODS OF TIME RANGING FROM A FEW DAYS TO THE WHOLE FIVE YEARS.
5
Lisa Kristine
Table of contents
Executive summary 9
Introduction 15
Endnotes 63
Table of contents 7
Lisa Kristine
Executive
summary
The 2017 Global Estimates of Modern it refers to situations of exploitation that
Slavery are presented as a contribution a person cannot refuse or leave because
to the Sustainable Development Goals of threats, violence, coercion, deception,
(SDGs), in particular to Target 8.7, which and/or abuse of power.
calls for effective measures to end forced
labour, modern slavery, and human The Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
trafficking, as well as child labour in all focus on two main issues: forced labour
its forms. It is intended to inform policy and forced marriage. The estimate of
making and implementation of target 8.7 forced labour comprises forced labour
and related SDG Targets. These include in the private economy (forms of forced
eliminating all forms of violence against labour imposed by private individuals,
all women and girls in public and private groups, or companies in all sectors
spheres, including trafficking and sexual except the commercial sex industry),
and other types of exploitation (SDG forced sexual exploitation of adults
5.2), eliminating all harmful practices, and commercial sexual exploitation
such as child, early, and forced marriage of children, and state-imposed forced
and female genital mutilations (SDG labour.
5.3), ending abuse, exploitation, and
Due to limitations of the data, as detailed
trafficking of children (SDG 16.2), and
in this report, these estimates are consid-
facilitating orderly, safe, and responsible
ered to be conservative.
migration and mobility of people,
including through implementation
of planned and well-managed
migration policies (SDG 10.7).
The global figures
The estimates herein are the result
of a collaborative effort between the
International Labour Organization An estimated 40.3 million people were
(ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation, victims of modern slavery in 2016.
in partnership with the International In other words, on any given day in
Organization for Migration (IOM). They 2016, there were likely to be more than
benefited from inputs provided by 40 million men, women, and children
other UN agencies, in particular the who were being forced to work against
Office of the High Commissioner for their will under threat or who were living
Human Rights (OHCHR). In the context in a forced marriage that they had not
of this report, modern slavery covers a agreed to.
set of specific legal concepts including
Of these 40.3 million victims:
forced labour, debt bondage, forced
marriage, other slavery and slavery 24.9 million people were in forced
like practices, and human trafficking. labour. That is, they were being forced
Although modern slavery is not defined to work under threat or coercion as
in law, it is used as an umbrella term domestic workers, on construction
that focuses attention on commonalities sites, in clandestine factories, on farms
across these legal concepts. Essentially,
Executive summary 9
and fishing boats, in other sectors,
and in the sex industry. They were
The regional
forced to work by private individuals figures
and groups or by state authorities. In
many cases, the products they made
and the services they provided ended Modern slavery occurred in every re-
up in seemingly legitimate commercial gion of the world. Modern slavery was
channels. Forced labourers produced most prevalent in Africa (7.6 per 1,000
some of the food we eat and the people), followed by Asia and the Pacific
clothes we wear, and they have cleaned (6.1 per 1,000) then Europe and Central
the buildings in which many of us live Asia (3.9 per 1,000). These results should
or work. be interpreted cautiously due to lack of
available data in some regions, notably
15.4 million people were living in a the Arab States and the Americas.
forced marriage to which they had
not consented. That is, they were en- For forced labour specifically, the
during a situation that involved having prevalence is highest in Asia and the
lost their sexual autonomy and often Pacific, where four out of every 1,000
involved providing labour under the people were victims, followed by Europe
guise of marriage. and Central Asia (3.6 per 1,000), Africa
(2.8 per 1,000), the Arab States (2.2 per
Women and girls are disproportionately 1,000) and the Americas (1.3 per 1,000).
affected by modern slavery, account-
ing for 28.7 million, or 71 per cent of the While noting limits of the data in key
overall total. More precisely, women and regions, particularly the Arab States,
girls represent 99 per cent of victims of the data suggests prevalence of
forced labour in the commercial sex in- forced marriage is highest in Africa
dustry and 58 per cent in other sectors, (4.8 per 1,000), followed by Asia and the
40 per cent of victims of forced labour Pacific (2.0 per 1,000).
imposed by state authorities, and 84 per
cent of victims of forced marriages.
Executive summary 11
validated sources and systematic review of forced labour prevention, while
of comments from the ILO supervisory improved victim identification is critical
bodies with regard to ILO Conventions to extending protection to the vast
on forced labour. majority of modern slavery victims who
are currently unidentified or unattended.
