Glossary Version 2.

5 © WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd 2009

Glossary of some terms used in cement, concrete and in the analysis of

cementitious materials

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 Glossary Version 2.5 © WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd 2009

90µm residue See raw meal.

AFm AFm (Al2O3-Fe2O3-mono) represents another group of calcium

aluminate hydrates with the general formula:

[Ca2(Al, Fe)(OH6)].X.nH2O

where X represents a singly charged anion or 'half' a doubly

charged anion. X may be one of many anions; the most
important in Portland cement hydration are hydroxyl, sulfate
and carbonate.

‘Monosulfate’–present in most mature Portland cement

concretes –has the formula:

C3A.CaSO4.12H2O

AFt AFt (Al2O3-Fe2O3-tri) represents a group of calcium

sulfoaluminate hydrates. AFt has the general formula:

[Ca3(Al,Fe)(OH)6.12H2O]2.X3.xH2O

where X represents a doubly charged anion or, sometimes, two

singly charged anions. Ettringite is the most common and
important member of the AFt group (X in this case denoting
sulfate.) The formula for ettringite (ignoring any iron
substitution for aluminium) can also be written as:

[Ca3Al(OH)6.12H2O]2.(SO4)3.2H2O or
C3A.3CaSO4.32H2O

Aggregate Sand and gravel mixed with cement and water to make
concrete.

Air setting Loss of flowability or formation of lumps of cement during

storage. Can be due to cement hydration from water in gypsum
added during grinding, or to syngenite formation.

Åkermanite, Akermanite Calcium magnesium silicate (C2MS2 or 2CaO.MgO.2SiO2). Not

generally present in Portland cement; may be present as a
minor component in slag.

Alite Impure tricalcium silicate. The main hydraulic mineral in

Portland cement, typically comprising 50%-70% of the
unhydrated cement.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html

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 Glossary Version 2.5
Alkali sulfate
Alkali-carbonate reaction
(dedolomitization)
Alkali-silica reaction
Alkali-sulfur ratio in
clinker
Alumina Ratio (AR or
A/F)
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Alkali sulfate in the context of Portland cement clinkers means
primarily sodium sulfate (mineral name thenardite), potassium
sulfate (mineral name arcanite), a sodium-potassium sulfate
(mineral name aphthitalite) or calcium langbeinite. Exactly
which minerals form depends on the amounts and proportions
of potassium and sodium in the clinker, and the ratio of
available alkali to sulfate.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/variability.html
Some aggregates containing dolomite react with the alkaline
cement pore fluid. The process is not fully understood but
involves the replacement of dolomite by calcite and magnesium
hydroxide crystals:
CaMg(CO3)2+2OH-  CaCO3+Mg(OH)2+CO32-
The presence of clay in the aggregate appears to be of
importance.
A reaction between the cement pore fluid in concrete with
certain types of silica, which may occur in concrete aggregate.
Susceptible types of silica include strained or microcrystalline
quartz, glass, cristobalite, tridymite, opal, flint, and chert. A gel
is formed which exerts an expansive force within the concrete
and which may lead to widespread cracking and failure of the
concrete.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/alkali-silica.html
Ratio of K2O and Na2O to SO3 in clinker. Can be expressed as
ratio of Na2O-equivalent to sulfate. Important because an
excess of alkali over sulfate may lead to the formation of alkali
belite and aluminate. Alkali-stabilised belite is difficult to
convert to alite and alkali aluminate (=prismatic or
orthorhombic C3A) may cause setting problems.
An important parameter in cement clinker composition.
Given by:
Al2O3 / Fe2O3
Where Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are the relevant oxide contents of the
clinker.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/parameters.html
e.
 Glossary Version 2.5 © WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd 2009

Aluminate Impure tricalcium aluminate. Very reactive on contact with

water but only weakly hydraulic. Typically comprises 5%-10%
of Ordinary Portland Cement. Plays an important role in the
setting of cement.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html

AR (or A/F) See Alumina Ratio

ASTM C150 American Society for Testing and Materials standard

specification for Portland cement. Cement is classified into eight
types:
Type I cement –general purpose cement where the special
properties of cement of other types is not required.
Type IA –air entraining cement for use in the same applications
as Type I where air-entrainment is required.
Type II cement –general use; also where moderate heat of
hydration or moderate sulfate resistance is required.
Type IIA –air-entraining cement for use in the same
applications as Type II where air-entrainment is required.
Type III –high early strength cement.
Type IIIA –air-entraining cement for use in the same
applications as Type III where air-entrainment is required.
Type IV –low heat of hydration cement.
Type V –cement with a high sulfate resistance.

