SHORT QUESTIONS

Q.1. Define the treatment of Epilepsy?

Once epilepsy is diagnosed, it is important to begin treatment as soon as possible. For about 80 percent of
those diagnosed with epilepsy, seizures can be controlled with modern medicines and surgical techniques.
Some antiepiletic drugs can interfere with the effectiveness of oral contraceptives.
Q.2. What is resting potential?

When the cell hasn't fired for a certain amount of time it is considered at its resting potential. The resting
potential of a neuron is approx. 70 mV because the membrane surrounding the cell lets in positive potassium
ions (K+) and negative chloride ions (C1-) and keeps out positive sodium ions (Na+). It is easier to fire a
cell that is at its resting potential than one that is in the refractory phase.

Q.3. What is Post-Polio Syndrome?

Post polio syndrome (PPS) is a condition that affects polio survivors anywhere from 10 to 40 years after
recovery from an initial paralytic attack of the poliomyelitis virus. PPS is characterized by a further
weakening of muscles that were previously affected by the polio infection. The most common symptoms
include slowly progressive muscle weakness, fatigue (both general and muscular), and a decrease in muscle
size (muscular atrophy). Pain from joint deterioration and increasing skeletal deformities such as scoliosis
are common. Some individuals experience only minor symptoms, while others develop more visible muscle
weakness and atrophy. PPS is rarely life-threatening but the symptoms can interfere significantly with the
individual's capacity to function independently. While polio is contagious, PPS is not transmissible.

Q.4. Write a short note on Hindbrain?

The hindbrain is a well protected central core of the brain and includes the cerebellum, reticular formation,
and the brain stem. The cerebellum plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception and
motor output. It utilizes constant feedback on body position to fine-tune motor movements. The brain stem
contains the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The pons relays sensory information between the cerebellum
and cerebrum. The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of the brainstem. It controls autonomic functions
such as breathing and vomiting, and relays nerve signals between the brain and spinal cord. The reticular
formation is a part of the brain which is involved in stereotypical actions, such as walking, sleeping, and
lying down.

Q.5. Define the treatment of Post-Polio Syndrome ?

Doctors recommend that polio survivors follow standard healthy lifestyle practices: consuming a well-
balanced diet, exercising in moderation, and visiting a doctor regularly. A commonsense approach, in which
people use individual tolerance as their limit, is currently recommended. Preliminary studies indicate that
intravenous immunoglobulin therapy may reduce pain, increase quality of life, and improve strength
modestly.

Q.6. What is the prognosis of Post-Polio Syndrome?

PPS is a very slowly progressing condition marked by long periods of stability. The severity of PPS depends
on the degree of the residual weakness and disability an individual has after the original polio attack. People
who had only minimal symptoms from the original attack and subsequently develop PPS will most likely
experience only mild PPS symptoms.

Q.7. What is Tourette Syndrome?

Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary

movements and vocalizations called tics. The first symptoms of TS are almost always noticed in childhood.
Some of the more common tics include eye blinking and other vision irregularities, facial grimacing,
shoulder shrugging, and head or shoulder jerking, the most dramatic and disabling tics are those that result in
self-harm such as punching oneself in the face, or vocal tics including coprolalia (uttering swear words) or
echolalia (repeating the words or phrases of others

Q.8. Write down the role of dendrites?

Dendrites are organelles that sense the neurotransmitter secreted by the axon of another neuron. Most
neurons have more than one dendrite. Dendrites and axons do not directly touch each other; there is a gap,
called a synapse.

Q.9. Define the treatment of Tourette Syndrome ?

Because tic symptoms do not often cause impairment, the majority of people with TS require no medica.tion
for tic suppression. However, effective medications are available for those whose symptoms interfere with
functioning. There is no one medication that is helpful to all people with TS, nor does any medication
completely eliminate symptoms. Effective medications are also available to treat some of the associated
neurobehavioral disorders that can occur in patients with TS.

Q.10. Write down the role of axons?

Axons are organelles that carry information away from the cell body. Axons may be as small as several
microns or as long as several meters in giraffes and whales. The axons main job is to send a signal to the
dendrites of another neuron, but some say that they may also recieve signals in certain situations. Each
neuron has only one axon, but the axon may have branches with what are called terminal buttons at its end.

Q.11. What is Muscular Dystrophy?

The muscular dystrophies (MD) are a group of more than 30 genetic diseases characterized by progressive
weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles that control movement. Some forms of MD are seen in
infancy or childhood, while others may not appear until middle age or later. The disorders differ in terms of
the distribution and extent of muscle weakness (some forms of MD also affect cardiac muscle), age of onset,
rate of progression, and pattern of inheritance.
Duchenne MD is the most common form of MD and primarily affects boys. It is caused by the absence of
dystrophin, a protein involved in maintaining the integrity of muscle. Onset is between 3 and 5 years and the
disorder progresses rapidly. Most boys are unable to walk by age 12, and later need a respirator to breathe.
Girls in these families have a 50 percent chance of inheriting and passing the defective gene to their children.
Boys with Becker MD (very similar to but less severe than Duchenne MD) have faulty or not enough
dystrophin.
Facioscapulohumeral MD usually begins in the teenage years. It causes progressive weakness in muscles of
the face, arms, legs, and around the shoulders and chest. It progresses slowly and can vary in symptoms
from mild to disabling.
Myotonic MD is the disorder's most common adult form and is typified by prolonged muscle spasms,
cataracts, cardiac abnormalities, and endocrine disturbances.

Q.12. What is the prognosis Muscular Dystrophy ?