The methodology used to build these Finally, we know that much of modern
Global Estimates combined this data, slavery today occurs in contexts of state
which covers a five-year reference period fragility, conflict, and crisis, pointing to
from 2012 to 2016. All the data on cases the need to address the risk of modern
of forced labour and forced marriage slavery as part of humanitarian actions in
that took place between 2012 and 2016, these situations.
representing a total of nearly 89 million
people, was analysed and processed Further efforts are needed to improve
to build the main estimates of modern the evidence base on modern slavery
slavery presented in this report. in order to inform and guide policy
responses in all of these areas. Key
measurement priorities identified through
the preparation of the Global Estimates
Conclusions include the improved measurement of
modern slavery affecting children and
and way forward specifically cases of commercial sexual
exploitation involving children and
child marriage. There is also a need to
Ending modern slavery will require a more effectively capture specific sub-
multi-faceted response that addresses populations such as adult victims of
the array of forces economic, social, forced sexual exploitation and victims
cultural, and legal that contribute to in conflict contexts. The ability to track
vulnerability and enable abuses. There changes in modern slavery over time
can be no one-size-fits-all solution; will be critical for monitoring progress
responses need to be adapted to the in the lead-up to 2030. But perhaps the
diverse environments in which modern most important priority is to strengthen
slavery still occurs. But it is nonetheless and extend national research and data
possible to identify some overarching collection efforts on modern slavery to
policy priorities in the lead-up to 2030 guide national policy responses.
from the Global Estimates and from
experience to date. International cooperation in addressing
modern slavery is essential given its global
Stronger social protection floors are and cross-border dimensions. Alliance
necessary to offset the vulnerabilities 8.7, a multi-stakeholder partnership
that can push people into modern committed to achieving Target 8.7 of
slavery. Extending labour rights in the the Sustainable Development Goals, has
informal economy where modern an important role to play in this regard.
slavery is most likely to occur is needed The Global Estimates indicate that the
to protect workers from exploitation. majority of forced labour today exists in
Given that a large share of modern the private economy. This underscores
slavery can be traced to migration, the importance of partnering with
improved migration governance is vitally the business community alongside
important to preventing forced labour employers and workers organisations,
and protecting victims. and civil society organisations to
eradicate forced labour in supply chains
Additionally, the risk and typology of
and in the private economy more broadly.
modern slavery is strongly influenced
Cooperation should be strengthened
by gender, and this must also be taken
between and among governments and
into account in developing policy
with relevant international and regional
responses. Addressing the root causes
organizations in areas such as labour law
of debt bondage, a widespread means of
enforcement, criminal law enforcement,
coercion, is another necessary element
and the management of migration in
Executive summary 13
ILO
Introduction
The new Global Estimates presented in partnership with the International
in this report indicate that more than Organization for Migration (IOM).2 They
40 million people were caught up in benefited from inputs provided by other
the grip of modern slavery in 2016. This UN agencies, in particular the Office of
alarming figure is a wake-up call to the the High Commissioner for Human Rights
global community, which, through the (OHCHR). The estimates are based
adoption of the 2030 Sustainable Devel- on a jointly developed methodology
opment Goals (SDGs), has committed to summarised in the annex and described
the target of ending modern slavery and in detail in the methodology report
human trafficking by the year 2030. produced along with this Global
Estimates report.3 They are derived from
Thirteen years is but a moment in hu- various data sources, as no one source
man history, and doing away with co- was considered sufficiently suitable
ercive systems that in some cases have or reliable. The principal sources are
been around for centuries and that in the Walk Free Foundations survey
other cases are emerging from new and data for 2014 and 2015, as well as data
illegitimate business models, large-scale from an additional 26 national surveys
migration, crisis, and conflict will be a jointly conducted by ILO and Walk Free
monumental challenge. Meeting the am- Foundation in 2016 and data drawn from
bitious 2030 target to end modern slav- the IOMs database of human trafficking
ery will require renewed political will, cases since 2012. The terminology utilised
matched by the commitment of suffi- in the report is described in Panel 1.
cient resources, and a major acceleration
of national and international efforts. The report, and the global estimation
exercise that underpins it, forms part
To be effective, policies and programmes of a broader multi-partner effort to
must be grounded in the best possible measure and monitor progress towards
understanding of the root causes of Target 8.7 of the Sustainable Develop-
modern slavery at both the national ment Goals. This effort is taking place
and global levels. This requires not only within the framework of Alliance 8.7, a
more and better information on the multi-stakeholder partnership commit-
numbers of people affected by modern ted to ending forced labour, modern
slavery, but also on its various forms and slavery, human trafficking, and child la-
manifestations, and the ways in which bour in accordance with SDG Target 8.7.
