Classification of Electric Motors

In the previous topic Electrical Motors Basic Components , I explained the

construction and basic components of the main motor types of motors; AC and DC
motors.

Today, I will explain the different types in electric motors world as follows.

Main Types of Motor

Electric motors are broadly classified into two categories as follows:

1. AC Motors.
2. DC Motors.

Within those two main categories there are subdivisions as shown in the below image.

Motor Types
Notes: Recently, with the development of economical and reliable power electronic
components, there are numerous ways to design a motor and the classifications of
these motors have become less rigorous and many other types of motor have
appeared. Our classification of motors will be comprehensive as can as possible.

First: DC motors

DC motors

DC power systems are not very common in the contemporary engineering practice.
However, DC motors have been used in industrial applications for years Coupled with
a DC drive, DC motors provide very precise control DC motors can be used with
conveyors, elevators, extruders, marine applications, material handling, paper,
plastics, rubber, steel, and textile applications, automobile, aircraft, and portable
electronics, in speed control applications.

Advantages of DC motors:

1. It is easy to control their speed in a wide range; their torque-speed

characteristic has, historically, been easier to tailor than that of all AC motor
categories. This is why most traction and servo motors have been DC machines.
For example, motors for driving rail vehicles were, until recently, exclusively
DC machines.
2. Their reduced overall dimensions permit a considerable space saving which let
the manufacturer of the machines or of plants not to be conditioned by the
exaggerated dimensions of circular motors.

Disadvantages of DC motors
 1. Since they need brushes to connect the rotor winding. Brush wear occurs, and
it increases dramatically in lowpressure environment. So they cannot be used
in artificial hearts. If used on aircraft, the brushes would need replacement
after one hour of operation.
2. Sparks from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment contains
explosive materials.
3. RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby TV sets, or electronic
devices, Etc.
4. DC motors are also expensive relative to AC motors.

Thus all application of DC motors have employed a mechanical switch or commutator

to turn the terminal current, which is constant or DC, into alternating current in the
armature of the machine. Therefore, DC machines are also called commutating
machines.

Types of DC motors:
 Types of DC motors

The DC motors are divided mainly to:

1. Brush DC motors (BDC).

2. Brushless DC motors (BLDC).

1. A Brush DC motors
 Brush DC motors

A brushed DC motor (BDC) is an internally commutated electric motor designed to be

run from a direct current power source.

Applications:
Brushed DC motors are widely used in applications ranging from toys to push-button
adjustable car seats.

Advantages:
Brushed DC (BDC) motors are inexpensive, easy to drive, and are readily available in
all sizes and shapes

Construction:
 Brushed DC motor Construction

All BDC motors are made of the same basic components: a stator, rotor, brushes and a
commutator.

1- Stator
The stator generates a stationary magnetic field that surrounds the rotor. This field is
generated by either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings.

2- Rotor
 Rotor (Armature)

The rotor, also called the armature, is made up of one or more windings. When these
windings are energized they produce a magnetic field. The magnetic poles of this
rotor field will be attracted to the opposite poles generated by the stator, causing the
rotor to turn. As the motor turns, the windings are constantly being energized in a
different sequence so that the magnetic poles generated by the rotor do not overrun
the poles generated in the stator. This switching of the field in the rotor windings is
called commutation.

3- Brushes and Commutator

Commutator Example
 Segments and Brushes

Unlike other electric motor types (i.e., brushless DC, AC induction), BDC motors do
not require a controller to switch current in the motor windings. Instead, the
commutation of the windings of a BDC motor is done mechanically. A segmented
copper sleeve, called a commutator, resides on the axle of a BDC motor. As the motor
turns, carbon brushes (ride on the side of the commutator to provide supply voltage
to the motor) slide over the commutator, coming in contact with different segments
of the commutator. The segments are attached to different rotor windings, therefore,
a dynamic magnetic field is generated inside the motor when a voltage is applied
across the brushes of the motor. It is important to note that the brushes and
commutator are the parts of a BDC motor that are most prone to wear because they
are sliding past each other.

How the Commutator Works:

 How the Commutator Works

As the rotor turns, the commutator terminals also turn and continuously reverse
polarity of the current it gets from the stationary brushes attached to the battery.

Types of BDC motors:

 Types of DC motors

The different types of BDC motors are distinguished by the construction of the stator
or the way the electromagnetic windings are connected to the power source. These
types are:

1. Permanent Magnet.
2. Shunt-Wound.
3. Series-Wound.
 4. Compound-Wound.
5. Separately excited DC motor.
6. Universal Motor.
7. Servo Motors.

A- Permanent Magnet

Permanent Magnet Motor

A permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a motor whose poles are made out of
permanent magnets to produce the stator field.

Advantages:
 1. Since no external field circuit is needed, there are no field circuit copper
losses.
2. Since no field windings are needed, these motors can be considerable smaller.
3. Widely used in low power application.
4. Field winding is replaced by a permanent magnet (simple construction and less
space).
5. No requirement on external excitation.

Disadvantages:

1. Since permanent magnets produces weaker flux densities then externally

supported shunt fields, such motors have lower induced torque.
2. There is always a risk of demagnetization from extensive heating or from
armature reaction effects (Some PMDC motors have windings built into them to
prevent this from happening).

B- Shunt-Wound

Shunt-Wound Motor

Shunt-wound Brushed DC (SHWDC) motors have the field coil in parallel (shunt) with
the armature.

The speed is practically constant independent of the load and therefore suitable for
commercial applications with a low starting load, such as centrifugal pump, machine
tools, blowers fans, reciprocating pumps, etc.
Advantages:

1. The current in the field coil and the armature are independent of one another.
as a result, these motors have excellent speed control.
2. Loss of magnetism is not an issue in SHWDC motors so they are generally more
robust than PMDC motors.
3. Speed can be controlled by either inserting a resistance in series with the
armature (decreasing speed) or by inserting resistance in the field current
(increasing speed).

Disadvantages:

1. Shunt-wound Brushed DC (SHWDC) motors have drawbacks in reversing

applications, however, because winding direction relative to the shunt winding
must be reversed when armature voltage is reversed. Here, reversing
contactors must be used.

C- Series-Wound

Series-Wound Motor

Series-wound Brushed DC (SWDC) motors have the field coil in series with the
armature. These motors are ideally suited for high-torque applications such as
traction vehicles (cranes and hoists, electric trains, conveyors, elevators, electric
cars) because the current in both the stator and armature increases under load.

Advantages:
 1. The torque is proportional to I2 so it gives the highest torque per current ratio
over all other dc motors.

Disadvantages:

1. A drawback to SWDC motors is that they do not have precise speed control like
PMDC and SHWDC motors have.
2. Speed is restricted to 5000 RPM.
3. It must be avoided to run a series motor with no load because the motor will
accelerate uncontrollably.

