Chapter One The Air We Breathe

1.1 Everyday Breathing Design an experiment...

Consider This 1.2: Take a Breath (page 18) Information needed to determine volume of air
Chapter One inhaled/exhaled per day:
What total volume of air do you exhale in a typical day?
Although you could simply guess, a simple experiment can amount of air inhaled in a single breath
enable you to come up with a reasonably accurate answer. number of breaths per minute
The Air We Breathe number of minutes in day
Fig. 1.17

What information do we need to make

What is in the air that we breathe? this determination? Calculations:
Can air be dangerous to our health?

How can understanding chemistry help us decide?

Classifying Matter: Mixtures, Elements & Compounds

Identify any
Matter anything that has mass (weight) & occupies space. Classify each of the following as a pure substance or as a
Factors that may affect the accuracy of your answer mixture.
Figure 1.1 (p 18) MATTER
(1) Water from the Atlantic Ocean
Can it be separated by a physical
process?
(2) Bleach
NO YES
Factors that affect volumes inhaled/exhaled by different (3) Oxygen
people PURE SUBSTANCES MIXTURES
(4) Magnesium sulfate
Mixture a physical combination of 2 or more substances
(5) Steel
present in variable amounts
(6) Gasoline
Pure Substance matter that cannot be physically separated into
simpler substances
(7) Air
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Whats in a Breath? The Composition of Air Oxygen (21%) O2 Nitrogen (78%) N2

Figure 1.2 (p 19) Chemical formula: O2 Chemical formula: N2

Nitrogen 78 % Essential for sustaining human life.
Most abundant substance in air.
Oxygen 21 % O2 absorbed into blood via lungs.
Less reactive than oxygen.
Once in body, O2 reacts with food. Reaction
Other 1% Human body does not use N2 from air.
breaks down food to produce fuel (energy)
needed to run our bodies.

Other (1%) 1.2 What Else is in a Breath? Minor Components

Argon (0.9%) Odors:

Chemical formula = Ar garlic, flowers, baking bread, wintergreen
Chemically inert (unreactive)
Harmless substances:
Carbon dioxide (0.04%) Neon (Ne, 0.0182%), Hydrogen (H2, 0.0010%),
Chemical formula = CO2 Helium (He, 0.00052%), Xenon (Xe, 0.000008%),
Krypton (Kr, 0.0001%), Ammonia (NH3, 0.000001%)
Water vapor (negligible to 0.001%)
Chemical formula = H2O
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Units typically used to express amounts of substances in air Converting between units
Percent (%) = amount per 100 parts of air.
per cent = per hundred Example 1: Convert 0.0045 % to ppm (parts-per-million)
Concentration General term used to describe the amount
of a substance per amount of air. 21% O2
0.0045 % = 45 ppm

Parts-per-million (ppm) =
amount per 1,000,000 parts of air % x 10,000 = ppm
Units %
32 ppm CO Example 2: Convert 0.000039 % to ppb (parts-per-billion)
ppm
ppb
Parts-per-billion (ppb) = 0.000039 % = 0.39 ppm = 390 ppb
amount per 1,000,000,000 parts of air

6.8 ppb NO2 % x 10,000,000 = ppb

Practice Problems Unit Conversions 1.2 What Else is in a Breath? (1) Carbon monoxide CO

1. Convert 0.78 % to ppm (1) Carbon monoxide Chemical formula: CO

(2) Ozone The silent killer

2. Convert 0.00000089 % to ppb
(3) Sulfur oxides Health effects:

3. Convert 0.00034 % to ppm (4) Nitrogen oxides Enters bloodstream through inhalation
Reduces ability of blood to transport oxygen
throughout body
4. Which concentration is largest 1%, 1 ppm or 1 ppb?
(5) Volatile organic
Limited exposure: impaired visual perception, decreased
compounds
manual dexterity, & brain damage
(6) Particulate matter
Long-term exposure: death
(7) Lead
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

(2) Ozone O3 (3) Sulfur oxides SOx (4) Nitrogen oxides NOx
Chemical formula: O3 Chemical formula: SOx Chemical formula: NOx
Characteristic, sharp odor Many different compounds (SO2 and SO3 common) Many different compounds
Special form of oxygen ( NO, N2O & NO2 common)
a respiratory irritant that affects breathing
A respiratory irritant that
Health effects: Health effects: affects breathing
- Breathing problems, reduced lung function, asthma, eye - Breathing problems, especially to infants, elderly and Health effects:
irritations, nose stuffiness, reduced resistance to colds those with respiratory conditions cause lung damage and illnesses of the respiratory system
- May speed up the aging of lung tissue - May cause permanent lung damage
Environmental effects:
- Long-term exposure: death (more toxic than O2) Environmental effects: Form acid rain, which damages trees and lakes
Environmental effects: - Form acid rain, which damages trees and lakes Acid rain reduces visibility
- Damages trees and plants - Acid rain reduces visibility Property damage:
- Component of smog - reduces visibility
Property damage: Form acid rain which eats away stone used in buildings,
Property damage: - Form acid rain, which eats away at stone used in statues, monuments, ...
- Damages rubber, fabrics, etc... buildings, statues, monuments, ...

