BRACING MEMBERS

SUMMARY.
Introduce the bracing member design concepts.
Identify column bracing members requirements in terms of strength and stiffness.
The assumptions and limitations of lateral bracing for unrestrained beams analysis are given
Diaphragms design, limitations and applications are introduced.

OBJECTIVES.
Understand that the design requirements for column and portal frame bracing.
Understand that the design requirements for unrestrained beams lateral bracing.
Understand that the design requirements for diaphragms action use and its main approaches.

REFERENCES.
[1] ENV 1993-1-3 Eurocode 3 Part 1-3 General rules - Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge
members and sheeting.
[2] BS5950-1:2000, Structural Use of Steelwork in Building Part 1: code of practice for design
Rolled and welded sections.
[3] The Steel Construction Institute, Steel Designers Manual, 5th Edt., Blackwell, 1992.
[4] Winter, G. Transactions of ASCE, 125, pp.807, 1960.
[5] Kennedy, J. B., Neville, A. M., Basic statistical Methods for engineers and Scientists, 3rd., Harper
and Row, New York, pp. 114, 1986.
[6] Canadian Sheet Steel Building Institute, Diaphragm Action of Cellular Steel floor and Roof Deck
Construction, CSSBI Suite 305, 201 Consumers Road, Willowdale, On, M2J 4GB, 1972.
[7] McGuire, W., Steel Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1968.
1. INTRODUCTION.
The bracing system:
Must provide both force and stiffness.
Is used for beams, columns and frames.
Reduces effective length of columns.
Reduces effective length of beams.
Provides overall stability to frames.
May be discrete or continuous.
Consider:

If is equal to zero then Q is also equal to zero, but in a system that is less than ideal, 0, and the
situation portrayed in (c) occurs:
Q=k
for equilibrium:
P P
M A 0 P QL Q L or: k L k P L
Note if: kL > P there is no sideway
kL < P there is sideway

The critical case occurs when kL = P

2 EI 2 EI
[1] k0 = Pcr /L; The maximum load in the member is: Pcr k0 L
L2 L2

-For kL/k0L > 1, the system is braced and can reach Pcr
-Any k > kc, gives no benefit
-For k < kc, the system is only partially braced and P/Pcr < 1

2. COLUMN BRACING.
Consider a two-storey column braced at mid-height. The bracing member forces the column to buckle
into two half waves, i.e.:
Free body diagram of the top half.

QL kL
Pcr
2 2
2 Pcr
k0 [2]
L

For a three-storey column braced at each storey height:

Buckling Mode 1 Buckling Mode 2

QL k 0 L 3P
Pcr k 0 cr [3] Pcr QL k 0 L
3 3 L
Not critical when compared to first mode

For a four-storey column buckling in a zigzag manner the deflection at mid-height is not necessarily :
 Free body diagram of top quarter
Q
Q1 2 L P1 and
2

k 1 2 L P1
2
P1
k [A]
2
1
2

Free body diagram of next quarter

M B 0
Q
Q1 2 L Q1 L P1 2 0
2
Q2 L 2 P1 2
2 P1 2
k [B]
L 2

Equating [A] and [B]:

2 1 21 2
; 1 2 1 2 21 2 221 1 2 22 ; 1.4141 2
2 1 2 2
k 0 3.41 Pcr L [4]

For a large number of storeys the deflections in opposite directions at interior points, remote from the
ends, must be equal and the net shear on a panel height will be Q/2. Therefore from the free body
diagram:

QL k 0 L
2 P
2 2
4P
k0 [5]
l

Hence:

P
In general k 0
L
Thus the bracing stiffness k0, corresponding to zero initial deflection at the bracing points, can be
determined. The bracing force required is Q = k0 .
In a real structure, however columns have initial crookedness. Forces in the bracing only occurs when
the force in the column causes the brace to deform.