D- Compound-Wound

Compound-Wound Motor

Compound Wound (CWDC) motors are a combination of shunt-wound and series-wound

motors.

CWDC motors employ both a series and a shunt field. The performance of a CWDC
motor is a combination of SWDC and SHWDC motors. CWDC motors have higher torque
than a SHWDC motor while offering better speed control than SWDC motor.

It is used in Applications such as Rolling mills, sudden temporary loads, heavy machine
tools, punches, etc.

Advantages:

1. This motor has a good starting torque and a stable speed.

Disadvantages:

1. The no-load speed is controllable unlike in series motors.

E- Separately excited DC motor

Separately excited DC motor

In a separately excited DC motor the field coils are supplied from an independent
source, such as a motor-generator and the field current is unaffected by changes in
the armature current. The separately excited DC motor was sometimes used in DC
traction motors to facilitate control of wheel slip.

F- Universal Motor
 Universal Motor

The universal motor is a rotating electrical machine similar to DC series motor,

designed to operate either from AD or DC source. The stator & rotor windings of the
motor are connected in series through the rotor commutator. The series motor is
designed to move large loads with high torque in applications such as crane motor or
lift hoist.

G- Servo Motors
 Servo Motors

Servo Motors are mechanical devices that can be instructed to move the output shaft
attached to a servo wheel or arm to a specified position. Servo Motors are designed
for applications involving position control, velocity control and torque control.
 Servo Motors Components

A servo motor mainly consists of a DC motor, gear system, a position sensor which is
mostly a potentiometer, and control electronics.

Servo Motors Applications

In the next Topic, I will explain the Brushless DC Motor (BDLC) & AC Motors Types.
So, please keep following.

Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design
course is an introduction

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors , I explained the different
types of the Brushed DC motor (BDC) which as in the following diagram:
Today, I will explain the Brushless DC motor (BLDC) and the AC induction motors as
follows.

You can review the following related topics for review and good following.

Electrical Motors Basic Components

2- Brushless DC motors
 Brushless DC motors

In brushes DC motors, the mechanical commutator and associated brushes are

problematical for a number of reasons as follows:

1. Brush wear occurs, and it increases dramatically in lowpressure environment.

2. Sparks from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment contains
explosive materials.
3. RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby TV sets, or electronic
devices, etc.

Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gaining
popularity. BLDC motors are used in industries such as Appliances, Automotive,
Aerospace, Consumer, Medical, Industrial Automation Equipment and Instrumentation.

As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead, they
are electronically commutated.

BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC motors and induction motors, a
few of these are:

1. Better speed versus torque characteristics.

2. High dynamic response.
3. High efficiency.
4. Long operating life.
5. Noiseless operation.
6. Higher speed ranges.

In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it
useful in applications where space and weight are critical factors.
Construction

BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the magnetic field
generated by the stator and the magnetic field generated by the rotor rotates at the
same frequency.

BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding

to its type, the stator has the same number of windings. Out of these, 3-phase motors
are the most popular and widely used.

1- Stator

Stator of a BLDC Motor

The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed
in the slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery.

Most BLDC motors have three stator windings connected in star fashion. Each of these
windings is constructed with numerous coils interconnected to form a winding. One or
more coils are placed in the slots and they are interconnected to make a winding.
Each of these windings is distributed over the stator periphery to form an even
numbers of poles.

Depending upon the control power supply capability, the motor with the correct
voltage rating of the stator can be chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated
motors are used in automotive, robotics, small arm movements and so on. Motors with
100 volts, or higher ratings, are used in appliances, automation and in industrial
applications.

2- Rotor

Rotor of a BLDC Motor

The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs
with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles.

BLDC Rotor Magnet Positions

Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic
material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make
permanent magnets.
3- Hall Sensors

BLDC Hall Sensors

Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled

electronically. To rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be
energized in a sequence. It is important to know the rotor position in order to
understand which winding will be energized following the energizing sequence.
Rotor position is sensed using Hall Effect sensors embedded into the stator.

Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the
non-driving end of the motor.

Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high
or low signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on
the combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of
commutation can be determined.

Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of
output. The Hall sensors may be at 60 or 120 phase shift to each other.
Based on this, the motor manufacturer defines the commutation sequence,
which should be followed when controlling the motor.

Note: The Hall sensors require a power supply. The voltage may range from 4 volts to
24 volts. Required current can range from 5 to 15 mAmps.

Theory of Operation
 Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive
power (current enters into the winding), the second winding is negative
(current exits the winding) and the third is in a non-energized condition.

Torque is produced because of the interaction between the magnetic field

generated by the stator coils and the permanent magnets of the rotor.

In order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field produced by the
windings should shift position, as the rotor moves to catch up with the stator
field. What is known as Six-Step Commutation defines the sequence of
energizing the windings.

In six-step commutation, only two out of the three Brushless DC Motor windings
are used at a time. Steps are equivalent to 60 electrical degrees, so six steps
make a full, 360 degree rotation. One full 360 degree loop is able to control
the current, due to the fact that there is only one current path. Six-step
commutation is typically useful in applications requiring high speed and
commutation frequencies. A six-step Brushless DC Motor usually has lower
torque efficiency than a sine-wave commutated motor.

Typical BLDC Motor Applications

We can categorize the type of BLDC motor control into three major types:

1. Constant load.
2. Varying loads.
3. Positioning applications.

1- Applications with Constant Loads:

These are the types of applications where a variable speed is more important than
keeping the accuracy of the speed at a set speed. In addition, the acceleration and
deceleration rates are not dynamically changing. In these types of applications, the
load is directly coupled to the motor shaft.
For example, fans, pumps and blowers come under these types of applications. These
applications demand low-cost controllers, mostly operating in open-loop.

2- Applications with Varying Loads:

These are the types of applications where the load on the motor varies over a speed
range. These applications may demand high-speed control accuracy and good dynamic
responses.
For example,

In home appliances: washers, dryers and compressors.

In automotive, fuel pump control, electronic steering control, engine control
and electric vehicle control.
In aerospace, there are a number of applications, like centrifuges, pumps,
robotic arm controls, gyroscope controls and so on.

These applications may use speed feedback devices and may run in semi-closed loop
or in total closed loop.

3- Positioning Applications:
Most of the industrial and automation types of application come under this category.
The applications in this category have some kind of power transmission, which could
be mechanical gears or timer belts, or a simple belt driven system. In these
applications, the dynamic response of speed and torque are important. Also, these
applications may have frequent reversal of rotation direction.
These systems mostly operate in closed loop.

Finally, a comparison between Brushed DC motor (BDC) and Brushless DC motor

(BLDC) is as shown in the below image.
Second: AC Motors

Alternating current (AC) motors use an electrical current, which reverses its direction
at regular intervals.