Autoclaved aerated Lightweight concrete, usually in the form of blocks. AAC has a
concrete (AAC) low density due to the inclusion of large numbers of air cells,
typically 1mm –5mm across.

Produced in an autoclave at high pressure and temperature.

Materials used in AAC production are typically cement and lime
as the binder, with sand or pulverized fuel ash (PFA) as the
source of silica. The air cells are formed by the addition of
aluminium powder, which generates hydrogen bubbles in the
alkaline environment of the mix.

AAC does not contain the normal cement hydration products

present in concrete cured at normal temperatures. The main
constituent of AAC is 1.1nm tobermorite.

Belite Impure dicalcium silicate. A hydraulic mineral in Portland

cement, typically comprising 5%-30% of the clinker. Also an
important hydraulic mineral in natural hydraulic lime.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html

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Bleeding After concrete has been placed and before it has set, the effect
of gravity tends to cause segregation, where coarser aggregate
particles settle downwards and water rises upwards. The rising
wat ercar riescementf i
nes.Thi seffectiscalled‘ bleeding. ’
Bleeding occurs only to a minor extent where the mix is
cohesive. Excessive bleeding may indicate a high water-cement
ratio and results in a light-coloured and porous, friable concrete
surface. It may also affect the strength and durability of the
concrete due to the sub-optimal distribution of cement fines.

Bogue calculation Calculation to give the approximate proportions of the four

main clinker minerals in Portland cement clinker, requiring the
clinker bulk analysis and the free lime content, the free lime
being subtracted from the total CaO before calculating
the mineral proportions.

Approximately given by:

C3S=4.0710CaO - 7.602SiO2 - 6.7187Al2O3 - 1.429Fe2O3

C2S=-3.0710CaO + 8.6024SiO2 + 5.0683Al2O3 + 1.0785Fe2O3

C3A=2.6504Al2O3 - 1.6920Fe2O3

C4AF=3.0432Fe2O3

Can be applied to cements by subtracting 0.7SO3 from the CaO,

as well as the correction for free lime. This assumes all the
sulfate is present as calcium sulfate; this is unlikely to be
strictly the case as some sulfate will be present as clinker alkali
sulfate. A further error will be introduced if the cement contains
other material such as fine limestone; this may be added as a
“mi noraddi ti
onalconst i
tuent ”( mac) in the cement mill.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/bogue.html

C2S C2S represents dicalcium silicate in cement chemistry notation.

Belite in cement clinker is C2S with impurities.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html

C3A C3A represents tricalcium aluminate in cement chemistry

notation. Aluminate phase in cement clinker is C3A with
impurities.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html

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 Glossary Version 2.5
C3S
C4AF
Calciner
Calcium Aluminate
Cement (=CAC, High
Alumina Cement, HAC)
Calcium hydroxide
(Portlandite)
Calcium silicate bricks
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
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C3S represents tricalcium silicate in cement chemistry notation.
Alite in cement clinker is C3S with impurities.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html
C4AF represents tetracalcium aluminoferrite in cement
chemistry notation. Ferrite phase in cement clinker may
approximate to this composition but the proportions of C, A and
F may also vary considerably. Ferrite also contains impurities.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html
Additional burner placed in the preheater tower. See:
http://www.understanding-cement.com/kiln.html
Typically made from limestone and bauxite, or other material
with a high alumina content, heated to about 1500 C, at which
temperature it is completely molten. When cooled, the cooled
liquid contains principally calcium aluminate (CA) with C12A7.
Other calcium aluminates may be present. CACs typically show
rapid strength growth and good resistance to sulfates and
chemical attack generally. Often used in grouts, floor screeds
and other cementitious applications blended with Portland
cement and gypsum.
See also conversion.
See cement hydration products
Dense bricks, blocks or pavers, usually produced by autoclaving
sand and lime mixes. 1.1nm tobermorite is the principal
constituent.
An odourless, colourless gas essential to plant life for
photosynthesis. By volume CO2 comprises about 380 ppm
(part spermi l
li
on)oft heearth’sat mospher e.Cement
production releases CO2 when limestone is calcined. CO2 is also
released from the burning of fossil fuels in the kiln and from
electricity generation to power the mills and other parts of the
production process. Total CO2 emissions from Portland cement
production are approximately 900kg-1000kg per tonne cement
(eg: 970kg/tonne in USA in 2001 - source: CO2 Emissions
Profile of the U.S. Cement Industry Hanle et al 2004) but the
actual values will vary appreciably between different cement
plants depending on their efficiency and the extent to which
they use supplementary fuels.
e.
Glossary Version 2.5 © WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd 2009

Cement Hydraulic powder which reacts with water to form a solid mass.
The most common type of cement in use is Portland Cement, of
which there are a number of different types. See cement types.

