Chapter6 PDF

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2014 1
Chapter 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow
Fluid Element Kinematics
Fluid element motion consists of translation, linear defor-

mation, rotation, and angular deformation.
Types of motion and deformation for a fluid element.
Linear Motion and Deformation:
Translation of a fluid element
Linear deformation of a fluid element
1
Change in :
u
= x ( y z ) t
x
the rate at which the volume is changing per unit vol-

ume due to the gradient u/x is
1 d (dd
) ( u x ) t u
= lim =
dd
dt d t 0
t x
If velocity gradients v/y and w/z are also present, then

using a similar analysis it follows that, in the general case,
1 d (d ) u v w
= + + = V
d dt x y z
This rate of change of the volume per unit volume is called

the volumetric dilatation rate.
Angular Motion and Deformation

For simplicity we will consider motion in the xy plane,
but the results can be readily extended to the more general
case.
2
Angular motion and deformation of a fluid element
The angular velocity of line OA, OA, is

OA = lim
t 0 t
For small angles
tan a
= a
( v =
x ) x t v
t
x x
so that
( v x ) t v
=OA lim
=
t 0
t x
Note that if v/x is positive, OA will be counterclockwise.
Similarly, the angular velocity of the line OB is
u
OB lim
= =
t 0 t y
In this instance if u/y is positive, OB will be clockwise.
3
The rotation, z, of the element about the z axis is defined
as the average of the angular velocities OA and OB of the
two mutually perpendicular lines OA and OB. Thus, if
counterclockwise rotation is considered to be positive, it
follows that
1 v u
= z
2 x y
Rotation of the field element about the other two coordinate

axes can be obtained in a similar manner:
1 w v
= wx
2 y z
1 u w
wy
=
2 z x
The three components, x,y, and z can be combined to

give the rotation vector, , in the form:
1 1
= x i + y j + z k= curlV= V
2 2
since
i j k
1 1
V =
2 2 x y z
u v w
1 w v 1 u w 1 v u
= i + j + k
2 y z 2 z x 2 x y
4
The vorticity, , is defined as a vector that is twice the rota-
tion vector; that is,
= 2 =
The use of the vorticity to describe the rotational character-

istics of the fluid simply eliminates the (1/2) factor associ-
ated with the rotation vector. If V = 0 , the flow is
called irrotational.
In addition to the rotation associated with the derivatives

u/y and v/x, these derivatives can cause the fluid ele-
ment to undergo an angular deformation, which results in a
change in shape of the element. The change in the original
right angle formed by the lines OA and OB is termed the
shearing strain, ,

= +
The rate of change of is called the rate of shearing strain
or the rate of angular deformation:
( ) + ()
= lim = lim = = +
0 0
Similarly,

= +

= +

The rate of angular deformation is related to a correspond-

ing shearing stress which causes the fluid element to
change in shape.
5
The Continuity Equation in Differential Form
The governing equations can be expressed in both integral

and differential form. Integral form is useful for large-scale
control volume analysis, whereas the differential form is
useful for relatively small-scale point analysis.
Application of RTT to a fixed elemental control volume

yields the differential form of the governing equations. For
example for conservation of mass

V A = dV
CS CV t
net outflow of mass = rate of decrease

across CS of mass within CV
6
Consider a cubical element oriented so that its sides are to

the (x,y,z) axes

u + (u )dx dydz
x
outlet mass flux
inlet mass flux

udydz Taylor series expansion
retaining only first order term
We assume that the element is infinitesimally small such

that we can assume that the flow is approximately one di-
mensional through each face.
The mass flux terms occur on all six faces, three inlets, and
three outlets. Consider the mass flux on the x faces

x flux =
u + ( u ) dx dydz outflux udydz influx
x

= (u )dxdydz
x
V
Similarly for the y and z faces

y flux = (v)dxdydz
y

z flux = (w )dxdydz
z
7
The total net mass outflux must balance the rate of decrease
of mass within the CV which is

dxdydz
t
Combining the above expressions yields the desired result

+
t x (u ) + (v ) + (w ) dxdydz = 0
y z
dV

+ (u ) + (v) + (w ) = 0 per unit V
t x y z differential form of con-
tinuity equations
+ (V) = 0
t
V + V
D D
+ V = 0 = + V
Dt Dt t
Nonlinear 1st order PDE; ( unless = constant, then linear)