The main advantage of DC motors over AC motors is that speed is more difficult to
control for AC motors. To compensate for this, AC motors can be equipped with
variable frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together with a
reduced power quality.

Types of AC Motors:

AC motors in common use today may be divided into two broad categories:

1. Induction (asynchronous) motors.

2. Synchronous motors.
3. Linear Motors.

These two types of motors differ in how the rotor field excitation is supplied as
follows:

For induction motors, there is no externally-applied rotor excitation, and current is

instead induced into the rotor windings due to the rotating stator magnetic field.

For synchronous motors, a field excitation is applied to the rotor windings. This
difference in field excitation leads to differences in motor characteristics, which
leads in turn to different protection and control requirements for each motor type.
1- Induction motor

Induction motors are the most common motors used for various equipments in
industry.

Induction Motor: So called because voltage is induced in the rotor (thus no need for
brushes), but for this to happen, the rotate than rotor must at a lower speed the
magnetic field to allow for the existence of an induced voltage.

Therefore a new term is needed to describe the induction motor which is the slip.

The slip:

A driving torque can only exist if there is an induced current in the shading ring. It is
determined by the current in the ring and can only exist if there is a flux variation in
the ring. Therefore, there must be a difference in speed in the shading ring and the
rotating field. This is why an electric motor operating to the principle described
above is called an asynchronous motor.

The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the shading ring speed (N) is
called slip (s) and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed.

S= (Nsyn Nm)/ Nsyn

Where s is the slip. Slip is one of the most important variables in the control and
operation of induction machines.

s = 0 : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed.

s = 1 : if the rotor is stationary.

s is ve : if the rotor runs at a speed above the synchronous speed.

s is +ve : if the rotor runs at a speed below the synchronous speed.

Advantages:

1. Simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance.

2. Wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW.
3. Run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load.
4. Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source.
 5. Most popular motor today in the low and medium horsepower range.
6. Very robust in construction.
7. Have replaced DC Motors in areas where traditional DC Motors cannot be used
such as mining or explosive environments Of two types depending on motor
construction; Squirrel Cage or Slip Ring.

Disadvantages:

1. Not easy to have variable speed control.

2. Requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed
control.
3. Most of them run with a lagging power factor.

Principle of operation:

The stator is usually connected to the grid and, thus, the stator is magnetized.
Stator magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced voltage
in the rotor windings.
Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel
cage and wound-rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings.
The rotor current produces another magnetic field.
A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic
fields.

Construction:

An induction motor has two main parts

1- Stator
 Induction Motor Stator

This is the immobile part of the motor. A body in cast iron or a light alloy houses a
ring of thin silicon steel plates (around 0.5mm thick). The plates are insulated from
each other by oxidation or an insulating varnish. The lamination of the magnetic
circuit reduces losses by hysteresis and eddy currents.

The plates have notches for the stator windings that will produce the rotating field to
fit into (three windings for a 3-phase motor). Each winding is made up of several
coils. The way the coils are joined together determines the number of pairs of poles
on the motor and hence the speed of rotation.

2- Rotor

This is the mobile part of the motor. Like the magnetic circuit of the stator, it
consists of stacked plates insulated from each other and forming a cylinder keyed to
the motor shaft.

Types of Induction Motors

 Types of Induction Motors

Induction motors are classified according to the Rotor Type as follows:

A- Squirrel-Cage Rotor:
 Squirrel-Cage Rotor

It consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots. These bars are short-
circuited at both ends by means of short-circuiting rings.
B- Wound Rotor:
 Wound Rotor

It has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. It is wound for as many poles

as the stator. The three phases are wired internally and the other ends are connected
to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with brushes resting on them.

Each of the two types of Induction motors above can be classified into two main
groups as follows:

I- Single-phase induction motors:

These only have one stator winding, operate with a single-phase power supply, have a
squirrel cage rotor, and require a device to get the motor started. This is by far the
most common type of motor used in household appliances, such as fans, washing
machines and clothes dryers, and for applications for up to 3 to 4 horsepower.

Single phase induction motors come also with wound rotor which has excellent
starting and accelerating characteristics, and they are ideal for Value Operators,
Farm Motor Applications, Hoists, Floor Maintenance Machines, Air Compressors,
Laundry Equipment and Mining Equipment.

II- Three-phase induction motors:

The rotating magnetic field is produced by the balanced three-phase supply. These
motors have high power capabilities, can have squirrel cage or wound rotors (although
90% have a squirrel cage rotor), and are self-starting. It is estimated that about 70% of
motors in industry are of this type, are used in, for example, pumps, compressors,
conveyor belts, heavy-duty electrical networks, and grinders. They are available in
1/3 to hundreds of horsepower ratings.

Now, let us see the first classification of induction motors based on the above
types:

1- Single Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:

This category have many types as shown in the below image.

A- Shaded-Pole Induction Motors

Construction and operation principle:

 Shaded-Pole Induction Motors

Shaded-pole motors have only one main winding and no start winding. Starting is by
means of a design that rings a continuous copper loop around a small portion of each
of the motor poles. This shades that portion of the pole, causing the magnetic field
in the shaded area to lag behind the field in the unshaded area. The reaction of the
two fields gets the shaft rotating.

Advantages:

1. Because the shaded-pole motor lacks a start winding, starting switch or

capacitor, it is electrically simple and inexpensive.
2. The speed can be controlled merely by varying voltage, or through a multi-tap
winding.
3. Mechanically, the shaded-pole motor construction allows high-volume
production.
4. These are usually considered as disposable motors, meaning they are much
cheaper to replace than to repair.

Disadvantages:

1. Its low starting torque is typically 25% to 75% of the rated torque.
2. It is a high slip motor with a running speed 7% to 10% below the synchronous
speed.
3. Generally, efficiency of this motor type is very low (below 20%).

Applications:
The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to low horsepower or light duty
applications. Perhaps their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But
the low torque, low efficiency and less sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole
motors impractical for most industrial or commercial use, where higher cycle rates or
continuous duty are the norm.

In the next Topic, I will continue explaining other types of Single Phase, Squirrel
Cage Induction Motor. So, please keep following.

Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is
an introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and
Pumps as a type of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we
will show and explain in detail the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.

only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type
of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and
explain in detail the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Three

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two , I explained the
Brushless DC motor (BLDC) and the first type of single phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction
Motor; Shaded-Pole Induction Motors.

Today, I will explain other types of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors plus types of
Wound rotor, induction motors as follows.

You can review the following related topics for review and good following.

Electrical Motors Basic Components

Classification of Electric Motors Part One

1- Single Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:

This category have many types as shown in the below image.

B- Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

Construction and operation principle:

The split-phase motor is also known as an induction start/induction run motor. It has
two windings: a start and a main winding. The start winding is made with smaller
gauge wire and fewer turns, relative to the main winding to create more resistance,
thus putting the start windings field at a different angle than that of the main
winding which causes the motor to start rotating. The main winding, which is of a
heavier wire, keeps the motor running the rest of the time.
Advantages and disadvantages:

1. The starting torque is low, typically 100% to 175% of the rated torque.
2. The motor draws high starting current, approximately 700% to 1,000% of the
rated current.
3. The maximum generated torque ranges from 250% to 350% of the rated torque.

Applications:

Good applications for split-phase motors include small grinders, small fans and
blowers and other low starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3
hp. Avoid using this type of motor in any applications requiring high on/off cycle rates
or high torque.

Types:

Split-phase motors are designed to use inductance, capacitance, or resistance to

develop a starting torque and so, they have many types as follows:

1. Capacitor-Start.
2. Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor.
3. Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction Motor.
4. Resistance-Start.

1- Capacitor-Start

Construction and operation principle:

 Capacitor-Start Split-Phase AC Induction Motor
The stator consists of the main winding and a starting winding (auxiliary). The starting
winding is connected in parallel with the main winding and is placed physically at
right angles to it. A 90-degree electrical phase difference between the two windings
is obtained by connecting the auxiliary winding in series with a capacitor and starting
switch.

When the motor is first energized, the starting switch is closed. This places the
capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding. The capacitor is of such value that the
auxiliary circuit is effectively a resistive-capacitive circuit (referred to as capacitive
reactance and expressed as XC). In this circuit the current leads the line voltage by
about 45(because X C about equals R). The main winding has enough resistance-
inductance (referred to as inductive reactance and expressed as XL) to cause the
current to lag the line voltage by about 45(because X L about equals R). The
currents in each winding are therefore 90out of phase - so are the magnetic fields
that are generated. The effect is that the two windings act like a two-phase stator
and produce the rotating field required to start the motor.

When nearly full speed is obtained (75% of Rated speed), a centrifugal device (the
starting switch) cuts out the starting winding. The motor then runs as a plain single-
phase induction motor. Since the auxiliary winding is only a light winding, the motor
does not develop sufficient torque to start heavy loads. Split-phase motors, therefore,
come only in small sizes.
Advantages and disadvantages:

1. Since the capacitor is in series with the start circuit, it creates more starting
torque, typically 200% to 400% of the rated torque.
2. The starting current, usually 450% to 575% of the rated current, is much lower
than the split-phase due to the larger wire in the start circuit.
3. Sizes range from fractional to 10 hp at 900 to 3600 rpm.

2- Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor

Construction and operation principle:

Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor

A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor has a run type capacitor permanently
connected in series with the start winding. This makes the start winding an auxiliary
winding once the motor reaches the running speed.

Since the run capacitor must be designed for continuous use, it cannot provide the
starting boost of a starting capacitor.
The typical starting torque of the PSC motor is low, from 30% to 150% of the rated
torque.

PSC motors have low starting current, usually less than 200% of the rated current,
making them excellent for applications with high on/off cycle rates.

Advantages

1. The motor design can easily be altered for use with speed controllers.
2. They can also be designed for optimum efficiency and High-Power Factor (PF)
at the rated load.
3. Theyre considered to be the most reliable of the single-phase motors, mainly
because no centrifugal starting switch is required.

Applications

Permanent split-capacitor motors have a wide variety of applications depending on

the design. These include fans, blowers with low starting torque needs and
intermittent cycling uses, such as adjusting mechanisms, gate operators and garage
door openers.

3- Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction Motor

Construction and operation principle:

 Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

This motor has a start type capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding like the
capacitor start motor for high starting torque. Like a PSC motor, it also has a run type
capacitor that is in series with the auxiliary winding after the start capacitor is
switched out of the circuit. This allows high overload torque.

Advantages

1. This type of motor can be designed for lower full-load currents and higher
efficiency

Disadvantages

1. This motor is costly due to start and run capacitors and centrifugal switch.

Applications
It is able to handle applications too demanding for any other kind of single-phase
motor. These include woodworking machinery, air compressors, high-pressure water
pumps, vacuum pumps and other high torque applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.

4- Resistance-Start

Construction and operation principle:

Resistance-Start Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

A modified version of the capacitor start motor is the resistance start motor. In this
motor type, the starting capacitor is replaced by a resistor. This motor also has a
starting winding in addition to the main winding. It is switched in and out of the
circuit just as it was in the capacitor-start motor. The starting winding is positioned
at right angles to the main winding. The electrical phase shift between the currents in
the two windings is obtained by making the impedance of the windings unequal. The
main winding has a high inductance and a low resistance. The current, therefore, lags
the voltage by a large angle. The starting winding is designed to have a fairly low
inductance and a high resistance. Here the current lags the voltage by a smaller
angle.

For example, suppose the current in the main winding lags the voltage by 70. The
current in the auxiliary winding lags the voltage by 40. The currents are, therefore,
out of phase by 30. The magnetic fields are out of phase by the same amount.
Although the ideal angular phase difference is 90 for maximum starting torque, the
30-degree phase difference still generates a rotating field. This supplies enough
torque to start the motor. When the motor comes up to speed, a speed-controlled
switch disconnects the starting winding from the line, and the motor continues to run
as an induction motor. The starting torque is not as great as it is in the capacitor-
start.

Applications, Advantages and disadvantages:

The resistance start motor is used in applications where the starting torque
requirement is less than that provided by the capacitor start motor. Apart from the
cost, this motor does not offer any major advantage over the capacitor start motor.

A comparison for the popular types of a split phase motors is shown in the below
image.
C- Universal motor:

Universal motor
Universal motors are mostly operated on AC power, but they can operate on either AC
or DC. Tools and appliances are among the most frequent applications.
Please review the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors Part One for
more information about Universal motor.

2- Three Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:

Almost 90% of the three-phase AC Induction motors are of Squirrel Cage type. Here,
the rotor is of the squirrel cage type and it works as explained earlier. The power
ratings range from one-third to several hundred horsepower in the three-phase
motors. Motors of this type rated one horsepower or larger, cost less and can start
heavier loads than their single-phase counterparts.

Three phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are classified by application with a design
letter which gives an indication of key performance characteristics of the motor,
these classification are made by NEMA and IEC. The main Classifications of Three
phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are shown in the below image.

Three Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor

3- Single Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor

This category have many types as shown in the below image.

A- Repulsion motor

Construction:
 Repulsion motor

The motor has a stator and a rotor but there is no electrical connection between the
two and the rotor current is generated by induction. The rotor winding is connected
to a commutator which is in contact with a pair of short-circuited brushes which can
be moved to change their angular position relative to an imaginary line drawn through
the axis of the stator. The motor can be started, stopped and reversed, and the speed
can be varied, simply by changing the angular position of the brushes.
The principle difference between an AC series motor and repulsion motors is the way
in which power is supplied to armature. In Ac series motor the armature receives
voltage by conduction through the power supply. But In repulsion motors the
armature is supplied by induction from the stator windings.