Cement Chemistry An arcane but convenient notation where single letters

Notation represent oxides:

C=CaO, S=SiO2, F=Fe2O3, A=Al2O3, N=Na2O, K=K2O

T=TiO2, H=H2O, M=MgO, P=P2O5, also:
_
S = SO3 –spokenas‘ Ess-bar’
_
C = CO2 - spokenas‘See-bar’

The last two are becoming used rather less-commonly; it is

easy to write a line above a letter when writing with a pen but
more difficult with a word processor.

For example, C3S represents tricalcium silicate and C3A

represents tricalcium aluminate.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/notation.html

Cement clinker Portland cement clinker is the unground (unmilled) nodular

product from the kiln. Clinker is typically composed of nodules
ranging in size from 30mm to dust.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html

Cement hydration Process of reaction of cement with water. The most important
cement hydration product is calcium silicate hydrate, often
abbreviatedt o‘ C-S-H’ .

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/hydration.html

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Cement hydration In-situ hydration product: hydration product which has

products formed within the volume formerly occupied by a cement grain
- usually this is only visible for the larger grains by SEM. In-
situ hydration product is usually relatively pure C-S-H. Also
known as' innerpr oduct .'Seeal so‘ Undesi gnatedpr oduct.
’

Undesignated product: hydration product forming the matrix

containing all other hydration products in the concrete apart
from in-situ hydration product. Strictly, the space originally
occupied by water on mixing but in practice also includes the
volumes formerly occupied by small cement grains, the outlines
of which later are obscured. Also known as 'outer-product' and
'undi
fferent i
at edpr oduct.'Seeal so‘In-si tuhydr ati
onpr oduct ’
.

Calcium hydroxide (Portlandite): Ca(OH)2 or CH, Probably

forms mainly in regions in concrete initially occupied by water
on mixing.

Ettringite: forms mainly in the early stages of cement

hydration. After a few days, monosulfate, rather than ettringite,
is normally the main sulfate-containing phase in hydrated
cement. Formula is C3A.3CaSO4.32H2O. Ettringite is commonly
found in concrete subjected to sulfate attack. See also AFt
phase.

Monosulfate: the main sulfate-containing phase in mature

concrete. Formula is C3A.CaSO4.12H2O. See also AFm phase.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/hydration.html

Cement mill In principle, a large rotating cylinder containing steel balls

which smash the clinker particles to produce a fine powder. In
practice the product of much engineering evolution to achieve
maximum efficiency. Cement mills typically contain several
chambers with different sized grinding media (steel balls) to
grind the cement particles increasingly finely. Screens (meshes)
within the mill control particle size. Oversized particles may be
returned for further grinding.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/milling.html

Cement sulfate content
Sulfates in Portland cement are generally of two types: sulfate
originally present in the clinker and sulfate added in the form of
gypsum when the clinker was ground into cement. Too little
sulfate may lead to flash setting; too much sulfate may lead to
false setting (or plaster set), and possibly also to damaging
expansion due to sulfate attack. In Portland cement, sulfate is
typically approximately 3% SO3 by weight of cement. Sulfate
contents are limited by standard specifications for cement.

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Cement types There are many different types of cement. The most common is
Portland Cement. Other types include:

calcium aluminate cement, or CAC; also known as high alumina

cement, or HAC
calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA)
hydraulic lime
extended cements –mixtures of Portland Cement with other
reactive material which take part in the hydration process, such
as fly ash or ground slag; also known as blended cements or
composite cements or combination cements.

Cementitious Adjective –a material that is cementitious has the ability to

bond other materials together.

CH CH represents calcium hydroxide in cement chemistry notation.

Chloride Present in trace amounts in Portland cement. Can act as an

accelerator with eg: calcium chloride addition but is highly
detrimental to steel reinforcement in concrete as it accelerates
corrosion. Chloride contents in cements are limited by cement
standards eg: a maximum of 0.1% specified in EN-197.

Clinker See cement clinker.