The prognosis for people with MD varies according to the type and progression of the disorder. Some cases
may be mild and progress very slowly over a normal lifespan, while others produce severe muscle weakness,
functional disability, and loss of the ability to walk. Some children with MD die in infancy while others live
into adulthood with only moderate disability.

Q.13. What is the peripheral nervous system?

Any part of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous
system. The nerves in the peripheral nervous system is split up into the autonomic and somatic. The somatic
connect the central nervous system to sensory organs (such as the eye and ear) and muscles, while the
autonomic connect other organs of the body, blood vessels and glands.

Q.14. Describe the Signs and symptoms of Muscular dystrophy?

The Signs and symptoms of Muscular dystrophy are as following Main symptoms include:

Progressive muscular wasting

Drooping eyelids
Loss of bowel control
Inability to walk
Waddling gait
Limited range of movement
Joint contractures

Q.15. What is spastic cerebral palsy?

Spastic cerebral palsy refers to a condition in which the muscle tone is increased, causing a rigid posture in
one or more extremities [arm(s) or leg(s)]. This rigidity can be overcome with some force, ultimately giving
way completely and suddenly the spasticity leads to a limitation of use of the involved extremity, largely due
to the inability to coordinate movements. The spasticity occurs on one side of the body (hemiparesis), but it
can also affect the four limbs (quadriparesis) or be limited to both legs (spastic diplegia).
Spasticity is the result of damage to the white matter of the brain, but it can also be due to damage of gray
matter. The degree of spasticity can vary, ranging from mild to severe. Children who are mildly affected
may experience few limitations of their function while severely affected children may have little to no
meaningful use of the affected limb(s). Spasticity, if not properly treated, can result in contractures, which
are permanent limitations in the ability of joint movement. Contractures can be greatly limiting in the care of
children with cerebral palsy. Spasdcity can also be quite painful, requiring medication to relax the muscle
tone.

Q.16. What is choreoathetoid cerebral palsy?

Choreoathetoid cerebral palsy is associated with abnormal, uncontrollable, writhing movements of the arms
and/or legs. Different from spastic cerebral palsy, persons with choreoathetoid cerebral palsy have variable
muscle tone often with decreased muscle tone (hypotonia). The abnormal movements are activated by stress,
as well as by normal emotional reactions such as laughing. There are different types of abnormal movements.
Two of the most common are choreoathetotic movement disorder with rapid, irregular, unpredictable
contractions of individual or small muscles groups and dystonia with a persistent but not permanent,
abnormal posture of some body parts (arms, legs, trunk) due to abnormal muscle contractions. The dystonic
disorder also affects the muscle of the facial expression, swallowing, deglutition and speech, resulting in
severe functional deficiencies.

Q.17. What is the role of neurotransmitter?

The terminal button at the end of the axon holds the synaptic vesicles. When the signal reaches the end of
the axon the vesicles discharge a chemical called a neuro transmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a neuron and another cell. There are
approximately 40 to 60 different chemicals that are used as neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters from
the axon fit into receptors of the dendrite on the next neuron. They will then either excite the cell or make it
fire or inhibit it and stop it from doing so. The sum of the excitation and inhibition of the neuron is called the
graded potential. If the graded potential is greater than that cell's threshold then the cell fires, sending the
message to the next cell.

Q.18. What is mixed cerebral palsy?

Many (possibly most) children with cerebral palsy have multiple symptoms with combinations of the
various forms of cerebral palsy. For example, children with spastic cerebral palsy often continue to have a
head lag, which is representative of hypotonia. Children with choreoathetoid or hypotonic cerebral palsy
often have increased deep tendon reflexes, which are suggestive of some spasticity.

Q.19. Define the Occupational therapy in the management of cerebral palsy?

Occupational Therapy (OT) enables individuals with CP to participate in activities of daily living that are
meaningful to them. A family centred philosophy is used with children who have CP. Occupational
therapists work closely with families in order to address their concerns and priorities for their child.
Occupational therapists may address issues relating to sensory, cognitive, or motor impairments resulting
from CP that affect the child's participation in self-care, productivity, or leisure. Parent counselling is also an
important aspect of occupational therapy treatment with regard to optimizing the parent's skills in caring for
and playing with their child to support improvement of their child's abilities to do things. The occupational
therapist typically assesses the child to identify abilities and difficulties, and environmental conditions, such
as physical and cultural influences, that affect participation in daily activities. Occupational therapists may
also recommend changes to the play space, changes to the structure of the room or building, and seating and
positioning techniques to allow the child to play and learn effectively.

Q.20. Define neurological disorder?

A neurological disorder is a disorder of the body's nervous system. Structural, biochemical or electrical
abnormalities in the brain, spinal cord, or in the nerves leading to or from them, can result in symptoms such
as paralysis, muscle weakness, poor coordination, and loss of sensation, seizures, confusion, pain and altered
levels of consciousness. There are many recognized neurological disorders. They revealed by neurological
examination and studied and treated within the specialities of neurology and clinical neuropsychology.
Interventions include preventative measures, lifestyle changes, physiotherapy or other therapy,
neurorehabilitation, pain management, medication, or operations performed by neurosurgeons.

Q.21. Describe the classification of Neurological disorders?

Neurological disorders can be categorized according to the primary location affected, the primary type of
dysfunction involved, or the primary type of cause. The division is between central nervous system (CNS)
disorders and peripheral nervous system (PNS) disorders.
Brain damage according to cerebral lobe
Frontal lobe damage
Parietal lobe damage
Temporal lobe damage
Occipital lobe damage

Q.22. Write down the role of an amygdale?