Disadvantages of Repulsion Motor:

1. Occurrence of sparks at brushes.

 2. Commutator and brushes wear out quickly. This is primarily due to arcing and
heat generated at brush assembly.
3. The power factor is poor at low speeds.
4. No load speed is very high and dangerous.

Application of Repulsion motors:

Because of excellent starting and accelerating characteristics, repulsion-induction

motors are ideal for:

1. Value Operators.
2. Farm Motor Applications.
3. Hoists.
4. Floor Maintenance Machines.
5. Air Compressors.
6. Laundry Equipment.
7. Mining Equipment.

Types:

The various types of motors which works under the repulsion principle are:

1. Repulsion-start Induction-run motor.

2. Repulsion Induction motor.

A- Repulsion-start induction-run
A repulsion-start induction motor is a single phase motor having the same windings as
a repulsion motor , When an induction motor drives a hard starting load like a
compressor, the high starting torque of the repulsion motor may be put to use. The
induction motor rotor windings are brought out to commutator segments for starting
by a pair of shorted brushes. At near running speed, a centrifugal switch shorts out all
commutator segments, giving the effect of a squirrel cage rotor, the brushes may also
be lifted to prolong bush life. This means that they started as repulsion motors but
running as induction motor Starting torque is 300% to 600% of the full speed value as
compared to under 200% for a pure induction motor.

B- Repulsion-Induction Motor

A repulsion-induction motor is a form of repulsion motor which has a squirrel-cage

winding in the rotor in addition to the repulsion motor winding. A motor of this type
may have either a constant speed or varying-speed characteristic.

4- Three Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor

 Three Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor

This type of 3-phase induction motor has high starting torque, which makes it
ideal for applications where standard NEMA design motors fall short. The
wound-rotor motor is particularly effective in applications where using a
squirrel-cage motor may result in a starting current that's too high for the
capacity of the power system.

In addition, the wound-rotor motor is appropriate for high-inertia loads having

a long acceleration time.

The slip-ring motor or wound-rotor motor is a variation of the squirrel cage

induction motor. While the stator is the same as that of the squirrel cage
motor, it has a set of windings on the rotor which are not short-circuited, but
are terminated to a set of slip rings. These are helpful in adding external
resistors and contactors.
 Wound Rotor

The slip necessary to generate the maximum torque (pull-out torque) is

directly proportional to the rotor resistance. In the slip-ring motor, the
effective rotor resistance is increased by adding external resistance through
the slip rings. Thus, it is possible to get higher slip and hence, the pull-out
torque at a lower speed.

A particularly high resistance can result in the pull-out torque occurring at

almost zero speed, providing a very high pull-out torque at a low starting
current. As the motor accelerates, the value of the resistance can be reduced,
altering the motor characteristic to suit the load requirement. Once the motor
reaches the base speed, external resistors are removed from the rotor. This
means that now the motor is working as the standard induction motor.

This motor type is ideal for very high inertia loads, where it is required to
generate the pull-out torque at almost zero speed and accelerate to full speed
in the minimum time with minimum current draw.

Applications:

They are generally used to drive high-inertia loads (e.g., large pumps, cranes,
grinders).

In the next Topic, I will continue explaining The Synchronous Motor Types. So,
please keep following.

Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is
an introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and
Pumps as a type of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we
will show and explain in detail the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Four

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors - Part Three , I explained

the Induction motor and its different types.

Today, I will explain the Synchronous motor and its different types as follows.

You can review the following related topics for review and good following.

Electrical Motors Basic Components

Classification of Electric Motors Part One
Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two

Second: Synchronous motor

Synchronous Motor: So called because rotor tries to line up with the rotating
magnetic field in the stator. It has the stator of an induction motor, and the rotor of a
dc motor.

A synchronous motor is an AC motor, which runs at constant speed fixed by frequency

of the system. It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting
torque, and therefore suited for applications that start with a low load, such as air
compressors, frequency changes and motor generators. Synchronous motors are able
to improve the power factor of a system, which is why they are often used in systems
that use a lot of electricity.

Differences between Synchronous and Induction motors:

1. Synchronous motors are not as widely used as induction machines because their
rotors are more complex and they require exciters.
2. Synchronous motors are used in large industrial applications in situations where
their ability to provide leading power factor helps to support or stabilize
voltage and to improve overall power factor.
3. In ratings higher than several hundred horsepower, synchronous machines are
often more efficient than induction machines and so very large synchronous
machines are sometimes chosen over induction motors.
4. Unlike an induction motor, the synchronous motor is excited by an external DC
source and, therefore, requires slip rings and brushes to provide current to the
rotor.
5. In the synchronous motor, the rotor locks into step with the rotating magnetic
field and rotates at synchronous speed. If the synchronous motor is loaded to
the point where the rotor is pulled out of step with the rotating magnetic field,
no torque is developed, and the motor will stop.
6. A synchronous motor is not a self-starting motor because torque is only
developed when running at synchronous speed; therefore, the motor needs
some type of device to bring the rotor to Synchronous speed.

Construction:

Like the asynchronous (Induction) motor, the synchronous motor consists of a stator
and a rotor separated by the air gap. It differs from the asynchronous motor in that
the flux in the air gap is not due to a component of the stator current: it is created by
magnets or by the field coil current provided by an external DC source energizing a
winding placed in the rotor.

The main components of a synchronous motor are as follows:

1- Stator:
 Stator
The stator consists of a housing and a magnetic circuit generally comprising silicon
steel laminations and a 3-phase coil similar to that of an asynchronous motor supplied
with 3-phase AC to produce a rotating field.

The stator produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the frequency
supplied. This motor rotates at a synchronous speed, which is given by the following
equation:

Ns = 120 f / P
Where:

f = frequency of the supply frequency

P= number of poles

2- Rotor
 Rotor

Synchronous rotors are designed primarily for applications requiring highly efficient
motors. Each pole assembly is made from high strength steel laminations with a DC
field winding encircling the pole body. The field winding consists of a rectangular
section of insulated copper wire wound directly on an insulated pole body and bonded
by a high temperature, high strength insulating epoxy resin which, when cured,
results in a coil impervious to dirt, moisture and other contaminants.

The rotor carries field magnets or coils through which a direct current flows and
which create interposed North and South poles. Unlike asynchronous (Induction)
machines, the rotor rotates with no slip at the speed of the rotating field.