people are caught up in it. This report is
aimed at informing global efforts towards The report charts how far we must still
the 2030 target by helping to fulfil these travel to honour our commitment to
information requirements. It is also hoped ending modern slavery by 2030. Part 1
that the findings presented in the report presents the most complete possible
will encourage further research and profile of modern slavery in todays
data collection efforts by governments, world: the main forms of forced labour
focused on the national and local and forced marriage, their extent and
dimensions of modern slavery. characteristics, the means by which per-
sons are trapped in them, and the dura-
The global and regional estimates tion of the abuse. Part 2 discusses key
presented in this report were developed policy priorities emerging from the Glob-
by the International Labour Organization al Estimates in the drive to rid the world
(ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation of modern slavery.
Introduction 15
Panel 1
In the context of this report, example, a woman forced her parent or parents being
modern slavery covers a set into commercial sexual engaged in forced labour.
of specific legal concepts in- exploitation is in a forced The coercion may take place
cluding forced labour, debt situation because of its during the childs recruitment
bondage, forced marriage, involuntary nature and to force the child or his or her
slavery and slavery-like prac- the menace she is facing, parents to accept the job or,
tices, and human trafficking. regardless of the dangers once the child is working, to
Although modern slavery is and hazards she faces in force him or her to do tasks
not defined in law, it is used as this work or whether it is that were not part of what
an umbrella term that focuses permitted by law. In recent was agreed to at the time of
attention on commonalities years, the ILO has focused on recruitment or to prevent the
across these legal concepts. the two criteria embedded child from leaving the work.
Essentially, it refers to situ- in the Convention No. 29,
ations of exploitation that a namely, involuntariness and
person cannot refuse or leave menace of penalty with
because of threats, violence, regard to determining forced
coercion, deception, and/or labour of adults and forced
abuse of power. labour of children.5
Introduction 17
persons over others, and is isation, it is also accepted Organized Crime, adopted in
also considered a serious that the eradication of these 2000. The definition specifies
criminal offence. The concept slavery-like practices can that the crime of trafficking
of slavery-like practices was be achieved only over time is a process constituted by
first addressed in internation- through the necessary leg- three distinct elements act,
al law in 1956 by means of a islative and other program- means, and purpose (ex-
United Nations instrument, matic measures. ploitation). Coercion is one of
supplementing the earlier the means enumerated in the
Slavery Convention, covering While the concept of traffick- Protocol, which states that
a range of institutions and ing in persons was addressed when coercion (or any other
practices similar to slavery, in a number of earlier instru- means) is used to get victims
including debt bondage, serf- ments, the most recent and into an exploitative situation,
dom, and forced marriage.9 widely accepted definition is actual exploitation need not
While the instrument places that contained in a Protocol happen for a trafficking crime
some emphasis on criminal- to the United Nations Con- to have taken place.
vention against Transnational
Table 1
Number and prevalence of persons in modern slavery, by category, sex and age
Number and prevalence of persons in modern slavery, by category, sex and age
Introduction 19
Lisa Kristine
Part 1.
The scale and
manifestations
of modern slavery
Figure 1
Modern slavery
Forced labour
Forced marriage
15,400,000
38%
24,900,000
62%
100% Female
Male
80% 40.6%
57.6%
71.1%
60% 84.2%
99.4%
40%
59.4%
20% 42.4%
28.9%
15.8%
0.6%
0%
Forced labour
100% Children
6.9%
18.7% 21.3% Adults
24.7%
80% 36.8%
60%
93.1%
40% 81.3% 78.7%
75.3%
63.2%
20%
0%
Forced labour
Children
Adults
5.9
4.4
2.5 2.5
1.9
1.3
0.4
0.7 0.1 0.7
Forced labour
Forced labour of children takes two pre- days or entered into a forced marriage.
dominant forms. It can result from their Of these, 82.7 million were victims of
guardians themselves being in forced forced labour and 6.5 million had been
labour, in which case the children work forced to marry against their will. There
with their parents or at least for the is wide variation in how long victims of
same employer. Or the children may be modern slavery remain in their situation.