Relates V to satisfy kinematic condition of mass conserva-
tion
Simplifications:
1. Steady flow: (V) = 0
2. = constant: V = 0
8
u v w
i.e., + + =0 3D
x y z
u v
+ =0 2D
x y
The continuity equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
The velocity at some arbitrary point P can be expressed as

V = vr e r + v e + vz e z
The continuity equation:
r 1 ( r rrrvr ) 1 ( v ) ( vz )
+ + + =
0
t r r r z
For steady, compressible flow

vr ) 1 ( v ) ( vz )
1 ( r rrr
+ + =
0
r r r z
For incompressible fluids (for steady or unsteady flow)

1 ( rvr ) 1 v vz
+ + = 0
r r r z
9
The Stream Function
Steady, incompressible, plane, two-dimensional flow repre-
sents one of the simplest types of flow of practical im-
portance. By plane, two-dimensional flow we mean that
there are only two velocity components, such as u and v,
when the flow is considered to be in the xy plane. For this
flow the continuity equation reduces to
u v
+ =0
x y
We still have two variables, u and v, to deal with, but they

must be related in a special way as indicated. This equation
suggests that if we define a function (x, y), called the
stream function, which relates the velocities as
y y
u= , v=
y x
then the continuity equation is identically satisfied:
y y 2y 2y
+ = = 0
x y y x xy xy
Velocity and velocity components along a streamline
10
Another particular advantage of using the stream function
is related to the fact that lines along which is constant are
streamlines.The change in the value of as we move from
one point (x, y) to a nearby point (x + dx, y + dy) along a
line of constant is given by the relationship:
y y
dy = dx + dy = vdx + udy = 0
x y
and, therefore, along a line of constant
dy v
=
dx u
The flow between two streamlines

The actual numerical value associated with a particular
streamline is not of particular significance, but the change
in the value of is related to the volume rate of flow. Let
dq represent the volume rate of flow (per unit width per-
pendicular to the xy plane) passing between the two
streamlines.
y y
dq = udy vdx = dx + dy = dy
x y
Thus, the volume rate of flow, q, between two streamlines
such as 1 and 2, can be determined by integrating to
yield:
11
2
=
q 1
d
= 2 1
In cylindrical coordinates the continuity equation for in-

compressible, plane, two-dimensional flow reduces to
1 ( rvr ) 1 v
+ =0
r r r
and the velocity components, vr and v, can be related to the

stream function, (r, ), through the equations
1
vr = , v =
r r
Navier-Stokes Equations
Differential form of momentum equation can be derived by

applying control volume form to elemental control volume
The differential equation of linear momentum: elemental

fluid volume approach
12

= V +

(1) (2)

(1) = = +

(2) =
+

+

face face face

= +
+

+

+

+

combining and making use of the continuity equation yields

= +
+ +

=0

= or f =

where = body + surface =

+

+

= +

f = f + f
13
Body forces are due to external fields such as gravity or
magnetics. Here we only consider a gravitational field; that
is,
F body = d F gav = gdxdydz

and g = gk for g z
i.e., f body = gk
Surface forces are due to the stresses that act on the sides of
the control surfaces
symmetric (ij = ji)
ij = - pij + ij 2nd order tensor
ij = 1 i=j
normal pressure viscous stress ij = 0 ij
= -p+xx xy xz
yx -p+yy yz
zx zy -p+zz
As shown before for p alone it is not the stresses them-

selves that cause a net force but their gradients.

dFx,surf = ( xx ) + ( xy ) + ( xz ) dxdydz
x y z
p
= + ( xx ) + ( xy ) + ( xz ) dxdydz
x x y z
14
This can be put in a more compact form by defining vector
stress on x-face
x = xx i + xy j + xz k
and noting that
p
dFx,surf = + x dxdydz
x
p
fx,surf = + x per unit volume
x
similarly for y and z

p
fy,surf = + y y = yx i + yy j + yz k
y
p
fz,surf = + z z = zx i + zy j + zz k
z
finally if we define
ij = x i + y j + z k then
f surf = p + ij = s ij ij = p ij + ij
15
Putting together the above results
DV
f = f body + f surf = r
Dt
f body = gk
f surface = p + ij
DV V
=
a = + V V
Dt t
a = gk p + ij
inertia body
force force surface surface force
due to force due due to viscous
gravity to p shear and normal
stresses
16
For Newtonian fluid the shear stress is proportional to the
rate of strain, which for incompressible flow can be written