There are two types of rotor structures as follows:

1. Salient pole rotor.

2. Round or cylindrical rotor (Non-salient-pole rotor).

a- Salient Pole Rotor

 Salient Pole Rotor

Salient pole structure is used for low speed applications, such as hydroelectric
generators.
Salient-pole rotor: four and more poles.

b- Round or Cylindrical Rotor (Non-salient-Pole Rotor)

 Round or Cylindrical Rotor (Non-salient-Pole Rotor)

Round rotor structure is used for high speed synchronous machines, such as
steam turbine generators.
Non-salient-pole rotor: usually two- and four-pole rotors.

3- Amortisseur (starting winding)

Synchronous motors are provided with an Amortisseur, or starting winding, consisting

of copper alloy bars located in the pole face, parallel to the shaft, and brazed at the
ends to copper alloy rings. The Amortisseur winding is tailored for the application to
provide the required starting performance.

4- Stator Frame

The stator frame contains and supports the other parts and may include bearing
housings.

5- Other Parts

Large machines include additional parts for cooling the machine, supporting the rotor,
lubricating and cooling the bearings, and various protection and measurement
devices.
Operation:

Operation of a Synchronous Motor

The operation of a synchronous motor is simple to imagine. The 'Stator' winding, when
excited by a poly-phase (usually 3-phase) supply, creates a rotating magnetic field
inside the motor. The rotor winding, which acts as a permanent magnet, supplied
with a DC current and creating a field which simply locks in with the rotating
magnetic field and rotates along with it? During operation, as the rotor field locks in
with the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization and a
torque is developed.

Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on the
supply frequency. When the motor load is increased beyond the breakdown load, the
motor falls out of synchronization i.e., the applied load is large enough to pull out the
field winding from following the rotating magnetic field. The motor immediately stalls
after it falls out of synchronization.

Applications:

1. Synchronous motors find applications in all industrial applications where

constant speed is necessary.
2. Improving the power factor as synchronous condensers.
 3. Low power applications include positioning machines, where high precision is
required, and robot actuators.
4. Mains synchronous motors are used for electric clocks.
5. Record player turntables.
6. Large plant compressors.
7. Fans, pumps, and large industrial grinders.
8. Mills in the steel industry.
9. Larger high-speed motors are popular in the natural-gas pipeline system.

Advantages:

Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non-synchronous motors:

1. Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is

applied.
2. Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls, e.g. stepper
motors.
3. They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator
and the rotor windings.
4. Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current
relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads
voltage phase), can be obtained by increasing this current slightly, which can
help achieve a better power factor correction for the whole installation.
5. Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed
is required (as in ball mills and similar apparatus).
6. They run either at the synchronous speed or they do not run at all.

Types:

There are two major types of synchronous motors as follows:

1. Non-excited motors.
2. DC-excited motors.

1- Non-excited motors

These motors employ a self-starting circuit and require no external excitation supply.

In non-excited motors, the rotor is made of solid steel. At synchronous speed it

rotates in step with the rotating magnetic field of the stator, so it has an almost-
constant magnetic field through it. The external stator field magnetizes the rotor,
inducing the magnetic poles needed to turn it. The rotor is made of a high-retentively
steel such as cobalt steel. These are manufactured in three types as follows:

Reluctance motors.
Hysteresis motors.
Permanent magnet motors.

A- Reluctance motors

Reluctance motor is A synchronousinduction motor. The rotor has salient poles and a
cage so that it starts like an induction motor, and runs like a synchronous motor.

Principle of operation:

Reluctance Rotor

A classic squirrel cage rotor with notches (or flats) in the rotor periphery. The
number of notches will correspond to the number of poles in the stator
winding. The sections of the rotor periphery between the high reluctance areas
are known as salient poles. Since these poles create a low reluctance path for
the stator flux, they are attracted to the poles of the stator field.
 The reluctance synchronous rotor starts and accelerates like a regular squirrel
cage rotor, but as it approaches the rotational speed of the field, a critical
point is reached where there is an increased acceleration and the rotor snaps
into synchronism with the stator field.

If the load (particularly inertial) is too great, the motor will not attain
synchronous speed. Motor pull-in torque is defined as the maximum load that
the motor can accelerate and pull into synchronism at rated voltage and
frequency.

An applied load greater than the rated pull-in torque will prevent the motor
from pulling the load into synchronism and will result in rough, non-uniform
operation.

Reluctance synchronous motors may be designed for poly-phase operation, as well as

single-phase versions in split-phase, CS and PSC configurations.

Reluctance synchronous motors ratings range from sub-fractional to about 30 hp. Sub-
fractional horsepower motors have low torque, and are generally used for
instrumentation applications. Moderate torque, integral horsepower motors use
squirrel cage construction with toothed rotors.

Switched Reluctance Motors

 Switched Reluctance Motors

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is an electric motor in which torque is

produced by the tendency of its moveable part to move to a position where the
inductance of the excited winding is maximized.
SRM is a type of synchronous machine. It has wound field coils of a DC motor
for its stator windings and has no coils or magnets on its rotor.
It can be seen that both the stator and rotor have salient poles; hence, the
machine is a doubly salient, singly excited machine.
Stator windings on diametrically opposite poles are connected in series or
parallel to form one phase of the motor.
Several combinations of stator and rotor poles are possible, such as 6/4 (6
stator poles and 4 rotor poles), 8/4, 10/6 etc.
The configurations with higher number of stator/rotor pole combinations have
less torque ripple.

Applications:

1. Flameproof drive systems for potentially explosive atmospheres.

2. Washing machine.
3. Environmentally friendly air conditioning system for passenger trains.
4. Servo systems for advanced technology weaving machine.

B- Hysteresis motors:
 Hysteresis motors

Although the stator in a hysteresis synchronous design is wound much like that
of the conventional squirrel cage motor, its rotor is made of a heat-treated
cast permanent magnet alloy cylinder (with a nonmagnetic support) securely
mounted to the shaft like "hard" cobalt steel. This material has a wide
hysteresis loop (high retentively), meaning once it is magnetized in a given
direction, it requires a large reverse magnetic field to reverse the
magnetization.
 Stator of a Hysteresis Motor

The motors special performance characteristics are associated with its rotor
design. The rotor starts on the hysteresis principle and accelerates at a fairly
constant rate until it reaches the synchronous speed of the rotating field.
 Cobalt Hysteresis Ring Rotor

Instead of the permanently fixed poles found in the rotor of the reluctance
synchronous design, hysteresis rotor poles are induced by the rotating
magnetic field. During the acceleration period, the stator field will rotate at a
speed faster than the rotor, and the poles which it induces in the rotor will
shift around its periphery. When the rotor speed reaches that of the rotating
stator field, the rotor poles will take up a fixed position.

if the load is increased beyond the capacity of the motor, the poles on the
periphery of the rotor core will shift.

If the load is then reduced to the pullin capacity of the motor, the poles will
take up fixed positions until the motor is again overloaded or stopped and
restarted.