M B 0
0 QL Pcr 0
Pcr 0
kL Pcr 0 k 1
L

k k 0 1 0 [6]

There is still the need to know both 0 and

Q k k 0 1 0 k 0 0 [7]

For compression members, normal tolerances are 1/500 to 1/1000 of the length for plumbness

Say 0 = L/500 = 0.002L; let = 0 k = k0(1+1) = 2k0

2 Pcr 2 Pcr
Required stiffness k and Q = k = Q k 2 x0.002 Pcr 0.004 Pcr [8]
l l

Note: Assumed 0 = L/500 and =0

The selection of braces based on equation [8] implies:
-Assume equation [8] applies to both columns and beams.
-For beams deal with compressive force only.
-Does not apply to plastically designed structures.
-Pcr can be interpreted as the elastic or inelastic load.
-Does not apply to locations where brace forces are included in the analysis i.e. P- effects.
Steps:
1- Establish brace locations.
2- Calculated Pcr = Compressive resistance for a column and Ac y for a beam.
3- Calculate or estimate .
P
4- Calculate k 0 cr for n equal spaces L
L
A E 2 Pcr N 1 N
5- Select Ab i.e. the area of brace such that: b (units in mm
2
2
)
Lb L mm mm mm
6- Check that Q 0.004 Pcr

First Example
Provide braces at 1/3 points for a WWF 600x152, 250MPa yield stress, carrying a uniformly distributed
load on a span of 18 metres. Only one beam is to be braced. The beam is designed to reach its capacity
for an unbraced length of 6 metres. The brace length is 4.5 metres.
Evaluate the 6m unbraced length beam capacity. First the beam class has to be determined.
c 300 235 235
-Flange 6 9 9 9 8.7 i.e.: Class 1
t 2 x 25 fy 250
 c 550 235 235
-Web 68.8 72 72 72 69.8 i.e.: Class 1
t 8 fy 250
It can reach: Mpl = Z fy = 920 x 103 x 250 x 10-6 = 1230 kNm
0,5
2 EI z I w L2GI t
Mcr =
I 2 EI =
L2 z z
0,5
2 200 x103 x113x10 6 9300 x109 6000 2 x77 x103 x3220 x103
113 x106 2167kNm
2 x 200 x103 x113x10 6
=
6000 2

Wy f y 920000 x 250 x10 6 1230

LT = = 0.75
M cr 2167 2167

LT 0,51 a LT (LT 0.2) LT 2 = LT 0,51 0.49(0.75 0.2) 0.752 0.92

1 1
LT = 0.69

=
2 0,5 0,5
LT LT LT
2
0.92 0.92 2 0.75 2

Mb.Rd = LT w Wpl.y fy/m1 = 0.69x 920 x 103 x 250 x 10-6 / 1.1 =771.5kNm

The unfactored compressive force is

mM r 1.1x771.5 x103
Fc 1475.9kN
d tf 600 25

For braces at 1/3 points: 3

Pcr 3x1475.9 x103 2k 0 Lb 2 x738 x 4500

k0 738 N / mm Ab 33.2mm 2
L 6000 E 200000
4500
As a compression member L r 200 rmin 22.5mm
200
Try L 150x150x10: rmin = 29.7mm; A = 2930mm2

Q 0.004 Pcr 0.004 x3x1475.9 17.71kN

Lcr 4500
1 E f 200000 250 88.9 1.71
y ri 1 29.7 x88.9

0,51 a( 0.2) 2 = 0,51 0.34(1.71 0.2) 1.712 4.44

1 1
= 0.12
2
=
2 0,5 0,5
4.44 4.44 2 1.712

Nb.Rd = A fy/m1 = 0.12 x 2930 x 250 x 10-3 / 1.1 =78 kN >> Q = 17.71 kN

Notes:
PL 17.71x 4500 x103
1. 0.14mm ; assumed = 0.002L = 0.002x6000 = 12 mm.
AE 2930 x 200000
The force of 17.71kN is generated in 0.14 mm not 12 mm
 Pcr
Q2 k 0 0 0 12 0.14 9kN
738
2.
L 1000

This is considerably less than the 17.71 kN assumed and in turn generates less .
1
3- If 0 6mm was used rather than 1/500 then Q < 738 (6.14)/1000 =4.5 kN
1000
PL 4.5 x 4500 x103
4.5 0.03mm then Q3 < 738 (6.03)/1000 =4.45 kN
AE 2930 x 200000
ok.
4. The brace have to designed for:
0.01 force in the compression flange if in an elastic design or
0.025 force in the compression flange if in a plastic design