= 2 = +

where,
= coefficient of viscosity
= rate of strain tensor
1 1
+ +
2 2
1 1

= 2 +
+
2
1 1
2 +
2
+

Ex) 1-D flow

=
= +
where,
2
= + = 2 +

2 =0
= + 2
= ( + ) + 2 Navier-Stokes Equation
= 0 Continuity Equation
17
Four equations in four unknowns: V and p

Difficult to solve since 2nd order nonlinear PDE
2 2 2
x: + + + = + 2 + 2 + 2
2 2 2
y: + + + = + 2 + 2 + 2
2 2 2
z: + + + = + 2 + 2 + 2
u v w
+ + =0
x y z
Navier-Stokes equations can also be written in other coor-

dinate systems such as cylindrical, spherical, etc.
There are about 80 exact solutions for simple geometries.

For practical geometries, the equations are reduced to alge-
braic form using finite differences and solved using com-
puters.
18
Ex) Exact solution for laminar incompressible steady flow
in a circular pipe
Use cylindrical coordinates with assumptions

= 0 : Steady flow

= 0 : Fully-developed flow

= 0 : Flow is laminar and parallel to the wall

= = 0 : Flow is axisymmetric with no swirl

Continuity equation:
1 ( ) 1
+ + =0

Thus, ( , , ) satisfies the continuity equation
19
Momentum equation:
2
+ + +

1 1 2 2 2
= + + 2 + 2 +
2 2 2

+ + + +

1 1 1 2 2 2
= + + 2 + 2 + +
2 2 2

+ + +

1 1 2 2
= + + + 2 +
2 2
or

0 = sin (1)

1
0 = cos (2)

1
0= + (3)

where,
= sin
= cos
Equations (1) and (2) can be integrated to give

= ( sin ) + 1 () = + 1 ()
pressure is hydrostatic and is not a func-

tion of or
20
Equation (3) can be written in the from
1 1
=

and integrated (using the fact that = constant) to

give
1 2
= + 1
2
Integrating again we obtain
1 2
= + 1 ln + 2
4
B.C.
( = 0) 1 = 0
1
( = ) = 0 2 = 2
4
1
= ( 2 2 )
4
at any cross section the velocity distribution is parabolic
21
1) Flow rate :

4
= = 2 =
0 0 8
where, = (2)

If the pressure drops over a length : =

4
=
8
2) Mean velocity :
1 4 2
= = 2 =
8 8
3) Maximum velocity :
2 2
= ( = 0) = = = 2
4 4
2
=1

22
4) Wall shear stress ( ) :

= + =

where
2 4
=
=
2 2
=2
Thus, at the wall (i.e., = ),
4
( ) =

and with = 2 ,
4
|( ) | =
3
Note: Only valid for laminar flows. In general, the flow

remains laminar for Reynolds numbers, Re = (2),
below 2100. Turbulent flow in tubes is considered in Chap-
ter 8.
23
Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow
We now discuss a couple of exact solutions to the Navier-

Stokes equations. Although all known exact solutions
(about 80) are for highly simplified geometries and flow
conditions, they are very valuable as an aid to our under-
standing of the character of the NS equations and their so-
lutions. Actually the examples to be discussed are for in-
ternal flow (Chapter 8) and open channel flow (Chapter
10), but they serve to underscore and display viscous flow.
Finally, the derivations to follow utilize differential analy-
sis. See the text for derivations using CV analysis.
Couette Flow
boundary conditions
First, consider flow due to the relative motion of two paral-

lel plates
u
Continuity =0 u = u(y)
x
v=o
p p
d 2u = =0
Momentum 0= 2 x y
dy
or by CV continuity and momentum equations:
24
u1y = u 2 y
u1 = u2
Fx = uV d A = Q(u 2 u1 ) = 0
dp d
= py p + x y x + + dy x = 0
dx dy
d
=0
dy
d du
i.e. = 0
dy dy
d 2u
2 =0
dy
from momentum equation

du
=C
dy
C
u = y+D

u(0) = 0 D = 0
U
u(t) = U C =
t
U
u= y
t
du U
= = = constant
dy
25
Generalization for inclined flow with a constant pressure
gradient
u
Continutity =0 u = u(y)
x v=o
p
d 2u =0
Momentum 0 = (p + z ) + 2 y
x dy
d 2u dh
i.e., 2 = h = p/ +z = constant
dy dx
dz
plates horizontal =0
dx
dz
plates vertical =-1
dx
which can be integrated twice to yield
du dh
= y+A
dy dx
dh y 2
u = + Ay + B
dx 2
26
now apply boundary conditions to determine A and B
u(y = 0) = 0 B = 0
u(y = t) = U
dh t 2 U dh t
U = + At A =
dx 2 t dx 2
dh y 2 1 U dh t
u ( y) = +
dx 2 t dx 2
=
dh
2 dx
( U
ty y 2 + y
t
)
This equation can be put in non-dimensional form:
u t 2 dh y y y
= 1 +
U 2U dx t t t
define: P = non-dimensional pressure gradient