(5) Volatile Organic Compounds VOCs (6) Particulate matter PM (7) Lead Pb

Abbreviation: VOCs (NOT a chemical formula!) Abbreviation: PM (NOT a chemical formula!) Chemical formula: Pb
PM-10 and PM-2 are the most common
Group that includes many different chemicals Solid particles in air - dust, smoke, soot
Health effects:
Health effects: Health effects:
Brain and other nervous system damage
Nose & throat irritation, (esp. children)
React with ozone to form smog lung damage, bronchitis
Potential cancer-causing substance
Some VOCs may cause cancer and other serious Extensive exposure may lead
health problems to early death Digestive problems

Environmental effects: Environmental effects:

Smog can reduce visibility and Main source of haze that reduces
cause respiratory problems visibility Environmental effects:
Harms wildlife
Some VOCs may harm plants Property damage:
Dirty and discolor structures and other property,
including clothes and furniture
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Why should we be so concerned about air pollution? 1.3 Air Pollutants and Risk Assessment 1970 Clean Air Act (CAA) passed.
(1) Impact on Humans Federal mandate to
Pollutant an undesirable contaminant that adversely (A) reduce air pollution and
affects the chemical, physical and/or
biological characteristics of the (B) improve air quality (established national air
(2) Impact on Environment environment. quality standards)

1990 Pollution prevention Act (amendments to the CAA)

In the past 40 years in the US, the general trend
Focused on preventing the formation of hazardous substances
is an overall improvement in the air quality as a
(3) Impact on Property
result of three major influences.
Governmental actions U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency)
Chemical ingenuity
www.epa.gov
Natrual atmospheric
(4) Impact on Visibility regeneration Criteria air pollutants (criteria pollutants)
The six major air pollutants, as identified by the EPA.
(listed in Table 1.2, p 24)

Risk Assessment the process of evaluating scientific data TOXICITY

Ambient air
and making predictions in an organized Very difficult to accurately assess mostly because of the challenge of
the air
collecting direct evidence
surrounding us, manner about the probabilities of an
usually the outcome.
outside air. 3 Choices:
(1) Human population studies
Risk assessment of air pollutants requires knowing 2 factors:
studying a group that has been exposed to a specific
(1) toxicity and (2) exposure. substance (no control)
(2) Animal studies
The amount of the
substance encountered exposing animals to substances in a controlled
environment
(3) Bacterial studies

The intrinsic health hazard of a substance exposing bacteria to substances in a controlled

environment
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

EXPOSURE
More straightforward to assess than toxicity as it is (1) What effects will a person suffer who has been exposed to 800 ppm
based on factors that can be easily measured. of CO for 2 hours? What is that persons % blood saturation?

Depends upon 3 factors: (2) What effects will a person suffer who has been exposed to 1600
(1) concentration (amount) of the substance in the air ppm of CO for 3 hours? What is that persons % blood saturation?

(3) A person is exposed to CO for 1 hour and suffers a slight headache.

(2) length of time person exposed What range of CO is this person exposed to?

(3) Rate of breathing (amount of air inhaled)

1.4 Air Quality and You

Average concentrations of air pollutants at selected locations in the U.S., in
1990 Pollution Prevention Act comparison with national ambient air quality standards.

Focused on preventing the formation of hazardous

substances
pollution should be prevented or reduced at the
source whenever feasible.

IMPORTANT national policy shift towards using

practices to reduce air pollution at the sources
rather than regulating existing pollutants.

1.4 1.4
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Federal government agency responsible for

monitoring our nations environment, including air,
land & waterways.

One function: set permissible limits of toxic or

harmful substances

Permissible limit = maximum concentration of a

substance considered to be safe to the general
population.