The amygdala appears to be a center of emotions. It sends signals to the hypothalamus and medulla which
can activate the flight or fight response of the autonomic nervous system.

Q.23. Brain dysfunction according to type?

Aphasia (language)
Dysarthria (speech)
Apraxia (patterns or sequences of movements)
Agnosia (identifying things/people)
Amnesia (memory)

Q.24. Define the term Anencephaly?

Anencephaly (without brain) is a neural tube defect that occurs when the head end of the neural tube fails to
close, usually during the 23rd and 26th days of pregnancy, resulting in an absence of a major portion of the
brain and skull. Infants born with this condition are born without the main part of the forebrain-the largest
part of the cerebrum. Infants born with this condition are usually blind, deaf and unconscious. The lack of a
functioning cerebrum will ensure that the infant will never gain consciousness. Infants are either stillborn or
usually die within a few hours or days after birth.

Q.25. Define the term Hydranencephaly?

Hydranencephaly is a condition in which the cerebral hemispheres are missing and instead filled with sacs of
cerebrospinal fluid.

Q.26. Define the term Iniencephaly?

This is a rare neural tube defect that results in extreme bending of the head to the spine. The diagnosis can
usually be made on antenatal ultrasound scanning but if not will undoubtedly be made immediately after
birth because the head is bent backwards and the face looks upwards. Usually the neck is absent. The skin of
the face connects directly to the chest and the scalp connects to the upper back. The infant usually will not
survive more than a few hours.

Q.27. What is cerebellum?

The portion of the brain (located at the back) which helps coordinate movement (balance and muscle
coordination). Damage may result in ataxia which is a problem of muscle coordination. This can interfere
with a person's ability to walk, talk, eat, and to perform other self care tasks.

Q.28. Define the term Spina bifida?

Spina bifida is further divided into two subclasses, spina bifida cystica and spina bifida occulta.
Spina bifida cystica: In this condition includes meningocele and myelomeningocele. Meningocele is less
severe and is characterized by herniation of the meninges, but not the spinal cord, through the opening in the
spinal canal. Myeolomeningocele involves herniation of the meninges as well as the spinal cord through the
opening.
Spina bifida occulta: In this type of neural tube defect, the meninges do not herniate through the opening
in the spinal canal. The most frequently seen form of spina bifida occulta is when parts of the bones of the
spine called the spinous process and neural arch appear abnormal on a radiogram, and is generally harmless.
Usually the spinal cord and spinal nerves are not involved. The genetic risk of recurrence with symptomatic
forms of Spina Bifida Occulta is uncertain.

Q.29. What is the role of medulla?

The first is the medulla, which is actually an extension of the spinal cord into the skull. Besides containing
tracts up and down to and from the higher portions of the brain, the medulla also contains some of the
essential nuclei that govern respiration and heart rate. The upper part of the medulla contains a pinky-sized
complex of nuclei called the reticular formation. It is the regulatory system for sleep, waking, and alertness

Q.30. What are the Symptoms of muscular dystrophy?

Symptoms vary with the different types of muscular dystrophy. Symptoms include:
 Mental retardation (only present in some types of the condition)
Muscle weakness that slowly gets worse
Delayed development of muscle motor skills
Difficulty using one or more muscle groups
Drooling
Eyelid drooping (ptosis)
Frequent falls
Loss of strength in a muscle or group of muscles as an adult
Loss in muscle size
Problems walking (delayed walking)

Q.31. Explain the types of muscular dystrophy?

Several major forms of muscular dystrophy can affect teens, each of which weakens different muscle groups
in various ways:
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD): Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common type
of the disease, is caused by a problem with the gene that makes a protein called dystrophin. This protein
helps muscle cells keep their shape and strength. Without it, muscles break down and a person gradually
becomes weaker. DMD affects boys. Symptoms start between ages 2 and 6. By age 10 or 12, kids with
DMD often need to use a wheelchair. The heart may also be affected, and people with DMD need to be
followed closely by a lung and heart specialist.
Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD): Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is like DMD, affects boys. The
disease is very similar to DMD, but its symptoms may start later and can be less severe. With BMD,
symptoms like muscle breakdown and weakness sometimes don't begin until age 10 or even in adulthood.
People with BMD can also have breathing, heart, bone, muscle, and joint problems. Many people with BMD
can live long, active lives without using a wheelchair.
Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD): Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) starts
causing symptoms in late childhood to early teens and sometimes as late as age 25. EDMD is another form
of muscular dystrophy that affects mostly boys. It involves muscles in the shoulders, upper arms, and shins,
and it often causes joint problems (joints can become tighter in people with EDMD). The heart muscle may
als be affected.
Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD): Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD affects boys and
girls equally, weakening muscles in the shoulders and upper arms and around the hips and thighs. LGMD
can begin as early as childhood or as late as mid adulthood and it often progresses slowly.
Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD): Facioscapulohumeral muscul dystrophy (FSHD) can
affect both guys and girls, and it usually begins during the teens or early adulthood. FSHD affects muscles in
the face and shoulders and sometimes causes weakness in the lower legs. People with this type of MD have
trouble raising their arms, whistling, or tightly closing their eyes.
Myotonic dystrophy (MMD): Myotonic dystrophy (MMD) is a form of muscular dystrophy in which the
muscles have difficulty relaxing. In teens, it can cause a number of problems, including muscle weakness
and wasting (where the muscles shrink over time), cataracts, and heart problems.
Congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD): Congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD) is the term for all types
of MD that show signs in babies and young children, although the MD isn't always diagnosed right away.
Like other forms of MD, CMD involves muscle weakness and poor muscle tone. Occurring in both girls and
boys, it can have different symptoms. It varies in how severely it affects people and how quickly or slowly it
worsens.
Q.32. What is the purpose of management neurologic disorders?