0.01M r 0.01x771.5 x103

0.001 Fc 13.4kN
d tf 600 25

This is 0.75 Q1 and 3Q3

5- What if braces can be provided in 2 directions so that brace can be assumed to act in tension?
Then as Ab = 47mm2 with a slenderness limit of 300, as a tension member:
4500
L r 300 rmin 15mm
300
Try L 90x90x7: rmin = 17.7mm; A = 1220mm2
Npl.Rd = A fy/m1 = 1220 x 250 x 10-3 / 1.1 =272.3 kN O.K
Q 0.004 Pcr 0.004 x3x1475.9 17.71kN

PL 17.71x 4500 x103

'
0.33mm << 12mm assumed.
AE 1220 x 200000
Q'
738
12 0.33 9.1kN
1000

PL 9.1x 4500 x103

'' 0.16mm Q ''
738
12 0.16 9kN
AE 1220 x 200000 1000
9 x 4500 x103
'''
PL
0.16mm Q '''
738
12 0.14 9kN
AE 1220 x 200000 1000
This is approximately 2/3 of the required by the design standard.

-Examination of Equations [6] and [7]

P
k k0 1 0 cr 1 0 [6]
L
P
Q k 0 0 cr 0 [7]
L
k 0
1 [6a]
k0
Q
1 0 [7a]
0 k0
 k
If 1
k0
k
Select 1 and 2
k0

- As stiffness of brace, k/k0, decreases the deflections increase.

- As stiffness of brace decreases the force Q that must be developed increases.
- If the brace is too soft it will need a large force therefore the design should be based on both
strength and stiffness requirements.

3. BRACING OF PARALLELL MEMBERS.

- Assume that bracing is of constant size.
i
- The extreme value of out-of-straightness for m members is , [5]. This states that the
m
extreme value for m members is less than for one:
- Members are equally spaced.
- Example m =3.

M c3
0

Q3
2 Pcr
0 3 k0 0 3
L

Q2 Q3
2 Pcr
0 2 k0 0 2
L

Q1 Q2
2 Pcr
0 1 k0 0 1
L

Also:
Q1 Lb Q1
1
QL Q Q
2 1 2 b 1 2 1
Q Q2
AE E k AE E k k k
QL
3 2 3 b 1
Q Q2 Q3 Q k k0 Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
3 0 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
AE E k k
k
Where: k00 =Q0 and 0 1
k
Q1 Q2 1Q3 Q0 0 Q2 Q1 k0 0 0 Q1 Q2 Q0 Q1 Q2
k

k
Q1 1Q2 Q3 Q0 0
And: Q1 Q2 k 0 0
k0
Q1 Q0 Q1 1Q1 Q2 Q0 0
k
The three simultaneous equations are;

Q1 Q2 1Q3 Q0 0 [A]
Q1 1Q2 Q3 Q0 0 [B]
1Q1 Q2 Q0 0 [C]

k0 P 0 i
Where: ; Q0 k0 0 and 0
k L m
k0 1
The previous conclusions induce a selection of: 2
k

Second Example
Will the L 150 x 150 x 10 mm selected for the first example provide adequate bracing for three parallel
WWF 600x152, 250MPa yield stress, when spanning of 18 metres. The brace length is 4.5 metres.
1- The unfactored compressive force is equal to 1475.9 kN.
2- The braces at the 1/3 points i.e.: = 3
P 3x1475.9 x103
3- Therefore k 0 cr 738 N / mm
L 6000
0.0020 x6000
4- 0 i 6.93mm Q0 = k00 = 6.93 x 738 = 5114.3 N
m 3
A E 2930 x 200000
5- k B 130222.2 N / mm
LB 4500
K 130222.2 k
6- 176.5 2 ; 0 0.0057
K0 738 k
7- The simultaneous equations are:

0.0057Q1 0.0057Q2 0.0057 1Q3 5114.3 0 [A]

0.0057Q1 0.0057 1Q2 Q3 5114.3 0 [B]
0.0057 1Q1 Q2 5114.3 0 [C]