A color-coded system that indicates the level of the air quality in a

specific region.
AQI Springfield MA
www.epa.gov

1.5 Where We Live: The Troposphere

Air pollution provides the first context of this semester in which
(1) Mesosphere Typical conditions: we can discuss sustainability.
Warmest air is on the
above 50 km (31 miles) ground with the air meeting the needs of the present without
becoming cooler as compromising the ability of future generations
altitude increases to meet their needs
(2) Stratosphere
In other words, we need to make decisions with an eye not
between 15 50 km (9.3-31 mi) AIR INVERSION:
only for todays outcomes but also for the needs of the
phenomenon that
generations to come.
contains the ozone layer occurs when cooler air
gets trapped beneath
warmer air Pollutants GREEN CHEMISTRY
(3) Troposphere can get trapped in an The design of chemical products and processes to use less energy,
from ground level to 15 km (9.3 mi) inversion area. fewer hazardous materials, and renewable resources whenever
possible.
lower troposphere: AIR POLLUTION The desired outcome is to produce less waste, especially toxic
OCCURS HERE!! waste, and to use fewer resources.
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Principles of Green Chemistry (inside cover of text book) 1.6 Classifying Matter: Mixtures, Elements & Compounds

1. It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it Innovative green chemical methods already have Matter anything that has mass (weight) & occupies space.
is formed. decreased or eliminated toxic substances used or
created in chemical manufacturing processes. Table 1.11
2. It is better to minimize the amount of materials used in the
Can it be separated by a physical
production of a product. Examples: process?
3. It is better to use and generate substances that are not toxic. (1) Cheaper and less wasteful ways to produce
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and consumer
4. It is better to use less energy.
products such as disposable diapers and contact
5. It is better to use renewable materials. lenses.
(2) Eliminating organic solvents for dry cleaning Can it be broken down into simpler
6. It is better to use materials that degrade into innocuous products at
clothing. ones by chemical means?
the end of their useful life.
(3) Making plastics from renewable resources.
(4) Producing low VOC paints.
(5) Removing arsenic from touchscreens.

Classifying Matter
Element Substances (pure) that cannot be broken down into Group The Periodic Table
simpler ones by any chemical means. Using your everyday knowledge of material, classify each of these
These are the building blocks of all matter. as an element, a compound or as a mixture.

Compound Pure substances made of 2 or more chemical (a.) water (a.) compound
elements in a fixed, characteristic chemical
combination. (b.) nickel (b.) element
(c.) U.S. nickel coin (c.) mixture
(d.) diamond (d.) element
(e.) sulfur dioxide (e.) compound
(f.) lemonade (f.) mixture
Period

1.6
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Metal Any element (except H) to the LEFT and BELOW the

Chemical Symbol bold line
one or two-letter abbreviation for an element Nonmetal Any element to the RIGHT and ABOVE the bold line Answer each of the following.

First letter is always upper-case (1) Give the chemical symbol of the element in Group 5, Period 4.
Second letter (if there is one) is always lower-case

(2) Is Selenium (Se) a metal or nonmetal?

A main group or transition element?
C Co

(3) What is the period and group of the element Pb, lead?
O CO

Compound pure substance made up of two or more elements 1.7 Atoms and Molecules
in a fixed, characteristic combination (defn p24) Molecule a combination of a fixed number of atoms held together
Atom the smallest unit of an element that can exist as a stable, in a certain spatial arrangement. (defn, p 26)
For each compound listed, indicate the number of each element independent entity. (definition, p 25)
in the formula.
Chemical formula a symbolic way to represent the elementary
H2O #H ____ #O ____ Chemical symbol a 1- or 2-letter abbreviation for an element. composition of a substance. (defn, p 26)
(defn, p 21)
C6H12O6 #C ____ #H ____ #O ____
He
SF6 #S ____ #F ____

Al(OH)3 #Al ____ #O ____ #H ____

Mg(NO3)2 #Mg ____ #N ____ #O ____ H2O CO2

Chapter One The Air We Breathe

1.8 Names and Formulas: The Vocabulary of Chemistry Systematic Names

Rules for naming simple compounds

Common Names
(1) Write the name of the
Symbol Name Base Name when 2nd element
first element F
Cl
Name Chemical Formula (2) Write the name of the Br
I
Water H2O second element, changing O
its ending to ide S
N
Ozone O3
(3) Insert appropriate prefixes
Ammonia NH3 Name Number
Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10

1.9 Chemical Change: Oxygens Role in Burning

Write the chemical formula of each of the following Write the name of each of the following compounds.
compounds. Chemical reaction = process whereby substances called reactants are
IF6 transformed into new substances called products.
Sulfur tetrafluoride

Cl2O5
Iodine monobromide chemical recipe

General form:
C3O2
Diphosphorus trioxide Reactants Products

BrF3
Tribromine octoxide
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

General form: 1.10 Fire and Fuel: Air Quality & Burning Hydrocarbons
carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
Reactants Products
C + O2 CO2 Hydrocarbons = compounds made of carbon (C) & hydrogen (H).
starting makes ending Fig. 1.10

materials forms materials COMBUSTION:

Combustion reactions of hydrocarbons
yields
the rapid General form:
combination of
Flour + Sugar + Eggs oxygen (O2) with hydrocarbon + O2 CO2 + H2O
+ Oil + Vanilla + Cake a substance
Baking Soda (sometimes
called burning).
___ CH4 + ___ O2 ___ H2O + ___ CO2

1.11 Air Pollutants: Direct Sources (1) Coal-fired Power Plants

Majority of air: N2 & O2 with smaller amounts of Ar, CO2 & In the U.S. burning coal is the MAJOR
H 2O source of power.
Air pollutants: MUCH, MUCH lower concentrations than N2
etc
COAL - C135H96O9NS
Air pollutants: compromise air quality, even at these low
concentrations.