Management of voiding dysfunction in neurologic disorders can substantially improve the quality of life as
well as the health of patients. A systematic review of the pattern of voiding dysfunction leads to an
understanding of the underlying mechanism, which, in turn, allows the treating physician to develop a
strategy for managing it.

Q.33. What is Tourette syndrome (TS)?

Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a neurological disorder characterized by tics involuntary, rapid, sudden
movements or vocalizations that occur repeatedly in the "me way. Diagnostic criteria include:
Both multiple motor and one or more vocal tics present at some time, although not necessarily
simultaneously;
The occurrence of tics many times a day (usually in bouts) nearly every day or intermittently throughout
the span of more than one year;
Periodic changes in the number, frequency, type and location of the tics, and in the waxing and waning
of their severity. Symptoms can sometimes disappear for weeks or months at a time;
Onset before the age of 18.

Q.34. Explain what is forebrain?

The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and processing sensory
information, thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language, and controlling motor function.

Q.35. Explain the two major divisions of forebrain?

There are two major divisions of forebrain:

the diencephalon
telencephalon.

Q.36. How are tics classified?

The tics are movements or vocalizations which are completely meaningless, whereas complex tics are
movements or vocalizations which make use of more than one muscle group or appear to be meaningful.

Q.37. Describe related problems to Tourette syndrome (TS)?

People with TS are more likely to have any combination of the following problems:
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Difficulties with Impulse Control (disinhibition)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Various Learning Disabilities (such as dyslexia)
 Various Sleep Disorders

Q.38. What are the symptoms of Tourette syndrome?

Tics are classified as either simple or complex.

Simple tics: Simple motor tics are sudden, brief, repetitive movements that involve a limited number of
muscle groups. Some of the more common simple tics include eye blinking and other vision irregularities,
facial grimacing, shoulder shrugging, and head or shoulder jerking. Simple vocalizations might include
repetitive throat-clearing, sniffing, or grunting sounds.
Complex tics: Complex tics are distinct, coordinated patterns of movements involving several muscle
groups. Complex motor tics might include facial grimacing combined with a head twist and a shoulder shrug.
Other complex motor tics may actually appear purposeful, including sniffing or touching objects, hopping,
jumping, bending, or twisting. Simple vocal tics may include throat clearing, sniffing/snorting, grunting, or
barking. More complex vocal tics include words or phrases.

Q.39. What are the Symptoms of Tourette syndrome

Symptoms of Tourette syndrome can range from tiny, minor movements (such as grunts, sniffling, or
coughing) to constant movements and sounds that can't be controlled.
Tics can include:
Arm thrusting
Eye blinking
Jumping
Kicking
Repeated throat clearing or sniffing
Shoulder shrugging

Q.40. Explain the objective of public health intervention?

The focus of a public health intervention is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries another health
conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors, communities and
environments. Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods.

Q.41. Define the term Motor coordination?

Motor coordination is the combination of body movements created with the kinematic (such as spatial
direction) and kinetic (force) parameters that result in intended actions. Such movements usually smoothly
and efficiently work together. Motor coordination can occur between subsequent parts of the same
movement and movements of several limbs. Motor coordination involves the integration of processes
ranging from how muscles interact with the skeletal system to neural processes controlling them both in the
spine and the brain.
Q.42. Describe the structure of Neurons?

The base of the nervous system is the neuron. Neurons are cells that are specialized for communicating
information. They are the basic tissue and element of the nervous system.
Neurons have a basic structure of:
One cell body
One axon
One or more dendrites

Q.43. What is the prognosis of Epilepsy?

Most people with epilepsy lead outwardly normal lives. While epilepsy cannot currently be cured, for some
people it does eventually go away. Most seizures do not cause brain damage. It is not uncommon for people
with epilepsy, especially children, to develop behavioral and emotional problems, sometimes the
consequence of embarrassment and frustration or bullying, teasing, or avoidance in school and other social
setting. For many people with epilepsy, the risk of seizures restricts their independence (some states refuse
drivers licenses to people with epilepsy) and recreational activities.

Q.44. What is cell body?

The cell body (or soma) is the bulbous end of a neuron, containing the cell nucleus. The soma makes use of
nutrients to supply energy for neuronal activity.

Q.45. What are the types of cerebral palsy define each one and its important features?

Cerebral palsy can be divided into following types:

Spastic cerebral palsy
Choreoathetoid cerebral palsy
Hypotonic cerebral palsy
Spastic cerebral palsy
Spastic cerebral palsy refers to a condition in which the muscle tone is increased, causing a rigid posture in
one or more extremities [arm(s) or leg(s)]. This rigidity can be overcome with some force, ultimately giving
way completely and suddenly the spasticity leads to a limitation of use of the involved extremity, largely due
to the inability to coordinate movements. The spasticity occurs on one side of the body (hemiparesis), but it
can also affect the four limbs (quadriparesis) or be limited to both legs (spastic diplegia).
Spasticity is the result of damage to the white matter of the brain, but it can also be due to damage of gray
matter. The degree of spasticity can vary, ranging from mild to severe. Children who are mildly affected
may experience few limitations of their function while severely affected children may have little to no
meaningful use of the affected limb(s). Spasticity, if not properly treated, can result in contractures, which
are permanent limitations in the ability of joint movement. Contractures can be greatly limiting in the care of
children with cerebral palsy. Spasticity can also be quite painful, requiring medication to relax the muscle
tone.
Choreoathetoid cerebral palsy: Choreoathetoid cerebral palsy is associated with abnormal, uncontrollable,
writhing movements of the arms and/or legs. Different from spastic cerebral palsy, persons with
choreoathetoid cerebral palsy have variable muscle tone often with decreased muscle tone (hypotonia).The
abnormal movements are activated by stress, as well as by normal emotional reactions such as laughing.
There are different types of abnormal movements. Two of the most common are choreoathetotic movement
disorder with rapid, irregular, unpredictable contractions of individual or small muscles groups and dystonia
with a persistent but not permanent, abnormal posture of some body parts (arms, legs, trunk) due to
abnormal muscle contractions. The dystonic disorder also affects the muscle of the facial expression,
swallowing, deglutition and speech, resulting in severe functional deficiencies.
Hypotonic cerebral palsy: Hypotonia is diminished muscle tone. The infant or child with hypotonic
cerebral palsy appears in early infancy, hypotonia can be easily seen by the inability of the infant to gain any
head control when pulled by the arms to a sitting position (this symptom is often referred to as head lag).
Children with severe hypotonias have the most difficulty of all children with cerebral palsy in attaining
motor skill milestones and normal cognitive development. Hypotonic cerebral palsy is often the result of
severe brain damage or malformations.
Mixed cerebral palsy: Many (possibly most) children with cerebral palsy have multiple symptoms with
combinations of the various forms of cerebral palsy. For example, children with spastic cerebral palsy often
continue to have a head lag, which is representative of hypotonia. Children with choreoathetoid or hypotonic
cerebral palsy often have increased deep tendon reflexes, which are suggestive of some spasticity.

Q.46. What is The Transmission of the Signal?

The transmission of the signal is basically the same in all cells, the signal is sent across the synapse by the
axon and the dendrite of the next cell picks up the signal.

Q.47. Write a short note on nervous system?

The physical structure of the body plays an important role in the behavior of an individual. The most
important physical structure for psychologists is the nervous system.
The nervous system carries orders from the brain and spinal cord to various glands a: muscles; it also carries
signals from stimuli receptors to the spinal cord and brain.

Q.48. Explain the Wernicke's area?

The second language area to be discovered is called Wernicke's area, after C Wernicke, a German
neurologist who discovered the area while studying patients w' had similar symptoms to Broca's area
patients but damage to a different part of the brain. Wernicke's aphasia is the term for the disorder occurring
upon damage to patient's Wernicke's area. Wernicke's aphasia does not only affect speech comprehensive
People with Wernicke's aphasia also have difficulty recalling the names of objects often responding with
words that sound similar, or the names of related things, as if the^ having a hard time recalling word
associations

Q.49. What is Synapse?

The synapse is a gap between two cells. Synapses are one way junctions between neurons and other cells.
The neurotransmitter is emitted from the axon of one cell and usually goes to the dendrite of the next cell.
Sometimes the signal goes to the soma or the axon of the next cell instead of the dendrite

Q.50. What is Action potential?

When the graded potential passes the neurons threshold, an action potential takes place. The action potential
sends the signal the entire length of the cell and never dies within the cell, which can be referred to as the
all-or-none-principle. During firing the inside of the cell becomes positive, which is sometimes incorrectly
called Depolarization and should be called the raising phase of the action potential. After the action potential
hits its peak the cell starts the refractory phase.

Q.51. What is Refractory Phase?

After the action potential changes the neuron from negative to positive there is a refractory phase where it
changes back to negative. At the beginning of this period it is impossible for another signal to be transmitted,
this is called absolute refractory phase. After the absolute refractory phase is the relative refractory phase
where it is possible to send another signal but more excitation than normal is needed.

Q.52. What is Signal Strength?

For the signal to be passed from one neuron to the next it must have enough energy to break a point called
the threshold. Once the threshold is broken the signal is transmitted. The neuron fires at the same strength
every time. The strength of a signal is decided by how many different neurons are being fired and at what
frequency they are being fired.

Q.53. What are Glial cells?

The amount of glial cells to every neuron in the nervous system is disputed. Glial cells function as support
for the neurons; they produce the myelin sheath which surrounds some neurons and also form part of the
blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier is a structure that prevents certain substances in the bloodstream
from reaching the brain. Many axons are sheathed with tubes of myelin, which is a fatty material. Myelin is
produced by the glial cells. The myelin sheaths on axons have gaps, which are called the nodes of Ranvier.
Myelinated sheaths help transmit information quickly and efficiently.

Q.54. What is hypotonic cerebral palsy?

Hypotonia is diminished muscle tone. The infant or child with hypotonic cerebral palsy appears in early
infancy, hypotonia can be easily seen by the inability of the infant to gain any head control when pulled by
the arms to a sitting position (this symptom is often referred to as head lag). Children with severe hypotonias
have the most difficulty of all children with cerebral palsy in attaining motor skill milestones and normal
cognitive development. Hypotonic cerebral palsy is often the result of severe brain damage or malformations.

Q.55. What is The Central nervous system?

The central nervous system has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. It contains the brain and the
spinal cord which are both encased in bone which shows their importance. Both the brain and spinal cord
receive signals from the afferent neurons and send signals to muscles and glands through efferent neurons.

Q.56. Write a note on the glandular systems?

The body has two types of glandular systems, the endocrine, which generally secrete hormones through the
bloodstream, and the exocrene which secrete fluids to the outer surfaces of the body, such as sweating.

Q.57. Write down the role of Exocrine glands?

Exocrine glands release their secretions into ducts which in turn release them onto the surface of organs.
Examples of exocrine glands are sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, etc. The pancreas is both
an exocrine as well as an endocrine gland. It secretes digestive enzymes that are released into the digestive
system while it also contains the Islets of Langerhans which secrete insulin into the blood.