Q1 15763 N 15.7 kN ; Q2 10559 N 10.6 kN ; Q3 5295 N 5.3 kN

Q 15.7 Q 10.6 Q 5.3
1 1 0.121 ; 2 1 2 0.121 0.202 ; 3 2 3 0.202 0.243
k 130.2 k 130.2 k 130.2
The capacity of L 150 x 150 x 10 mm, calculated in the first example, was:
Nb.Rd = 78 kN >> Q = 15.7 kN
Summary
3 0.243

2 0.202

1 0.121

0 i 6.9mm
m
Note: (i) One brace is in tension
(ii) It is tacitly assumed that the braces area installed to limit imax to 0.002 of 6000mm.
(iii) If braces are installed with imax = 36 mm there is a change in the forces previously calculated.
(iv) If braces are installed with initial forces present, these forces should be considered.

Third Example

Part floor framing plan

Column C1extends 3700 mm above and below this level. It is prevented from buckling about its weak
axis at this level only by the flexural stiffness about the weak axis of beams AC-1 and CE-1. The
diaphragm action of the floor prevents relative movement of A1, B1, D1 and E1. Column loads above
and below are 1560 kN and 1780 kN. Assume 0 is L/1000 = 2x3700/1000 = 7.4 mm. Question: Do
beams provide adequate support so that column can be designed for kL = 3700mm?
1560 1780 Pc
2 x1670
1- Take Pc 1670kN ; k0 0.903
2 L 3700
Q 7.4
Q 0.903( 7.4)kN ; k 0.9031 kN / mm

Pa 2 L a P 3EI
; k 2
3EI a L a
3EI1 3EI 2 3x 200000 x 21.3 x106 3x 200000 x 25.3 x106
ktotal 778 273 1051N / mm 1.05kN
a12 L a a22 L a 1500 2 7300 2750 2 7350
k 1.051
1.16 no good,
k 0 0.903
too large, see previous graph, a stiffer system is needed, greater than double of the initially adopted.
2- Try a WWF 300x95.3 & WWF 300x115 i.e.: comparable W and Z (Iz = 72x106 mm4, 85.5x106 mm4)
ktotal = 2.629 + 0.922 = 3.55 kN/mm
Q = 3.55 3.55 = 0.903 ( + 7.4) = 2.52mm Q = 8.96kN
3- An alternative solution takes into account that most of the restraint comes from AC-1 beam.
Therefore as good solution will be to increase its size and leave CE-1 as it is i.e.:
ktotal = 2.629 + 0.273 = 2.902 kN/mm
2.902 = 0.903 ( + 7.4) = 3.34mm Q = 9.7kN
4- the bending moments developed in the members should also be checked, i.e. for AC-1:
 2.629
M dy 9.7 x 1.5 13.1kNm
2.902

Mb.Rd = Wpl.y fy/m1 =726x103 x 250x10-6 / 1.1 =165kNm

M dz M 13.1
dy 0 0.08 1O.K .
M b ,rdz M b ,ry 165

4. DIAGONAL BRACING FOR COLUMNS.

The general procedure is composed of four steps:
1- Select bracing,
2- Compute deflections;
3- Determine the P- effects;
4- Iterate till the desired solution convergence.
Fourth Example
The specified (1/50) win forces acting on a braced bay and the resulting forces are show in the
illustration below. Select diagonal bracing to resist the imposed loads including the P- effects.

Additional information
1- Dead plus wind load combination case has been established to be critical. Dead loads
contributing to P- effects are: Level 2: 6248kN, Level3: 6248kN, and Level4: 2384kN.
Bl 2
2- Storey drifts due to: bracing force B B in the storey;
aAE
Ch 2
Compressive force C C in the leeward column;
aAE
TCh 2
Tensile force T T in all the storeys above.
aAE
3- Area of column is equal to 9280mm2 in all the levels
Select bracing
Level 1-2
T f q Q 1.5 x391.0 587kN

rmin L 300 9931 300 33.1mm

Try 2 150x90x10 long legs back to back with a 10mm gusset plate:
Ag= 4640mm2 and ry= 35.8mm
Adopting one bolt hole for 22mm diameter bolt the net area can be evaluated:
An = 4640 2(10x26) = 4120 mm2
Af 4640 x 250 x10 3 A f 4120 x 400 x10 3
N pl .Rd y 1054.5kN ; N u .Rd 0.9 net u 0.9 1186.6kN
M0 1.1 M2 1.25
N uRd 1054.5kN N d 587kN O.K.
Levels 2-3 and 3-4
Use 2 150x90x10 long legs back to back with a 10mm gusset plate, i.e.: Ag= 4640mm2 and ry= 35.8mm to
provide minimum slenderness ratio.