Clinker milling or clinker
grinding
Process of reducing the clinker particle size. Clinker is ground
finely, usually interground with gypsum, to produce cement.
Particle size of the ground clinker in cement is typically 100µm
down to sub-micron. There are various ways of controlling the
cement particle size, most commonly by cement surface area
(eg: 350m2 kg-1) but particle size distribution or sieve residue
are also sometimes used.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/milling.html

Clinker mineral Proportions of the four main minerals in Portland cement clinker
proportions (alite - C3S; belite –C2S; aluminate - C3A and ferrite - C4AF are
commonly calculated using the Bogue calculation. This
calculation uses assumed pure mineral compositions and
requires the bulk analysis of the clinker for CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3, and the unreacted lime in the cement ('free lime').

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/bogue.html

Cohesiveness A concrete mix that is cohesive does not segregate or bleed to

any significant extent. See bleeding and segregation.

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Concrete A synthetic rock containing sand and gravel aggregate, bonded

in a cementitious matrix.

Conversion Applied to concrete made from calcium aluminate cements, this

is the process of conversion of one form of calcium aluminate
hydrate to another. The principal component of CAC - calcium
aluminate or CA - hydrates to form calcium aluminate hydrate
(CAH10). This is very strong, but also unstable at normal
temperatures. It slowly, over a period of months or years
depending on the concrete mix and ambient conditions,
converts to C3AH6 plus aluminium hydroxide and water.
Conversion results in some loss of strength of the concrete
because the porosity of the cement paste increases. How
significant this strength loss is, depends on the particular
circumstances of the case.

See also calcium aluminate cement.

Creep (of concrete) The increase in strain while under a stress

maintained over a long period of time.

C-S-H C-S-H represents calcium silicate hydrate in cement chemistry

notation. The '-' are important and indicate that no exact
stoichiometric proportions are intended.

Delayed Ettringite A particular form of sulfate attack which may occur in concrete
Formation (DEF) cured at high temperatures. Does not require additional sulfate
–the sulfate originally in the cement is sufficient to produce
DEF. See also TSA.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/sulfate.html

EDX Energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis (sometimes also known

as EDS: Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy and EDAX.)

For more information, see:

www.whd.co.uk

EN-196 European standard for methods of testing cement.

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EN-197 European standard for the composition, specifications and

conformity criteria for common cements.

CEM I – Portland cement

CEM II – Portland-composite cements
CEM III - Blastfurnace cements
CEM IV - Pozzolanic cements
CEM V - Composite cements

Suffixes are used to indicate the proportion and nature of other

constituents, and the strength class of the cement.
Eg: a cement classified as: CEM II/A-LL 42,5 N is a Portland
composite cement (CEM II) containing a low proportion (A)
(6%-20%) of the second constituent. The second constituent is
limestone (L), in this case a high-purity limestone (LL). The
cement strength class is 42,5 –ie: normal strength
development.

Ettringite See cement hydration products and AFt.

European cement See standard specifications for cement.

standards

False setting (false-
setting, plaster set)
False setting can occur as concrete or mortar is being mixed. It
happens if there is an excess of soluble sulfate available in the
cement pore fluid (mix water). This results in the formation of
crystals of gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) and these
crystals cause the mix to stiffen. The gypsum crystals may re-
dissolve, so it may be possible to mix through a false set and
restore workability.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/variability.html

Ferrite Impure tetracalcium aluminoferrite. Typically comprises 5%-

10% of Ordinary Portland Cement. Black or dark grey in colour,
ferrite gives cement the characteristic grey colour.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/clinker.html

Fine filler effect
The physical effect of the incorporation of fine powder (of
cement fineness or finer) in concrete mixes can have a
beneficial effect on the concrete. These small particles act as
additional nucleation sites on which cement hydrates can form,
resulting on more rapid cement hydration and a more uniform,
denser, microstructure giving higher strengths.

The fine filler effect is a physical effect and separate from any
chemical reactions in which the fine particles may participate.

Ground limestone is a typical example of a material that can act

as a fine filler.

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Flash setting Flash setting occurs if insufficient sulfate is available in the pore
fluid (mix water) to control the hydration of the aluminate (C3A)
phase in the cement. The aluminate phase is the most reactive
phase in cement and reacts quickly with water to produce
calcium aluminate hydrates. These crystals bond particles
together in the mix and reduce workability. In the extreme
case, they can form an interlocking mass which produces a
solid mix. Unlike false setting, flash setting cannot be mixed
through, as the calcium aluminate hydrates do not re-dissolve.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/variability.html

Free lime Unreacted lime (calcium oxide, CaO) in Portland cement clinker;
usually less than about 2%.