Q.58. What is the role of nervous system in human body?

The nervous system is made up of a network of complex fibers known as nerves that thread throughout the
human body like house hold wiring. The nerves conduct electrical signals back and forth between the brain
and the different parts of the body. The nervous system consists of 3 different systems which connect to a
particular part of the brain:
The motor nerves system, wiiich controls the muscles of the body
The sensory nervous system, which channels information from the five main bodily senses of sight, sound,
touch, taste, smell and the sensation of the pain to the brain.
The autonomic nervous system, which controls automatic functions such as breathing, heart beat and
digestion.

Q.59. Write a short note on Midbrain?

This part of the brain is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain making up part of the brain stem.
All sensory and motor information going to and from the fore brain and the spinal cord must pass through
the midbrain, it can also be refered to as the relay station.

Q.60. Write a short note on Forebrain?

The anterior most division of the developing vertebrate brain that contains the most complex neural network
in the CNS. The forebrain has two major divisions, the lower diencephalon, which contains the thalamus and
the hypofhalmus, and the upper telencephalon, which contains the cerebrum.

Q.61. Write down the role of Hypothalamus?

The seat of the autonomic nervous system. Damage to the hypothalamus is quickly fatal as the normal
homeostasis of body temperature, blood chemistry, etc. goes out of control. The source of 8 hormones, two
of which pass into the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

Q.62. Write a note on The Cerebral Hemispheres?

Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is subdivided into four lobes visible from the outside:
frontal parietal occipital temporal
Q.63. What is limbic system?

A limbic system; they receives input from various association areas in the cerebral cortex and pass signals
on +o the nucleus accumbens.

Q.64. What are the types of cerebral palsy?

Cerebral palsy can be divided into following types:

Spastic cerebral palsy
Choreoathetoid cerebral palsy
Hypotonic cerebral palsy.

Q.65. Write a note on The Electroencephalograph (EEG)?

This device measures electrical activity (brain "waves") that can be detected at the surface of the scalp. It
can distinguish between, for example, sleep and excitement. It is also useful in diagnosing brain disorders
such as a tendency to epileptic seizures.

Q.66. Write a note on Magnetoencephalography (MEG)?

MEG detects the tiny magnetic fields created as individual neurons "fire" within the brain. It can pinpoint
the active region with a millimeter, and can follow the movement of brain activity as it travels from region
to region within the brain. MEG is noninvasive requiring only that the subject's head lie within a helmet
containing the magnetic sensors.
Q.67. What is Epilepsy?

Epilepsy is a brain disorder in which clusters of nerve cells, or neurons, in the brain sometimes signal
abnormally. In epilepsy, the normal pattern of neuronal activity becomes disturbed, causing strange
sensations, emotions, and behavior or sometimes convulsions, muscle spasms, and loss of consciousness.
Epilepsy is a disorder with many possible causes. Anything that disturbance normal pattern of neuron
activity - from illness to brain damage to abnormal brain development - can lead to seizures. Epilepsy
develop because of an abnormality in brain wiring, an imbalance of nerve signaling chemicals called
neurotransmitters, or some combination of these factors.

Q.68. Write a short note on Spinal Cord?

The spinal cord runs from the base of the skull all the way down the spine to the "tail bone." The neurons are
found in an H-shaped space within the spinal vertebrae. There are motor pathways coming down from the
brain and sensory pathways going up to the brain. Sensory nerves enter into the back parts (dorsal roots) of
the "H," while motor neurons exit the forward parts (ventral roots) of the "H." Interneurons often connect
these sensory and motor neurons. Besides sending messages up and down to and from the brain, the spinal
cord has another very important function: Reflexes. In fret, in very simple animals, that is the main function
of the cord. Basically, a reflex is the connection of sensory neurons, via interneurons, to motor neurons. For
example, there are pair sensors in your fingers. If you hold your finger over a flame for a period of time, the
pair will trigger motor neurons to pull your finger away. It is true that you can over-ride thi: reflex with "will
power," but as the example intentionally shows, it isn't easy! Reflexes do much more than just get your
finger out of the fire: A great deal o; movement is accomplished through reflexes. Even brand new babies
already have the necessary reflexes for walking: If you hold a baby and gently touch its feet to the floor, i'
will start making step-like movements! All that is needed is the muscle strength to Stanc and, of course, a lot
of practice.

Q.69. Write a brief note on Brain?

The brain is traditionally divided into three parts, the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. This
drawing is roughly what it would look like if you sliced your brain straight down the middle, like a part in
your hair. The front of the brain is on the left, the back on the right.

Q.70. What is the prognosis of Tourette Syndrome ?

TS is a chronic condition with symptoms lasting a lifetime, most people with the condition/experience their
worst symptoms in their early teens, with improvement occurring in the late teens and continuing into
adulthood.

Q.71. What is the role of pons?

The second part is the pons, which means bridge in Latin. The pons sits in front of the medulla, and wraps
around it to the back. It is primarily the pathways connecting the two halves of the next part, which is called
the cerebellum.

Q.72. What is cerebellum?

The cerebellum, which means "little brain" in Latin, is in fact shaped like a small brain and it is primarily
responsible for coordinating involuntary movement. It is believed that when you learn complex motor tasks,
the details are recorded in the cerebellum.

Q.73. What is thalamus?

The thalamus is like a switching station, conducting signals from the body up to the relevant parts of the
higher brain, and down from the brain to the lower brain and spinal cord.

Q.74. Write a note on Peripheral Nervous System?