The hysteresis rotor will lock-in at any position, in contrast to the reluctance
rotor which has only the lock-in points corresponding to the salient poles on
the rotor.

Applications:
Hysteresis motors are manufactured in sub-fractional horsepower ratings, primarily as
servomotors and timing motors. More expensive than the reluctance type, hysteresis
motors are used where precise constant speed is required.

C- Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors

Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors

The stator portion of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors has an uneven

distribution of magnetic Poles and the solid steel rotor has permanent magnets
embedded in it, the purpose of this is to give the rotor a preferred starting
point while providing an apparent shift in field during starting due to the
uneven reluctance of the stator.
 Permanent-Magnet clock Motor and Rotor

They are not self-starting. Because of the constant magnetic field in the rotor
these cannot use induction windings for starting, and must have electronically
controlled variable frequency stator drive.

Some of these motors have a spring return mechanism to reverse the rotation
just in case it starts turning the wrong way.

Applications:

Industrial drives, e.g., pumps, fans, blowers, mills, hoists, handling systems, elevators
and escalators, people movers, light railways and streetcars (trams), electric road
vehicles, aircraft flight control surface actuation.

Advantages:

The use of permanent magnets (PMs) in construction of electrical machines brings the
following benefits:

1. No electrical energy is absorbed by the field excitation system and thus there
are no excitation losses which mean substantial increase in the efficiency.
2. Higher torque and/or output power per volume than when using
electromagnetic excitation.
3. Better dynamic performance than motors with electromagnetic excitation
(higher magnetic flux density in the air gap).
4. Simplification of construction and maintenance.
5. Reduction of prices for some types of machines.

Disadvantages:
 1. High cost of permanent magnets.
2. Magnet corrosion and possible demagnetization.
3. Large air gap in surface mount PM machines.

In the next Topic, I will continue explaining other types of Synchronous Motor. So,
please keep following.

Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is
an introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and
Pumps as a type of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we
will show and explain in detail the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Five

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors - Part Four , I explained the
Synchronous motor construction and applications. Also, I explained the first type of
Synchronous motor which was the Non-excited motors.

Today, I will explain the second type of Synchronous motor which is DC-excited
motors in addition to the Linear motors as follows.

You can review the following related topics for review and good following.

Electrical Motors Basic Components

Classification of Electric Motors Part One
Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two
Classification of Electric Motors - Part Three

2- DC-excited motors

They are made in sizes larger than 1 hp, these motors require direct current for
excitation which can be supplied from a separate source or from a dc generator
directly connected to the motor shaft.

These motors are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and other devices
where correct time is required.

Two common approaches are used to supply a DC current to the field circuits on the
rotating rotor:

1. Supply the DC power from an external DC source to the rotor by means of slip
rings and brushes Brush type Synchronous motors.
2. Supply the DC power from a special DC power source mounted directly on the
shaft of the machine brushless type Synchronous motors.

A- Brush type Synchronous motors:

Brush type Synchronous motors

The field exciter for a brush-type motor is typically a DC generator with its rotor
mounted on the motor shaft. The output of the DC generator is fed via brushes and
slip rings to the motor field windings.

A brush-style exciter is typically not used in a high speed application due to ignition
problems caused by the brushes physical contact with the slip ring. Proper and
regular maintenance, though difficult to perform, can reduce the occurrence of
ignition problems in brush-type exciters

B- Brushless type Synchronous motors:

A rotor of large synchronous machine with a brushless exciter mounted on the same shaft.

The field exciter for a brushless synchronous motor typically consists of an AC

generator with the field windings on its stator, armature windings on its rotor, and
with its rotor mounted on the motor shaft. The output of the generator is rectified by
solid-state rectifier elements also mounted on the rotor shaft and fed directly to the
motor field windings without the need for brushes or slip rings. Because of the
proliferation of solid-state power electronic technology, and because the brushless-
type motors require less maintenance almost all new synchronous motors are
brushless-type.

Solid-State Rectifier for Brushless Motor

It is possible to adjust the field current on the main machine by controlling the small
DC field current of the exciter generator (located on the stator).

Note: In either design; brush and brushless, the field excitation to the exciter may be
varied to vary the power-factor operation of the motor, and in fact power factor
correction is one common use of synchronous motors since they can be made to
operate at leading power factors.
3- Stepper motor:

Stepper motor is a special type of synchronous motor which is designed to rotate a

specific number of degrees for every electric pulse received by its control unit.
Typical steps are 7.5 or 15 degree per pulse.

It is a motor that can rotate in both directions, move in precise angular increments,
sustain a holding torque at zero speed, and be controlled with digital circuits. It
moves in accurate angular increments known as steps, in response to the application
of digital pulses to the electric drive circuit.

Generally, such motors are manufactured with steps per revolution. Depending on its
electrical power supply, it may be:

A- Unipolar: if its coils are always supplied in the same direction by a single voltage,
it requiring only one power source, hence the name unipolar.

B- Bipolar: when its coils are supplied sometimes in one direction and sometimes in
the other, it requiring two power sources. They sometimes create a North Pole, and
sometimes a South pole, hence the name bipolar.

Stepper motors, unlike ordinary DC motors, are brushless and can divide a full 360
into a large number of steps, for example 200.

Operating principles:
Stepper motors operate differently from normal DC motors, which rotate when
voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively
have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece
of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, such as a
micro controller.

To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes
the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's
teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the
next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is
turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the
process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step," with an integer
number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a
precise angle.

Advantages:

1. Low cost.
2. Can work in an open loop (no feedback required).
3. Excellent holding torque (eliminated brakes/clutches).
4. Excellent torque at low speeds.
5. Low maintenance (brushless).
 6. Very rugged - any environment.
7. Excellent for precise positioning control.
8. No tuning required.

Disadvantages:

Some of the disadvantages of stepper motors in comparison with servo motors are as
follows:

1. Rough performance at low speeds unless you use micro-stepping.

2. Consume current regardless of load.
3. Limited sizes available.
4. Noisy.
5. Torque decreases with speed (you need an oversized motor for higher torque at
higher speeds).
6. Stepper motors can stall or lose position running without a control loop.

Applications of Stepper motor:

1. Cruise control.
2. Auto air vents.
3. Light leveling.
4. Printers.
5. Industrial machines.
6. Automotive gauges.
7. Office equipment.
8. Computer drives.
9. Medical scanners.
10. Scientific Instrumentation.

Types of Stepper Motors:

1- Variable-Reluctance Step Motors

 Variable-Reluctance Step Motors

The construction of variable-reluctance (VR) motors is generally as shown in above

image, there is a stator assembly consisting of an insulated lamination stack with
copper coils wound around the teeth. The stator assembly is positioned within a
housing or main frame such that its location is secured. The rotor assembly consists of
a steel magnetic core, a steel output shaft, and bearings. The rotor assembly is
centrally located inside the stator assembly by end frames or bearing supports.