Freeze-thaw Damage caused to concrete by frost action is common;

repeated cycles of freezing followed by thawing cause spalling
(flaking) at the surface and, possibly, vertical cracks extending
into the concrete. Dense concrete made with a low
water/cement ratio and hence low permeability is resistant to
freeze-thaw action; air entrained concrete is also resistant.
Damage is caused by the formation of an ice front extending
into the concrete from the surface.

Grindability A descriptive term, usually applied to clinker but also to raw

materials and coal, indicating the ease with which the material
can be ground to the required fineness.

Grindability can be quantified by procedures based on grinding

a quantity of material for a fixed time and assessing the degree
of comminution of the material. The Hardgrove Test is a widely-
used test.

Factors which may adversely affect clinker grindability include:

low nodule porosity; increasing proportion of flux phases,
especially ferrite and the presence of numerous, large, belite
clusters. Improving the homogeneity of the raw feed is likely to
improve clinker grindability.

Grout A fine material typically used to fill gaps and joints eg: between
floor or wall tiles. Grouts may be cementitious (eg: containing
cement, fine sand, water and admixtures) or based on other
materials such as resin.

Gypsum Calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O).

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Hydraulic The ability to react with water to form a solid.

A‘ l
atentlyhydr aul
ic’mat er
ialisonet hatreact swithwat ert o
form a solid if a small amount of activator is added. Typical
activators are cement or lime, or other alkaline material such as
sodium hydroxide.

Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (=GGBFS, GBFS) is a

latently hydraulic material. When mixed with Portland cement,
GBFS is activated by the alkaline environment provided by the
cement.

Hydrogarnet Hydrated mineral of variable composition: often referred to as

C3AH6 but this is only one end member of a solid solution series
bounded by C3AH6, C3FH6, C3AS3, C3FS3. Occurs in concrete in
sites formerly occupied by ferrite phase. Also a significant
phase in autoclaved concrete products especially when made
using pulverised fuel ash (PFA).

In-situ hydration product See cement hydration products

Kiln See rotary kiln.

Lime Saturation Factor An important parameter in cement clinker composition. Given

(LSF) by:

CaO / (2.8SiO2 + 1.2 Al2O3 + 0.65Fe2O3)

Where CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are the relevant oxide
contents of the clinker.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/parameters.html

Litre weight of clinker Bulk density of clinker, usually determined on a particular

nodule size fraction by weighing a litre of clinker. Underburned
clinker is porous and has a higher litre weight compared with
harder-burned clinker. The litre weight is therefore a very
approximate rough-and-ready assessment of the clinker
burning regime. By way of illustration, a litre weight of 1.4 kg
may indicate good combination, while 1.1 kg-1.3 kg may
suggest underburning or poor combination due to other causes.
The actual optimum values will vary between clinkers from
different sources and also depend on the size fraction used.