The Peripheral Nervous System consists of all the sensory nerves and the motor nerves (these carry
messages to other parts of the body from the brain and spinal cord). Sensory nerves contain sensory neurons.
Motor nerves contain motor neurons. Mixed nerves contain both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory
neurons are usually connected to motor neurons by intermediate neurons (sometimes called inter neurons).
Sensory, intermediate and motor nerves have gaps between them called synapses

Q.75. What are the Diseases of the central nervous system?

There are many central nervous system diseases, including infections of the central nervous system such as
encephalitis and poliomyelitis, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis or acute disseminated
encephalomyelitis, and genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease, Huntington's disease, or
adrenoleukodystrophy. Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when
malignant, can have very high mortality rates.

Q.76. What is brain stem?

The lower extension of the brain where it connects to the spinal cord. Neurological functions located in the
brainstem include those necessary for survival (breathing, digestion, heart rate, blood pressure) and for
arousal (being awake and alert).Most of the cranial nerves come from the brainstem. The brainstem is the
pathway for all fiber tracts passing up and down from peripheral nerves and spinal cord to the highest parts
of the brain.

Q.77. What causes of Tourette syndrome (TS)?

An abnormal metabolism of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin are involved with the disorder. It
is genetically transmitted; parents having a 50% chance of passing the gene on to their children. Girls with
the gene have a 70% chance of displaying symptoms, boys with the gene have a 99% chance of displaying
symptoms.

Q.78. What is frontal lobe.

Front part of the brain; involved in planning, organizing, problem solving, selective attention, personality
and a variety of "higher cognitive functions" including behavior and emotions. The anterior (front) portion
of the frontal lobe is called the prefrontal cortex. It is very important for the "higher cognitive functions" and
the determination of the personality. The posterior (back) of the frontal lobe consists of the premotor and
motor areas. Nerve cells that produce movement are located in the motor areas. The premotor areas serve to
modify movements.

Q.79. Explain occipital lobe?

Region in the back of the brain which processes visual information. Not only is the occipital lobe mainly
responsible for visual reception, it also contains association areas that help in the visual recognition of
shapes and colors. Damage to this lobe can cause visual deficits.

Q.80. What is parital lobe?

One of the two parietal lobes of the brain located behind the frontal lobe at the top of the brain. The parietal
lobes contain the primary sensory cortex which controls sensation (touch, pressure). Behind the primary
sensory cortex is a large association area that controls fine sensation (judgment of texture, weight, size,
shape).
Q.81. What is temporal lobe?

There are two temporal lobes, one on each side of the brain located at about the level of the ears. These lobes
allow a person to tell one smell from another and one sound from another. They also help in sorting new
information and are believed to be responsible for short-term memory.
Right Lobe: Mainly involved in visual memory (i.e., memory for pictures and faces).
Left Lobe: Mainly involved in verbal memory (i.e., memory for words and names).

Q.82. Describe the causes of Cerebral Palsy?

Neural tube defects (NTDs) are one of the most common birth defects, occurring in approximately one in
1,000 live births in the United States. An NTD is an opening in the spinal cord or brain that occurs very
early in human development. In the 2nd week of pregnancy called gastrulation, specialized cells on the
dorsal side of the fetus begin to fuse and form the neural tube. When the neural tube does not close
completely, an NTD develops.

Q.83. What is diencephaion?

The diencephaion contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus which are responsible for such
functions as motor control, relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic functions.

Q.84. What is telencephalon?

The telencephalon contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebral cortex. Most of the actual information
processing in the train takes place in the cerebral cortex.

Q.85. Explain the mid brain?

The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain is the portion of the
brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and
visual responses as well as motor function.

Q.86. Write a short note on hind brain?

The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and is composed of the metencephalcn andmyelencephalon. The
metencephalon contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum. These regions assists in maintaining
balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information. The
myelencephalon is composed of the medulla oblongata which is responsible for controlling such autonomic
functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

Q.87. What are the functions of Basal Ganglia?

Basal ganglia is Involved in cognition and voluntary movement and Diseases related to
damages of this area are Parkinson's and Huntington's
Q.88. Explain the Broca's Area?

Broca's area is related to Speech production and Understanding language

Q.88. What is Central Sulcus (Fissure of Rolando)?

Central sulcus is a Deep grove that separates the parietal and frontal lobes

Q.89. What is Cerebellum?

Controls movement coordination

Maintains balance and equilibrium

Q.90. What is Cerebral Cortex?

Outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum

Receives and processes sensory information
Divided into cerebral cortex lobes

Q.91. Write the names of Cerebral Cortex Lobes?

Frontal Lobes Occipital Lobes

Parietal Lobes Temporal Lobes

Q.92. What are the major tasks of brain?

The brain performs an incredible number of tasks:

It controls body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and breathing.
It accepts a flood of information about the world around you from your various senses (seeing, hearing,
smelling, tasting, touching, etc).
It handles physical motion when walking, talking, standing or sitting.
It lets you think, dream, reason and experience emotions.
All of these tasks are coordinated, controlled and regulated by an organ that is about the size of a small head
of cauliflower: your brain.
Complex part of the human body human brain is the center of the human nervous system. Enclosed in the
cranium, it has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over three times as large as
the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size. The human brain has been estimated to contain
80 or 90 billion non-neuronal cells (glial cells) as well as 80 or 90 billion neurons, of which about 10 billion
are cortical pyramidal cells. These cell pass signals to each other via as many as 1000 trillion synaptic
connection the brain monitors and regulates the body's actions and reactions. It continuously receives
sensory information, and rapidly analyzes these data and then responds, controlling bodily actions and
functions. The brainstem controls breathing, heart rate, and other autonomic processes that are independent
of conscious brain functions. The neocortex is the center of higher-order thinking, learning, and memory.
The cerebellum is responsible for the body's balance, posture, and the coordination of movement. Despite
being protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the
bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier.