t 2 dh p
= h = +z
2U dx
z 2 1 dp dz
Y = y/t = +
2U dx dx
u
= P Y(1 Y ) + Y
U
parabolic velocity profile
27
u Py Py 2 y
= 2 +
U t t t
t
q = udy
0
t
U[ ]dy
q 0
u= =
t t
tu t P P y Pt Pt t
= y 2 y 2 + dy = +
U 0 t t t 2 3 2
u P 1 t 2 dh U
= + u= +
U 6 2 12 dx 2
ut
For laminar flow < 1000 Recrit 1000

28
The maximum velocity occurs at the value of y for which:

du d u P 2P 1
=0 = 0 = y +
dy dy U t t2 t
t
y= (P + 1) = t + t @ umax for U = 0, y = t/2
2P 2 2P
UP U U
u max = u (y max ) = + +
4 2 4P
u P P 2
note: if U = 0: = =
u max 6 4 3
The shape of the velocity profile u(y) depends on P:

dh
1. If P > 0, i.e., < 0 the pressure decreases in the
dx
direction of flow (favorable pressure gradient) and the
velocity is positive over the entire width
dh d p dp
= + z = sin
dx dx dx
dp
a) <0
dx
dp
b) < sin
dx
29
1. If P < 0, i.e., dh dx > 0 the pressure increases in the di-
rection of flow (adverse pressure gradient) and the ve-
locity over a portion of the width can become negative
(backflow) near the stationary wall. In this case the
dragging action of the faster layers exerted on the fluid
particles near the stationary wall is insufficient to over-
come the influence of the adverse pressure gradient.
dp
sin > 0
dx
dp dp
> sin or sin <
dx dx
dh
2. If P = 0, i.e., = 0 the velocity profile is linear
dx
U
u= y
t
dp
a) = 0 and = 0 Note: we derived
dx this special case
dp
b) = sin
dx
u
For U = 0 the form = PY (1 Y ) + Y is not appropriate
U
u = UPY(1-Y)+UY
t 2 dh
= Y(1 Y ) + UY
2 dx
t 2 dh
Now let U = 0: u= Y(1 Y )
2 dx
30
3. Shear stress distribution
Non-dimensional velocity distribution
u
u * = =P Y (1 Y ) + Y
U
u
where u* is the non-dimensional velocity,
U
t 2 dh
P is the non-dimensional pressure gradient
2 U dx
y
Y is the non-dimensional coordinate.
t
Shear stress
du
=
dy
In order to see the effect of pressure gradient on shear
stress using the non-dimensional velocity distribution, we
define the non-dimensional shear stress:

* =
1
U 2
2
Then
1 Ud ( u U ) 2 du *
=t *
=
1
U 2 td ( y t ) Ut dY
2
2
= ( 2 PY + P + 1)
Ut
2
= ( 2 PY + P + 1)
Ut
= A ( 2 PY + P + 1)
2
where A >0 is a positive constant.
Ut
So the shear stress always varies linearly with Y across any
section.
31
At the lower wall (Y = 0 ) :

=
*
lw A (1 + P )
At the upper wall (Y = 1) :
=
*
uw A (1 P )
For favorable pressure gradient, the lower wall shear stress

is always positive:
1. For small favorable pressure gradient ( 0 < P < 1) :
lw* > 0 and uw
*
>0
2. For large favorable pressure gradient ( P > 1) :
lw* > 0 and uw < 0
*
( 0 < P < 1) ( P > 1)
For adverse pressure gradient, the upper wall shear stress is

always positive:
1. For small adverse pressure gradient ( 1 < P < 0 ) :
lw* > 0 and uw
*
>0
2. For large adverse pressure gradient ( P < 1) :
lw* < 0 and uw
*
>0
32
( 1 < P < 0 ) ( P < 1)
For U = 0 , i.e., channel flow, the above non-dimensional