2 Major Sources of Pollutants: Combustion reaction!

(1) Coal-fired power plants that generate electricity Coal burns in the presence of O2
(A)
(2)Tailpipes of cars, trucks and other vehicles S (in coal) + O2 SO2 Sulfur
oxides
2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 (SOx) Levels are highest in areas with industries and
power plants that burn COAL!
Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Other substances generated by coal-fired power plants

COAL - C135H96O9NS

(B) Combustion reaction! Nitrogen

N (in coal) + O2 NO2 oxide
(NOx)

(C) Some CO2 NOT an air pollutant

(2) Tailpipes (emissions) from autos, trucks and other vehicles

(A) Formed at surface at high

temperatures (as in combustion
engines).
High temps
N2 + O2 NO
NO + O2 NO2

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Chapter One The Air We Breathe

(2) Tailpipes (emissions) from autos, trucks and other vehicles The EPA reports that since 1970, CO and VOC emissions
(B) CO and VOCs Octane primary
from on-road vehicles have been reduced by 40% and
component of 60% from 1995 to 2005.
Efficient burning: gasoline (C8H18)
improved engine design (more Green Chemistry
2 C8H18 + 25 O2 16 H2O + 18 CO2 efficient fuel burning)
octane
use of computerized sensors that
Inefficient burning: adjust fuel/oxygen mixture

C8H18 + O2 H2O + CO2 + CO + VOCs use of catalytic converters (convert

CO to CO2)
octane
Better fuels (burn cleaner)
Clean Air Act (1970) and
amendments (1990)

Milestones in Motor Vehicle Emission Controls (2) Tailpipes (emissions) from autos, trucks and other vehicles (2) Tailpipes (emissions) from autos, trucks and other vehicles

1970 Clean Air Act sets first auto emission standards. (C) PM-10 and PM-2.5 (D) Lead (Pb)
1974 EPA sets fuel economy standards. 1970 1997

Particlulate matter (10 and 2.5 refer to particle size) Total air emission 221,000 tons 3915 tons
1975 First catalytic converters are used for CO &
hydrocarbons (VOCs). 1st use of unleaded gasoline. Motor vehicles (gas) 78% 0%
1983 Vehicle inspection and maintenance programs Solids from the tailpipes of autos and other vehicles.
established in 64 cities. Metals processing 11% 52%
(soot exhaust from dirty engines)
1990 Clean Air Act Amendments set new tailpipe standards.
Non-road vehicles 4% 13%
1992 Oxyfuel introduced in cities with high CO levels. Fuel consumption --- 13%
1994 Phase-in of new vehicle standards and technologies
begins. Waste disposal --- 16%
2015 Electric vehicles mass produced and public charging
stations established. Other 7% 6%

www.epa.gov (accessed 4.Feb.2003)

Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Milestones in Reduction of Lead in Air Other reduction

methods
1975: EPA established national regulations to According to the EPA,
gradually reduce lead content in gasoline. All
new autos/trucks must use unleaded gasoline. Reducing emissions of NOx is
1997: Use of leaded gasoline banned.
Cleaner fuels a crucial component of EPAs
strategy for cleaner air.
According to the EPA, industrial processes are now
responsible for most of lead emissions and all
violations of the lead air quality standards. Electric or
www.epa.gov (accessed 4.Feb.2003)
Gas/battery autos

1.12 Ozone: A Secondary Pollutant Ozone maps for a summer day in California in July 2006.

Ground-level ozone is air pollutant (bad),

stratospheric ozone is essential (good)

Secondary pollutant produced from chemical reactions

among 2 or more other pollutants (defn, p 44)

Formed via chemical rxn between NOx & VOCs in the

presence of heat & sunlight.

NOx + VOC + Heat + Sunlight OZONE

Chapter One The Air We Breathe

Autos! Summertime
Strategies to reduce ground-level ozone:
Autos! air pollutant
reduce NOx emissions (critical!!)

NOx + VOC + Heat + Sunlight OZONE introduce low-emission cars & trucks (electric)
using cleaner gasoline
Warm, sunny locations! improving vehicle inspection programs

OZONE = principal component of SMOG

1.13 The Inside Story of Air Quality 1.14 Back to the Breath

Indoor Air Pollutants How much air do we inhale daily?

Carbon monoxide
Tobacco smoke nicotine carcinogen
Energy-efficient buildings
Paints and varnishes VOCs
Radon (Rn)