in forced labour on their own as a result While some manage to escape after a
of trafficking, deceptive recruitment, or few days or weeks, others are trapped
coercive means used by their direct em- for years, as is the case for those in tradi-
ployer. In the former case, parents are tional forms of hereditary bonded labour
more likely to be aware of their childrens and some forced marriages. For victims
situation and working conditions. In the registered by IOM after 2012, the average
latter case, parents are less likely to be duration in forced labour exploitation was
aware, as with children who migrate slightly over 20 months and for the vic-
alone or are trafficked into forced labour, tims of sexual exploitation it was 23
particularly domestic work. months. Victims of forced labour im-
posed by state authorities were exploit-
THERE WAS A TOTAL OF 89 MILLION ed for a duration that varied from a few
VICTIMS OF MODERN SLAVERY OVER days per month (for example, when au-
THE PERIOD FROM 2012 TO 2016; thorities force people to participate in
THE TIME DURATION VARIED WIDELY illegal communal services) to several
Over the five-year period from 2012 to years for some cases of prison labour or
2016, 89 million people were either in forced labour in the context of military
forced labour for a minimum number of service.
7.6
Forced labour
Forced marriages
6.1
5.4 2.8
3.9
4.8 1.9
3.6 2.2
1.3
2.1 2.0
1.1
0.4 0.7
Number (in thousands) and percentage distribution of victims of modern slavery, by region
Africa
3,600
Americas
9%
Arab States
25,000
62%
9,230
23%
1,950
5%
520
1%
Table 3
Forced labour
Number and prevalence of persons in forced labour, by category, sex and age
This section of the report presents the on farms in Latin America, begging in
main findings related to forced labour European cities, and constructing high
using three broad categories: forced rise buildings in the Gulf States, among
labour exploitation,13 forced sexual other sectors and geographic areas.
exploitation,14 and state-imposed forced Regardless of the setting, an identifying
labour.15 feature of situations of forced labour is
lack of voluntariness in taking the job or
Forced labour, as set out in ILO Forced accepting the working conditions, and
Labour Convention, 1930 (No.29),16 refers the application of a penalty or a threat
to all work or service which is exacted of a penalty to prevent an individual
from any person under the menace of from leaving a situation or otherwise
any penalty and for which the said person to compel work. Coercion can take
has not offered himself voluntarily. many forms, ranging from physical and
Men, women, and children are forced sexual violence or threats against family
to work in various settings across the members to more subtle means such as
globe, with examples of forced labour withholding of wages, retaining identity
found in garment making in South Asian documents, threats of dismissal, and
factories, digging for minerals in African threats of denunciation to authorities.
mines, harvesting tomatoes on North
American farms, working as domestic
workers in East Asian homes, working
Figure 7
Forced labour
4,800,000
19%
16,000,000
64%
Percentage of victims of forced labour living outside their country residence, by form of forced labour
100%
80%
60%
40%
74%
20%
23%
14% 1%
0%
The large share of victims exploited This point is taken up further in Panel 2.
outside their country of residence points The fight against modern slavery is thus
to the high degree of risk associated with integrally related to global initiatives
migration in the modern world, particu- to promote orderly, safe, and regular
larly for migrant women and children, migration, such as the global compact
who are likely to be the most vulnerable. for safe, orderly and regular migration.
Panel 2
Although most migration is smugglers and become traf- reduced bargaining power.
voluntary and has a positive ficked along the way. Once Large-scale displacement
impact on individuals and so- they reach their destination, caused by humanitarian crises
cieties, migration can increase migrants who have travelled such as armed conflicts, nat-
vulnerability to human traffick- through regular and irregular ural disasters, and protracted
ing and exploitation. Irregular channels remain vulnerable to unrest can also create vul-
migrants, for instance, trafficking in persons and oth- nerable populations who can
may be subjected to kidnap er forms of exploitation due to become victims of traffick-
and ransom demands, extor- language barriers, challeng- ing.19
tion, physical violence, sex- es of social integration, and
ual abuse, and trafficking in unscrupulous employers and Migrant workers and job seek-
persons. They may start their landlords who take advan- ers, who constitute the major-
journeys by willingly placing tage of their limited knowl- ity of international migrants,
themselves in the hands of edge of local conditions and are vulnerable to human
trafficking throughout their
NINETY-FOUR PER CENT OF MODERN cal data providing insight into the connec-
SLAVERY VICTIMS WERE EXPLOITED tion between income levels and forced
IN A COUNTRY IN THE SAME labour movements. To explore this issue,
INCOME-BASED REGIONAL GROUPING the estimates of victims of forced labour
AS THEIR COUNTRY OF RESIDENCE were examined according to the income
levels of the victims country of residence
Poverty is often cited as an important risk and of the country where the exploitation
factor for modern slavery, and relative took place. The results suggest very lit-
wealth disparities between countries are tle movement across income groupings.
often cited as a pull factor. While poverty Ninety-four per cent of victims of forced
can drive a decision to migrate for labour, labour were exploited in a country that
it can also act as a barrier to migration, was in the same income-based regional
as members of the poorest groups are of- grouping as their country of residence.
ten unable to raise the money required to People who were exploited in the low-
reach their destination, whether through and lower-middle-income groupings were
accessing loans in their local communities almost exclusively residents of countries
or from others in the migration industry. that were in the same income grouping.