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 Glossary Version 2.5
Loss on ignition (LOI)
LSF
Mac
Metakaolin
Microsilica (silica fume)
Monosulfate phase
National Standards
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A test involving heating the sample to be tested to drive off
volatile material. In the context of cement, a cement sample is
heated at 1000 ºC; the LOI shows the extent that the cement
has hydrated and carbonated through exposure to air. In
cement, the LOI mainly detects hydrated and carbonated free
lime (CaO) and free magnesia (MgO), but any hydration of the
main clinker minerals will also be detected. The LOI is limited
by standard specifications for cement.
See Lime Saturation Factor
A“ mac”i saminor additional constituent; macs are permitted
inclusions up to 5% by mass of the cement under the European
cement standard EN197-1.
Macs are:
- inorganic natural mineral materials, or
- inorganic mineral materials derived from the clinker
production process, or
- other constituents, but not those already included as main
constituents in the cement.
Under the standard, a cement containing a mac must comply
with the same performance and compositional criteria as would
apply to that cement if the mac were not present.
Typical examples of macs are fine limestone, cement kiln dust
and PFA.
Metakaolin is produced by heating kaolinite (china clay). This
results in a highly reactive pozzolan.
Inclusion of metakaolin in a concrete mix can result in a
beneficial effect on concrete properties, including strength and
durability.
By-product of silicon production. As used in concrete, it has a
small particle size (typically about 0.1µm across) and a high
surface area. It is a very reactive pozzolan, usually mixed in
concrete as a slurry.
Inclusion of microsilica in a concrete mix can result in a
beneficial effect on concrete properties, including strength and
durability.
See cement hydration products
See standard specifications for cement.
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 Glossary Version 2.5
Newton
Optical microscopy of
cement and clinker
Pascal (Pa)
Periclase
PFA (Pulverised Fuel Ash)
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SI unit of force, symbol N. Defined as the force that causes a
mass of one kilogram to accelerate by one metre per second
per second.
Concrete compressive strength measurements are often given
in units of N mm-2 ( Newt onspersquar emi l
li
met er
).The“ per
squar emi ll
imet er”isoftenomi tt
edf orbr evity,thus:“ 60
Newt onconcr ete”meansconcr etethathasacompr essive
strength of 60 N mm-2.
Measurements in Newtons per square millimeter are
measurements of pressure or stress; the SI unit of pressure is
the Pascal (symbol Pa). One Pascal is equivalent to a force of
one Newton exerted over one square metre. One N mm-2 is
therefore equivalent to 1 MPa (one megapascal).
Examining cement or cement clinker using optical microscopy is
a powerful technique in troubleshooting cement production
problems. Is also used on many cement plants (=cement
works) as a kiln control technique.
For more information, see:
www.whd.co.uk
Derived SI unit of pressure and stress, defined as one Newton
per square metre. Concrete strengths may be given in
MegaPascals (MPa).
Magnesium oxide, MgO. Periclase crystals form in Portland
cement clinker if the clinker MgO content is greater than about
2%. Below 2% the MgO can be accommodated within the
crystal structures of the clinker minerals. Excessive amounts of
periclase can lead to expansion of hardened concrete, as the
periclase hydrates to form magnesium hydroxide. For this
reason, the MgO content of cement is limited by national
standards.
PFA is the fused non-combustible mineral component in
pulverized coal, separated from the flue gas. In the flame, the
mineral assemblages fuse to form a molten blob, which is
spherical in shape due to the surface tension of the liquid. The
molten material usually solidifies before impacting any hard
surface, so PFA is largely composed of small glassy spheres,
typically 100µm to sub-micron in diameter.
Partial replacement of cement by PFA can result in a beneficial
effect on concrete properties, including strength, durability and
resistance to chemical attack.
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 Glossary Version 2.5 © WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd 2009

Portland cement There are various types of Portland cement. The most common
i
st het ypi cal‘gr
eycement .’Usual lymadebyheat i ngl
imestone
and clay at about 1450 C and grinding the resulting clinker
with a little gypsum to control the setting process.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/basic.html

Pozzolan - Pozzolanic Pozzolanic materials are predominantly siliceous and do not

react with water alone, but react with lime and water to
produce calcium silicate hydrate. When mixed with Portland
cement, they can contribute significantly to calcium silicate
hydrate formation and therefore to strength development.

Pozzolanic materials mixed with lime also form calcium silicate

hydrate and such mixtures are an effective hydraulic cement.
Hydraulic lime was produced in this way by the Romans and is
still produced today.

Pozzolanic materials include: pulverized fuel ash (PFA);

metakaolin, ground fired clay-eg:bricks and microsilica (silica
fume).

Pre-calciner Dry process type of kiln with an additional burner in the

preheater tower. Most new kilns are of the pre-calciner type as
it is the most energy-efficient of the different types of cement
kiln.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/kiln.html

Quarry (noun) Place where rock or other raw material is extracted from
the ground to make cement or other products. (verb) To extract
raw materials from the ground on an industrial scale.

Raw meal Raw (unburned) material as it is fed to the kiln, comprising

ground raw materials mixed in the correct proportions.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/raw-materials.html

Raw meal Raw materials for making cement (limestone, shale, clay, sand
etc.) that have been crushed, milled and blended into the
desired proportions. The fineness is often controlled by the
residueonasi evewi tha90µm aper turemesh;t he‘ 90µm
residue’i stypical
ly9%-15%.

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Reactions in the cement Typically those of: calcination (loss of carbon dioxide from
kiln limestone); formation of intermediate products (part of the
process of combining the raw materials but intermediate
products are not present in the final clinker); and clinkering
(formation of nodules from raw meal as liquid forms,
combination of belite and free lime to form alite).