form of velocity profile is not appropriate. Lets use dimen-
sional form:
t 2 dh dh
u=
Y (1 Y ) =
y (t y )
2 dx 2 dx
Thus the fluid always flows in the direction of decreasing
piezometric pressure or piezometric head because
dh
> 0, y > 0 and t y > 0 . So if is negative, u is posi-
2 dx
dh
tive; if dx is positive, u is negative.
Shear stress:
du dh 1
t=
=
t y
dy 2 dx 2
1
Since t y > 0 , the sign of shear stress is always oppo-
2
dh
site to the sign of piezometric pressure gradient dx , and the
magnitude of is always maximum at both walls and zero
at centerline of the channel.
33
< 0, > 0
dh
For favorable pressure gradient,
dx
>0, < 0
dh
For adverse pressure gradient, dx
dh dh
<0 >0
dx dx
Flow down an inclined plane
uniform flow velocity and depth do not

change in x-direction
du
Continuity =0
dx
34
d 2u
x-momentum 0 = (p + z ) + 2
x dy

y-momentum 0 = (p + z ) hydrostatic pressure variation
y
dp
=0
dx
d2u
2 = sin
dy
du
= sin y + c
dy
y2
u = sin + Cy + D
2
du
= 0 = sin d + c c = + sin d
dy y=d
u(0) = 0 D = 0
y2
u = sin + sin dy
2

= sin y(2d y )
2
35
g sin
u(y) = y(2d y )
2n
d
d 2 y3 discharge per
q = udy = sin qdy
0 2 3 0 unit width
1 3
= d sin
3
1 2 d 2
V av = = d si = si
d 3 3
in terms of the slope So = tan sin
gd 2So
V=
3
Exp. show Recrit 500, i.e., for Re > 500 the flow will be-
come turbulent
p Vd
= cos Re crit = 500
y
p = cos y + C
p(d ) = p o = cos d + C
36
i.e., p = cos (d y ) + p o
* p(d) > po
* if = 0 p = (d y) + po
entire weight of fluid imposed
if = /2 p = po
no pressure change through the fluid
37

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 6

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2014 1

Chapter 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

Fluid Element Kinematics

Fluid element motion consists of translation, linear defor-

Types of motion and deformation for a fluid element.

Linear Motion and Deformation:

Translation of a fluid element

Linear deformation of a fluid element

the rate at which the volume is changing per unit vol-

If velocity gradients v/y and w/z are also present, then

This rate of change of the volume per unit volume is called

Angular Motion and Deformation

Angular motion and deformation of a fluid element

The angular velocity of line OA, OA, is

For small angles

Note that if v/x is positive, OA will be counterclockwise.

Similarly, the angular velocity of the line OB is

In this instance if u/y is positive, OB will be clockwise.

Rotation of the field element about the other two coordinate

The three components, x,y, and z can be combined to

The use of the vorticity to describe the rotational character-

In addition to the rotation associated with the derivatives

The rate of angular deformation is related to a correspond-

The Continuity Equation in Differential Form

The governing equations can be expressed in both integral

Application of RTT to a fixed elemental control volume

net outflow of mass = rate of decrease

Consider a cubical element oriented so that its sides are to

inlet mass flux

We assume that the element is infinitesimally small such

Similarly for the y and z faces

Combining the above expressions yields the desired result

Nonlinear 1st order PDE; ( unless = constant, then linear)

The continuity equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

The velocity at some arbitrary point P can be expressed as

For steady, compressible flow

For incompressible fluids (for steady or unsteady flow)

We still have two variables, u and v, to deal with, but they

Velocity and velocity components along a streamline

The flow between two streamlines

In cylindrical coordinates the continuity equation for in-

and the velocity components, vr and v, can be related to the

Differential form of momentum equation can be derived by

The differential equation of linear momentum: elemental

combining and making use of the continuity equation yields

where = body + surface =

F body = d F gav = gdxdydz

As shown before for p alone it is not the stresses them-

and noting that

similarly for y and z

Four equations in four unknowns: V and p

Navier-Stokes equations can also be written in other coor-

There are about 80 exact solutions for simple geometries.

Use cylindrical coordinates with assumptions

= 0 : Flow is laminar and parallel to the wall

Thus, ( , , ) satisfies the continuity equation

Equations (1) and (2) can be integrated to give

pressure is hydrostatic and is not a func-

Equation (3) can be written in the from

and integrated (using the fact that = constant) to

Integrating again we obtain

at any cross section the velocity distribution is parabolic