But to date there has been limited empiri-
Figure 9
(a) Sectoral distribution of victims of forced labour (b) Sex distribution of victims of forced labour
exploitation(a), (b) exploitation, by sector of economic activity(a), (b)
Female Male
1%
100% 4% Begging
10
7% 18 18
Mining and quarrying
9% 32
80% Personal services
10% 48 48
Wholesale and trade 61
11%
Accommodation and
60%
food service activities
92
15% Agriculture, forestries, 100
and fishing 90
40% 82 82
18% Manufacturing 68
Construction 52 52
20% 39
Domestic work
24%
8
0%
Accommodation and
food service activities
Domestic work
Personal services
Agriculture, forestries,
and fishing
Wholesale and trade
Manufacturing
Construction
Begging
Note: (a) These figures are based on cases of forced labour exploitation where industry was reported. Informa-
tion on the industry was available for 65 per cent of total cases of forced labour exploitation; and (b) with the
exception of begging, categories are based on the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Eco-
nomic Activities, Rev.4 (1-digit level). For further detail and explanation see United Nations Statistics Division
(https://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcst.asp?Cl=27).
Panel 3
MOST VICTIMS SUFFERED MULTIPLE The Global Estimates have shed signif-
FORMS OF COERCION FROM icant light on these issues. Withholding
RECRUITERS OR EMPLOYERS of wages, or the threat that this would
be done, was the most common means
In cases of forced labour, it is important of coercion, experienced by almost a
to understand the means of coercion at quarter of people (24 per cent) forced
both the recruitment and employment to work. This was followed by threats of
stages. For example, were violence or violence (17 per cent), acts of physical
threats of violence used? How impor- violence (16 per cent), and threats against
tant was the debt factor? Were workers family (12 per cent). The estimates also
physically prevented from leaving the confirm that different forms of coercion
workplace? And in the case of migrant may be used depending on whether the
workers, was the coercion or decep- victim is male or female, a finding that
tion used at the initial place of recruit- can help inform victim identification and
ment, in the country of origin, and/or at responses. For example, the estimates
the workplace? The ILO has developed suggest that male victims were more
indicators on these concerns,29 enabling likely to be subjected to threats against
national statistical offices and research family, withheld wages, confinement,
institutes to undertake national surveys denial of food and sleep, and threats of
on the forced labour of both adults and legal action. In contrast, female victims
children. of forced labour suffered higher rates of
sexual violence and were more likely to
have their passports withheld.
Means of coercion
(a) Percentage of victims of forced labour (b) Percentage distribution of means of coercion,
exploitation, by means of coercion by sex
Female Male
0.9%
Threats of violence
Withheld wages
Locked in work or living quarters
Kept drunk/drugged
Physical violence
Threats of violence
23.6%
Withheld wages
Debt bondage
Percentage of victims of forced labour exploitation who are held in debt bondage, by sex and region
100% Total
88.7
Male
80% Female
69.6
60.9
55.1
60% 54.4
20% 34.3
21.3
50.9 54.9 54.2 50.8 36.3 35.9
0%
A regional analysis found that debt debt bondage. Eighty-nine per cent of
bondage was most common in Asia, all female victims of forced labour ex-
Africa, and the Arab States, where rough- ploitation were held in debt bondage in
ly one-half of all victims of forced labour the region, compared to 45 per cent of
exploitation were in situations involving all male victims. The opposite pattern
debt bondage. In the two remaining re- prevailed in the Asia and the Pacific and
gions, the Americas and Europe and the Europe and Central Asia regions,
Central Asia, a little more than one-third where debt bondage affected a greater
of victims of forced labour exploita- share of male victims of forced labour
tion were in debt bondage. In the Arab exploitation than female victims. Similar
States, female victims of forced labour proportions of men and women were in
exploitation were much more likely than debt bondage among those forced to
male victims to be in situations involving work in Africa and the Americas.