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/reactions.html

Rotary kiln Almost all Portland cement clinker is produced in a rotary kiln.
In essence, the rotary kiln is a long cylinder with a flame at one
end. The kiln is inclined at a small angle, with the flame
(burner) end being slightly lower. Kiln feed is introduced at the
cool end and, due to the rotating motion of the kiln, gradually
passes down the kiln towards the burner. Cement clinker is
formed in the burning zone, near the flame, and finally the
clinker passes out of the kiln and cools.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/kiln.html

Segregation The process of partial separation of aggregate, cement and

water while concrete is in a plastic state. Coarser aggregate
moves downwards under gravity, displacing water and fine
particles –particularly cement –which move upwards.
Segregation is undesirable as it may impair both strength and
durability. The more cohesive the mix, the less segregation
occurs.

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope; also Scanning Electron

Microscopy.

For more information, see:

www.whd.co.uk

Silica fume See microsilica.

Silica Ratio (SR) An important parameter in cement clinker composition. Given

by:

SiO2 / (Al2O3 + Fe2O3)

Where SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are the relevant oxide contents of
the clinker.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/parameters.html

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Slag Slag used as a partial cement replacement material in concrete

is blastfurnace slag, a by-product of iron production. In the
iron-smelting process, limestone is added to the iron ore to
react with impurities –mainly these are rich in alumina and
silica. The slag is a liquid at about 1500 ºC and is typically
tapped off and rapidly cooled with water to form a solid with a
high glass content (typically 90%-95%). When ground to
cement fineness, the slag is latently hydraulic. Formerly
referred to as Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)
but ground granulated blastfurnace slag (gbs) is now the
standard abbreviation.

Partial replacement of Portland cement by slag can result in

beneficial effects on concrete properties, including strength,
durability and resistance to chemical attack.

Slump An empirical test of concrete workability. Concrete is placed in a

conical container, which is then lifted off the concrete. The
degree to which the cone of wet concrete subsides under its
ownwei ghtister med‘ slump. ’

Set or hardened concrete will have a zero slump. The higher the
sl
ump,t he‘runnier’orsloppi er ’t
heconcr ete.

Sodium equivalent Equivalent sodium oxide, Na2Oe=Na2O+0.66K2O: convenient

way of combining sodium and potassium oxide into a single
number to represent the alkali content of a cement or a
concrete mix. Of particular importance concerning alkali-silica
reaction.

SR See Silica Ratio

Standard specifications
for cement
There are two principal standards for the specification of
cement: the European EN-197 and the ASTM C150 used mainly
in the United States.
BS12, for many decades the British Standard, is now
superseded in Britain by BS EN-197 but remains the basis for
the national cement standard in some countries.

Stratlingite An AFm phase with an aluminosilicate anion, composition

C2ASH8.

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 Glossary Version 2.5
Strength
Sulfate attack (sulphate
attack)
Sulfate-resisting Portland
Cement (SRPC, Type V
cement)
Suspension preheater
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“Concr etest r
ength”t ypicallymeanst hecompr essi
vest r
engt h
of concrete. Concrete is strong in compression but weak in
tension. Strength depends on a number of factors, including:
 porosity (which in turn depends on compaction, water-
cement ratio, air entrainment and any other factors
relating to voids)
 aggregate grading (particle size distribution of the
aggregate)
 age
 aggregate-paste bond
 aggregate strength
 admixture-related factors
 cement content
 curing regime
 cement type (including replacement materials, eg: PFA,
slag)
 other cement-related factors, including cement
fineness, alite content, soluble alkali content, alite and
belite reactivity.
Strengths are typically measured in Newtons per square
millimeter (N mm-2), MegaPascals (MPa), or pounds per square
inch (psi); these are therefore measurements of pressure or
stress. 1 N m-2 = 1 Pa = ~145x10-6 psi.
Concrete made from Portland cement is susceptible to attack by
solutions that contain sulfate. There are different forms of
sulfate attack. A typical form might be where, for example,
sulfate-containing groundwater reacts with concrete
foundations. Concrete suffering from sulfate attack typically
contains much ettringite and, possibly, gypsum, although the
symptoms of sulfate attack vary widely.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/sulfate.html
Portland cement made with a low aluminate (C3A) content.
Hydration products of the aluminate phase make concrete more
susceptible to sulfate attack.
Part of a dry process type of kiln in which raw feed is fed from
the top of a tower –the preheater tower –downwards through
a series of cyclones and then into the kiln at the bottom of the
tower. Heat is transferred from the hot kiln gases passing
upwards through the cyclones, to the raw meal as it passes
downwards.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/kiln.html
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Glossary Version 2.5 © WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd 2009

Syngenite Portland cement hydration product composed of alkalis and

sulfates. Typically found in air-set cement, such as in old bags
of cement, where syngenite has formed at the points of contact
of the cement grains. This results in a loss of flowability of the
powder ,ort hef or mationof‘ l
umps’ofcementi nmor esever e
cases.