Q.93. Write a short note on the damage and diseases of the brain?

The human brain is inclined to many types of damage and disease. The most common
forms of physical damage are closed head injuries such as a blow to the head, a stroke,
or poisoning by a wide variety of chemicals that can act as neurotoxins. Infection of the brain is rare because
of the barriers that protect it, but is very serious when it occurs. The human brain is also susceptible to
degenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. A number
of psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia and depression, are widely thought to be caused at least
partially by brain dysfunctions, although the nature of such brain anomalies is not well understood.

Q.94. What is the dominant feature of human brain?

The dominant feature of the human brain is corticalization. The cerebral cortex in humans is so large that it
overshadows every other part of the brain. A few subcortical structures show alterations reflecting this trend.
Corticalization is reflected in function as well as structure. In a rat, surgical removal of the entire cerebral
cortex leaves an animal that is still capable of walking around and interacting with the environment. In a
human, comparable cerebral cortex damage produces a permanent state of coma. The amount of association
cortex, relative to the other two categories, increases dramatically as one goes from simpler mammals, such
as the rat and the cat, to more complex ones, such as the chimpanzee and the human.

Q.95. Explain the structure of cerebral cortex?

The cerebral cortex is essentially a sheet of neural tissue, folded in a way that allows a large surface area to
fit within the confines of the skull. Each cerebral hemisphere, in fact, has a total surface area of about 1.3
square feet. Anatomists call each cortical fold asulcus, and the smooth area between folds a gyrus.

Q .96. Explain the Functional divisions of cortex?

Researchers who study the functions of the cortex divide it into three functional categories of regions, or
areas. One consists of the primary sensory areas, which receive signals from the sensory nerves and tracts by
way of relay nuclei in the thalamus. Primary sensory areas include the visual area of the occipital lobe, the
auditory area in parts of the temporal lobe and insular cortex, and the somatosensory area in the parietal lobe.
A second category is the primary motor area, which sends axons down to motor neurons in the brainstem
and spinal cord. This area occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory
area. The third category consists of the remaining parts of the cortex, which are called the association areas.
These areas receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the
complex process that we call perception, thought, and decision making.

Q.97. Write a brief note on EEG?

By placing electrodes on the scalp it is possible to record the summed electrical activity of the cortex, in a
technique known aselectroencephalography (FEG). EEG measures mass changes in population synaptic
activity from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain, with very little
sensitivity for sub-cortical activity. EFG recordings can detect events lasting only a few thousandths of a
second. EEG recordings have good temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution.

Q.98. Write a brief note on MEG?

Apart from measuring the electric field around the skull it is possible to measure the magnetic field directly
in a technique known asmagnetoencephalography (MEG). This technique has the same temporal resolution
as EEG but much better spatial resolution, although not as good as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
The greatest disadvantage of MEG is that, because the magnetic fields generated by neural activity are very
weak, the method is only capable of picking up signals from near the surface of the cortex, and even then,
only neurons located in the depths of cortical folds (sulci) have dendrites oriented in a way that gives rise to
detectable magnetic fields outside the skull.

Q.99. What are the Effects of brain damage?

A key source of information about the function of brain regions is the effects of damage to them. In humans,
strokes have long provided a "natural laboratory" for studying the effects of brain damage. Most strokes
result from a blood clot lodging in the brain and blocking the local blood supply, causing damage or
destruction cf nearby brain tissue: the range of possible blockages is very wide, leading to a great diversity
of stroke symptoms. Analysis of strokes is limited by the fact that damage often crosses into multiple
regions of the brain, not along clear-cut borders, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions.

Q.100. Which area of the brain is related to language?

The two hemispheres are thought to contribute to the processing and understanding of language: the left
hemisphere processes the linguistic meaning of prosody (or, the rhythm, stress, and intonation of connected
speech), while the right hemisphere processes the emotions conveyed by prosody. Studies of children have
shown that if a child has damage to the left hemisphere, the child may develop language in the right
hemisphere instead. The younger the child, the better the recovery. So, although the "natural" tendency is for
language to develop on the left, human brains are capable of adapting to difficult circumstances, if the
df.mage occurs early enough.

Q.101. Define the treatment of Muscular Dystrophy ?

There is no specific treatment to stop or reverse any form of MD. Treatment may include physical therapy,
respiratory therapy, speech therapy, orthopedic appliances used for support, and corrective orthopedic
surgery. Drug therapy includes corticosteroids to slow muscle degeneration, anticonvulsants to control
seizures and some muscle activity, immunosuppressants to delay some damage to dying muscle cells, and
antibiotics to fight respiratory infections. Some individuals may benefit from occupational therapy and
assistive technology. Some patients may need assisted ventilation to treat respiratory muscle weakness and a
pacemaker for cardiac abnormalities.

Q.102. Explain the left hemisphere area related to language?

The first language area within the left hemisphere to be discovered is Broca's area, named after Paul Broca,
who discovered the area while studying patients with aphasia, a language disorder. Broca's area doesn't just
handle getting language out in a motor sense, though. It seems to be more generally involved in the ability to
process grammar itself, at least the more complex aspects of grammar. For example, it handles
distinguishing a sentence in passive form from a simpler subject-verb-object sentence the difference between
"The boy was hit by the girl" and "The girl hit the boy."