Panel 4
In most cases of debt bond- the level of compensation including the interest and
age, the initial debt grows at a the worker may be getting. original amount. To give back
rate that is unable to be met, A male survey respondent the loan they made me work
and the individual (some- in Bangladesh described the forcefully and I paid back the
times together with family unmanageable increase in loan by working for them.
members) is unable to leave the debt he owed: I took loan
the work as the debt mounts to maintain the family. Lat- In these situations, the debt
and cannot be paid with er it became a high amount can last for years or even
Figure 12
3,500
73%
Figure 13
Number and percentage distribution of victims of state-imposed forced labour, by form of state-imposed
forced labour
Abuse of conscription
563,000
2,582,000
13.9%
63.6%
Forced prison labour ministrative detention cen- the private use of prison
deserves separate treatment. tres. While the administrative labour (either through pri-
The ILO Conventions estab- imposition of imprisonment vatised prisons or through
lish broad principles regard- involving forced labour ap- contracts between public
ing the conditions in which pears to have declined in prison agencies and private
prisoners can or cannot be recent years, a number of companies) is widespread
required to work; and, in countries in East and South- in certain countries and can
cases where they are required East Asia have responded to provide significant revenue
to work, the limitations on the rise in substance abuse for the private agencies con-
private sector involvement in by establishing laws and poli- cerned. There have been pol-
prison labour. cies that allow for compulso- icy debates in a number of
ry detention without trial in a countries since the first steps
Generally, prisoners who court of law, and the impo- were taken as of the 1980s to
have been duly sentenced sition of compulsory labour, seek more private sector in-
by a court of law can be as a means of treatment for volvement in prison adminis-
required to work. They can- persons suspected of being tration. Proponents of private
not be required to work be- dependent on drugs. Re- sector involvement in prison
fore sentencing, or when ports on such rehabilitation industries argue that this can
they are in administrative de- centres in several countries reduce incarceration costs
tention. And even if prison- have highlighted the lack of and contribute to rehabilita-
ers have been sentenced by due process and legal assis- tion. Opponents argue that
a court of law, they cannot tance. Additionally, in some it can increase exploitation,
be required to work if they cases, migrants and refugees and that the authority for
have been imprisoned for a have also been forced to punishment is a core gov-
range of ideological, political, work when confined in de- ernment function that should
and other reasons specifi- tention centres pending ad- not be delegated to the pri-
cally mentioned in the ILOs ministrative processing. vate sector. Furthermore, in
Abolition of Forced Labour most cases, labour and social
Convention, 1957 (No. 105). The use of forced prison la- security laws are not applied
Moreover, there need to be bour for political and other to prisoners, meaning that
specific guarantees of pro- impermissible reasons is par- prison labour can constitute
tection for prisoners placed ticularly difficult to assess. unfair competition with free
at the disposal or private in- There is, not surprisingly, no labour.
dividuals, companies, or as- available data on penal sanc-
sociations, including those tions imposed on political On this subject, there has
confined in private prisons. In activists, journalists, or mem- been substantial dialogue
the latter case, guidance has bers of dissident groups in between the ILO superviso-
been provided by ILO super- repressive regimes.35 ry bodies and those Member
visory bodies on factors to States that have ratified the
ensure that labour is provid- Nor are statistics generally first forced labour Conven-
ed voluntarily and not under available concerning the var- tion. The supervisory bodies
the menace of any penalty. ious ways in which private have pointed to the need for
companies can be involved convincing indicators that
Of the 563,000 persons esti- in or benefit from compul- the choice to work is volun-
mated to be in forced prison sory prison labour. It is now tary.
labour, 202,000 are in ad- generally recognised that
Table 4
Forced marriage
Number and prevalence of persons in forced marriage, by sex, age, and region
AN ESTIMATED 15.4 MILLION PEOPLE entry into the country. Once forced to
WERE LIVING IN SITUATIONS marry, many victims are placed at great-
OF FORCED MARRIAGE IN 2016 er risk of being subjected to other forms
of exploitation, including sexual exploita-
Forced marriage refers to situations tion, domestic servitude, and other forms
where persons, regardless of their age, of forced labour. Children are especially
have been forced to marry without their vulnerable in these situations.