Syngenite has the formula:

K2Ca(SO4)2.H2O

Syngenite may also form during normal cement hydration in a

concrete or mortar mix. See also air setting.

Thaumasite (TSA) Thaumasite formation is a particular type of sulfate attack

('TSA' - thaumasite form of sulfate attack) in which thaumasite
-(Ca3Si(OH)6(SO4)(CO3).12H2O) - forms through a combination
of sulfate attack and carbonation. TSA can attack the surface
regions of concrete foundations but more commonly is found in
masonry and render. Usually thought to require cold conditions
to form.

For more information, see:

www.understanding-cement.com/sulfate.html

Tobermorite Tobermorite (strictly, 1.1nm tobermorite) is the main

constituent of autoclaved aerated concrete and of calcium
silicate bricks. It is a calcium silicate hydrate. When produced
from a mixture of lime and silica sand, it has the idealized
composition C5S6H5.

When produced from mixes including cement and, especially,

pulverized fuel ash or slag, tobermorite also contains
alumi ni
um.Theset ober mor it
est endt obe‘ anomal ous
tobermor it
es. ’Anot herf orm oft obermor ite,1.4nm t ober
mor i
te,
occurs as a natural mineral. On heating above 55 ºC it converts
to 1.1nm tobermorite.

Type I cement See ASTM C150

Type II cement
Type III cement
Type IV cement
Type V cement

Undesignated product See cement hydration products

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 Glossary Version 2.5
Water cement ratio
Wet process kiln
White Portland cement
Workability
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Water/cement ratio (w/c) is defined as the weight of water in a
mix divided by the weight of cement. Eg: a mix containing 400
kg cement and 180 kg water per cubic metre of concrete has a
water/cement ratio of 180/400 = 0.45.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/hydration.html
The original type of rotary cement kiln, in which the raw meal is
fed as slurry into the kiln. This is the simplest type of rotary
kiln, but it is not energy-efficient. The water has to be driven
off and the process of heat transfer from the hot kiln gases to
the raw meal is inefficient. Because the process is so thermally
inefficient, wet process kilns have to be longer than dry process
kilns.
For more information, see:
www.understanding-cement.com/kiln.html
White cement is Portland cement that contains very little ferrite
phase. Normal cement is grey due to the presence of ferrite.
White cement is made using raw materials of very low iron
content so that ferrite does not form, or forms in very small
amounts only. White cement clinker is burned under reducing
conditions so that Fe3+ is reduced to Fe2+, in which form it
substitutes for calcium. Used in specialized architectural
applications.
A general descriptive term describing the rheology of fresh
concrete –how easily it can be mixed, placed, compacted etc..
Inlayman’ sterms,t he‘runnier’or‘ sl
oppier ’t
heconcr et e,the
better the workability.
Adding water to improve concrete workability generally results
in a more porous concrete of lower strength and more
susceptible to damage by, for example, frost or chemical
attack.
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 Glossary Version 2.5 © WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd 2009

X-ray diffraction (XRD)
A powerful analytical technique used for a wide variety of
materials. Used to analyse both hydrated and unhydrated
cementitious materials. Usually used to analyse powders. Gives
a structural analysis based on crystal lattice spacings. XRD only
works with crystalline material, hence cannot detect, for
example, calcium silicate hydrate in normal concrete except as
abr oad‘ amor phoushump. ’

Can be used to identify defects in concrete such as sulfate

attack by determining the presence of salts such as ettringite or
thaumasite.

Can be used with cement or clinker to identify mineral phases;

can be used quantitatively by a skilled operator.

Routinely used to analyse clinker free lime contents during

cement manufacture.

X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analytical technique for determining the bulk elemental analysis
of a material.

An incident beam of X-rays excites characteristic elemental X-

rays within the specimen; these are then collected by an X-ray
detector and used to quantify the proportions of each element.

This is a compositional technique, not structural, therefore the

crystallinity of the sample does not matter (unlike X-ray
diffraction).

Widely used to analyse cement raw materials, clinker and

cement.

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