Lateral deflections (specified wind)

Level 1-2
Bl 2 391x103 x99312
Bracing B 4.62mm
aAE 9000 x 4640 x 200000
Ch 2 293x103 x 4200 2
Column C 0.31mm
aAE 9000 x9280 x 200000
=4.93mm
Level 2-3
Bl 2 234 x103 x9809 2
Bracing B 2.70mm
aAE 9000 x 4640 x 200000
0.31x3900
Column Level 1-2 C 0.29mm
4200
127 x103 x3900 2
Level 2-3 C 2 0.12mm
9000 x9280 x 200000
127 x103 x 4200 2
Level 2-3 T 1 0.13mm
9000 x9280 x 200000
=3.24mm
Level 3-4
Bl 2 86.6 x103 x9809 2
Bracing B 1.00mm
aAE 9000 x 4640 x 200000
0.31x3900
Column Level 1-2 C 0.29mm
4200
Level 2-3 C 0.12mm
Level 3-4 C 0.12mm
Level 2-3 T 0.13mm
0.13x3900
Level 3-4 T 0.12mm
4200
=1.784mm
P- effects (D + Q)
In any storey

Non-iterative method
V'
Vmax
'

V'
1
VQ

The deflected shape and factored P- effects are:

Equivalent Equivalent
2384 D Shears, V Lateral Force, H
1.78 Q

1.09 D Q 1.09 D Q
3.24 Q

6248 D

4.93 Q 7.17 D Q 6.08 D Q

6248 D


17.47 D Q 11.39 D Q

17.47 D Q

For Level 3-4 (2384 D x 1.78 Q)/3900 = 1.09 D Q

For Level 2-3 ((2384 + 6248) D x 3.24 Q)/3900 = 7.17 D Q

For Level 3-4 ((2384 + 6248 + 6248) D x 4.93 Q)/3900 = 17.47 D Q

V' 17.47 x1.3x1.5 34.07

For level 1-2 V '
max '
36.4kN
V 34.07
1 1
VQ 531
The force in the bracing including the P- effects;

N d ,P 531 36.4
L 9931
567.4 626.1kN N uRd 1054.5kN O.K.
a 9000
For Levels 2-3 and 3-4 the diagonals selected for maximum slenderness ratio will also be ok.
5. DIAPHRAGMS.
The diaphragm action:
- Transfer in-plane lateral loads applied at roof and floor levels to stiffer members;
- Need strength and stiffness;
- Must look at flow of forces (how forces are carried from point to point) intersheet connections
and connections at boundaries are important.
Consider:

The shear strength of diaphragm depends on:

- Seam capacity.
- Edge capacity.
- Purlin capacity (a controlled by fasteners).
overall buckling strength.

Stiffness of diaphragm depends on:

-Panel warping;
- Movement at seams;
- Edge panel slip.

The shear stiffness

F F a Fa
G and ; G or G ' Gt
a bt bt b
F G 'b
spring stiffness is equal to
a
Wall Cladding

Can cladding take horizontal force (in-plane) from girts to reduce effective length of columns? Must
establish force in girt as a function of . Cladding must provide this force and stiffness.
Roof Diaphragm
The diaphragm acts as a deep beam to carry the shear to the ends where it must be transferred to the ground.

M wL2
The force in the flanges is equal to
D 8D

5wL4 vLF
t f V
384 EI 2 x10 6
Where F is the flexibility factor equal to a function of:
-Deck span/average length supplied;
-Deck gauge;
- -Side lap connection;
- -Transverse welds.
And I is the moment of inertia of the flanges (which must be connected to the web).
Eurocode 3
BS5950
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY.
This lecture presented the approaches used for the bracing member design.