consent.37 Forced marriage is prohibited
through the prohibitions on slavery and An estimated 15.4 million people were
slavery-like practices, including servile living in situations of forced marriage
marriage.38 in 2016. In a total of 6.5 million of these
cases, the forced marriage occurred
There are many reasons for forced during the five-year period from 2012
marriage, some of which are closely to 2016, while the remainder occurred
linked to longstanding cultural practices. prior to this period but continued into
In some parts of the world, young girls it.40 In terms of prevalence, 2.1 out of
and women are forced to marry in ex- every thousand persons worldwide were
change for payment to their families, the living in forced marriage in 2016. It is im-
cancellation of debt, or to settle family portant to note that the measurement of
disputes. In countries with significant lev- forced marriage is at an early stage and
els of conflict, they can be abducted by both the scope and the methodologies
armed groups and forced to marry fight- are likely to be further refined. Accord-
ers, enduring all manner of sexual, phys- ingly, the current estimates should be
ical, and emotional abuse. Forced mar- considered to be conservative.
riages also occur in developed nations,
with women and girls being forced to
marry foreign men for cultural reasons,
or in order to secure another persons
Figure 14
(a) Number and percentage distribution of victims (b) Prevalence of forced marriage per 1,000
of forced marriage persons), by region
8,444,000 5,818,000
4.8
55% 38%
2.1 2.0
1.1 1.1
0.7
667,000
173,000 4%
World
Africa
Arab States
Americas
1% 341,000
2%
Africa
Americas
Arab states
Note: These figures are based on national household surveys conducted in 48 countries, involved interviews
with more than 71,000 respondents aged 15 years or older. See methodological annex for further details.
Figure 15
100% Female
Male
80%
71%
60%
84%
40%
20%
29%
16%
0%
Panel 6
Table 5
Questions Description
P1-P4 Identification of immediate family network
Inquiry on forced labour experience by anyone among immediate family (e.g. forced to work by an employ-
P5-P7
er or recruiter; forced to work to repay a debt; offered one kind of work, but forced to do something else)
P8-P10 Who in the immediate family, sex and age
P11 When last happened
P11I Total duration during last 5 years
P12 Country in which last spell happened
Type of work forced to do (e.g. agriculture, fishing, mining and quarrying, manufacturing, commercial sexual
P13
exploitation, domestic labour)
Coercion (e.g. physical violence, threats of violence, withheld wages, withheld passport, locked in living
P14
quarters, had to repay a debt)
P15 Inquiry on forced marriage experience by anyone among immediate family
P17-20 Who in the immediate family, sex and age at time of forced marriage
WP1220 Current age
P21 Whether consented to the marriage
As the estimate of forced labour riage. The data on forced marriage does
exploitation of adults is based on house- not include child marriage because it
hold surveys, respondents were inter- was insufficiently precise to determine
viewed in their country of residence. Nev- which child marriages constituted forced
ertheless, all situations of modern slavery marriages. However, as persons aged 15
were counted in the country where the and over were surveyed, the estimate
exploitation took place, regardless of includes information on children (15-17
the workers nationality or country of years) who indicated they were forced
residence. For example, if a woman in- to marry without their consent in the
terviewed in Indonesia reported that she last five years. The estimate of forced
was forced into domestic work in Oman marriage is presented as both a to-
during the reference period, that case tal flow figure, representing all people
would be attributed to Oman. forced to marry between 2012 and 2016,
and a stock, representing all people liv-
The global estimates of forced mar- ing in a forced marriage in the reference
riage are based on those who reported period. Given the socio-cultural context
having been forced to marry in the last of forced marriage, it was assumed that
five years, without their consent, and such marriages are likely to last for at
those who were forced to marry before least the five years of the reference pe-
that time period but remain in the mar- riod.
Figure 16
Sample scheme for the global estimate of forced labour and forced marriage
World
199 countries and territories covering 99.7 per cent of world population in 2016
Region
11 ILO Broad regions (Strata)
Sample country
48 countries/54 surveys
Household sample
71,758 sample households
Family network
575,310 family members
6.
Forced recruitment of children by
governments.
End notes 63
or who have entered this form of forced labour vol- gained from quantitative surveys of forced labour
untarily but cannot leave. It also included all forms of at the country level. The indicators are broadly
commercial sexual exploitation involving children. grouped under the three dimensions of unfree re-
cruitment, work and life under duress, and impossi-
15. This included forced labour exacted by the military, bility of leaving the employer.
compulsory participation in public works, and forced
prison labour, which included not only forced labour 29. Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary
camps but also work imposed in modern semi-pri- manifestations of slavery, its causes and conse-
vatized or fully privatized prisons. quences, United Nations Human Rights Council, thir-
ty-third session, Agenda item 3, July 2016 (UN Doc.