2- Permanent-Magnet-Rotor Step Motors

 Permanent-Magnet-Rotor Step Motors

The PM step motor is illustrated in above image. It consists of two sets of stamped
steel cups with diagonal teeth facing the rotor. Each set of cups circumscribes a coil
of wire. The two sets are positioned with respect to each other such that they
circumscribe the rotor but they are offset from each other by one-half of a tooth
pitch.

The permanent-magnet-rotor step motor is commonly referred to as the stamped-

construction or sheet-metal step motor. It is sometimes called simply a PM step
motor but should not be confused with the hybrid permanent-magnet step motor.

The rotor in a stamped-construction motor is a smooth cylindrical permanent magnet

radially magnetized with alternating N and S poles.

The stator has two cup-shaped halves with formed stator teeth. Each half contains a
circular, bobbin-wound coil. Because of this simple design, the price is low, but step
accuracy and speed may not equal the performance of other step-motor types.

3- Hybrid Permanent-Magnet Step Motors

 Hybrid Permanent-Magnet Step Motors

The hybrid step motor is generally constructed as shown in above image. It has a
stator assembly similar to that of the VR motor, but the rotor consists of three
sections.

Two pieces are similar to the VR step-motor rotor, but a magnet is placed between
them, and they are offset circumferentially from each other by one-half tooth pitch.

This motor is termed a hybrid because it uses elements of both variable reluctance
and permanent-magnet-rotor step motors. The commonly known version is the 1.8
step-angle motor. It was originally designed as an ac two-phase synchronous inductor
motor for low-speed applications.

Its stator construction is similar to that of a variable-reluctance step motor with

salient poles (multiple teeth per pole).The phase windings may be either monofilar or
bifilar coils, as discussed for the stamped-construction motor. The rotor contains a
cylindrical permanent magnet axially magnetized and enclosed on each end by a soft-
iron cup with uniformly spaced teeth. As for the variable-reluctance motor, the
number of stator phases and differing number of stator and rotor teeth determine the
step angle.
Third: Linear motors

Linear motors should be thought of as rotary electric motors that have been cut along
a radial plane and unrolled. The resultant motor is a linear electric motor that can
produce linear motion without the need of pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders or
translation of rotary motion with the use of belts, pulleys, or screws. This is desirable
because the extra machine parts make the machine more complicated, and there are
more parts that will wear out, and need replacement.

However, because linear motors do not have the luxury of 360 degree contained
rotation, they must either increase the length of the primary, coil assembly, and keep
a short moving secondary, magnet assembly, or increase the length of the secondary,
and keep a short moving primary. There is a diagram that can be found below
illustrating the differences between these two options.

So, a linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so
that instead of producing a torque (rotation) it produces a linear force along its
length. Linear electric motors can drive a linear motion load without intermediate
gears, screws, or crank shafts.
Applications:

1. Sliding doors and various similar actuators.

2. Accelerating cars for crash tests.
3. Transportation (Trains).
4. Robotics & Material Handling.
5. Elevators.
6. Compressors & Pumps.
7. Catapults and Launchers.
8. Curtain pullers.

Types:

there are two main types of Linear Motors as follows:

1. Linear induction motor (LIM).

2. Linear synchronous motor (LSM).

1- Linear induction motor (LIM)

 Linear induction motor (LIM)
A linear induction motor (LIM) is an AC asynchronous linear motor that works by the
same general principles as other induction motors but is very typically designed to
directly produce motion in a straight line. Characteristically, linear induction motors
have a finite length primary, which generates end-effects, whereas with a
conventional induction motor the primary is arranged in an endless loop.

Linear motors frequently run on a 3 phase power supply.

Despite their name, not all linear induction motors produce linear motion, some
linear induction motors are employed for generating rotations of large diameters
where the use of a continuous primary would be very expensive.

Construction:
 Traditional Linear Motors

A linear electric motor's primary typically consists of a flat magnetic core (generally
laminated) with transverse slots which are often straight cut with coils laid into the
slots.

The secondary is frequently a sheet of aluminum, often with an iron backing plate.
Some LIMs are double sided, with one primary either side of the secondary, and in this
case no iron backing is needed.

Two sorts of linear motor exist, short primary, where the coils are truncated shorter
than the secondary, and a short secondary where the conductive plate is smaller.
Short secondary LIMs are often wound as parallel connections between coils of the
same phase, whereas short primaries are usually wound in series.

The primaries of transverse flux LIMs have a series of twin poles lying transversely
side-by-side, with opposite winding directions.
Principles of operation

a- Moving magnetic field

In this design of electric motor, the force is produced by a moving linear magnetic
field acting on conductors in the field. Any conductor, be it a loop, a coil or simply a
piece of plate metal, that is placed in this field will have eddy currents induced in it
thus creating an opposing magnetic field, in accordance with Lenz's law. The two
opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the magnetic field
sweeps through the metal.

b- End effect
Unlike a circular induction motor, a linear induction motor shows end effects.

With a short secondary, the behavior is almost identical to a rotary machine, provided
it is at least two poles long, but with a short primary reduction in thrust occurs at low
slip (below about 0.3) until it is eight poles or longer.

However, because of end effect, linear motors cannot 'run light'- normal induction
motors are able to run the motor with a near synchronous field under low load
conditions. Due to end effect this creates much more significant losses with linear
motors.

c- Levitation
In addition, unlike a rotary motor, an electrodynamics levitation force is shown, this
is zero at zero slip, and tends to a constant positive lift force as slip increases in
either direction.

2- Linear synchronous motor (LSM)

 Linear synchronous motor (LSM)

A linear synchronous motor (LSM) is a linear motor in which the mechanical motion is
in synchronism with the magnetic field, i.e., the mechanical speed is the same as the
speed of the traveling magnetic field. The thrust (propulsion force) can be generated
as an action of the following two fields:

1. traveling magnetic field produced by a polyphase winding and an array of

magnetic poles N, S,...,N, S or a variable reluctance ferromagnetic rail (LSMs
with a.c. armature windings);
2. Magnetic field produced by electronically switched d.c. windings and an array
of magnetic poles N, S,...,N, S or variable reluctance ferromagnetic rail (linear
stepping or switched reluctance motors).

The part producing the traveling magnetic field is called the armature or forcer. The
part that provides the d.c. magnetic flux or variable reluctance is called the field
excitation system (if the excitation system exists) or salientpole rail, reaction rail, or
variable reluctance platen.

In the next Topic, I will explain Motor selection procedures . So, please keep
following.
Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design
course is an introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about
Motors and Pumps as a type of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design
courses, we will show and explain in detail the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.