16. Defined as all work or service which is exacted from A/HRC/33/46).
any person under the menace of any penalty and
for which the said person has not offered himself 30. South Asian laws generally define bonded labour
voluntarily. See International Labour Organization, systems as those where workers provide work or
Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), http:// services to a landlord or employer in exchange for
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPU- a monetary advance and incur restrictions on their
B:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C029. freedom of movement or occupation until this debt
has been worked off. The concept therefore overlaps
17. Only international migration was measured through with, but is not the same as, debt bondage, which is
the household surveys. The location of forced mar- defined in the United Nations Supplementary Con-
riage was also not captured. vention on Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions
and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956) as the status
18. In particular, the estimate relating to forced sexual or condition arising from a pledge by a debtor of his
exploitation is drawn from the IOM database, while personal services or those of a debtor under his con-
the estimate relating to forced labour exploitation is trol as security for a debt, if the value of those ser-
based on national datasets and the estimate relating vices as reasonably assessed is not applied towards
to state-imposed forced labour is based on the anal- the liquidation of the debt or the length and nature
ysis of secondary sources collected by the ILO. of those services are not respectively limited and
defined. The Supplementary Convention also refers
19. IOM: IOM Global Compact Thematic Paper: Combat- to debt bondage as a servile status and requires
ing Trafficking in Persons and Contemporary Forms member States to carry out national measures to
of Slavery (2017), https://www.iom.int/sites/de- abolish its practice.
fault/files/our_work/ODG/GCM/IOM-Thematic-Pa-
per-Trafficking-in-persons.pdf. 31. These estimates, however, should be interpreted
with caution, particularly as the regional distribution
20. ILO: Addressing governance challenges in a chang- of victims in the IOM database used in the methodol-
ing labour migration landscape, Report IV, Interna- ogy reflects where IOM has programming to provide
tional Labour Conference, 106 Session (2017).
th
direct assistance to victims of trafficking.
21. UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 33. As explained in the methodology annex, this figure
2016. is derived from examination of specific cases across
countries, representing different types of forced la-
22. IOM: Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Traffick- bour imposed by the State.
ing and Other Exploitative Practices Prevalence In-
dication Survey, June 2017, http://migration.iom.int/ 34. With regard to abuse of conscription, the estimate
europe/. does not cover recruitment of children for armed
services.
23. UNICEF and IOM: Harrowing Journeys: Children on
the Move Across the Mediterranean Sea, at Risk of 35. More information is available through reports from
Trafficking and Exploitation (2017), https://www. the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary De-
iom.int/sites/default/files/press_release/file/Har- tention.
rowing_Journeys_Children_and_youth_on_the_
move_across_the_Mediterranean.pdf 36. In 2006, the United Nations Secretary-General stat-
ed, A forced marriage is one lacking the free and
23. Information on the industry was available for 65 per valid consent of at least one of the parties. In-depth
cent of total cases of forced labour exploitation. study on all forms of violence against women. Report
of the Secretary-General, UN document A/61/122/
24. ILO: Global Estimates on Migrant Workers: Results Add.1.
and Methodology: Special focus on migrant domes-
tic workers, ILO, Geneva, 2015. 37. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights has noted, Women and girls in situations of
25. Marie Jos Tayah, Decent Work for Migrant Domes- child and forced marriage may experience condi-
tic Workers: Moving the Agenda Forward. ILO, Gene- tions inside a marriage which meet international le-
va, 2016. gal definitions of slavery and slavery-like practices
including servile marriage, sexual slavery, child ser-
26. D. Shields, World Disposable Gloves Market - Oppor- vitude, child trafficking and forced labour . United
tunities and Forecasts, 2013-2020, Portland, USA. Nations General Assembly, Preventing and Eliminat-
Allied Market Research, 2014, quoted in In good ing Child, Early and Forced Marriage, Report of the
hands, Tacking labour rights concerns in the man- Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
ufacture of medical gloves, British Medical Associ- Human Rights, A/HRC/26/22, 2 April 2014:http://
ation, BMA Medical Fair and Ethical Trade Group, www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSes-
European Working Group on Ethical Public Procure- sions/Session26/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?-
ment, 2016. sourcedoc=/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/
Session26/Documents/A-HRC-26-22_en.doc&ac-
27. ILO: Hard to see, harder to count: Survey guidelines tion=default&DefaultItemOpen=1.
to estimate the forced labour of adults and children,
ILO, 2012. The guidelines share the ILO experience
End notes
www.Alliance87.org
@Alliance8_7
#Achieve87