S E C O N D A R Y S C H O O L T E A C H E R S ' CONCEPTIONS O F

CRITICAL T H I N K I N G IN BRITISH C O L U M B I A A N D J A P A N :
A Comparative Study

by

EDWARD RONALD HOWE

B . S c , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1988
B . E d . , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1992

A THESIS S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T O F
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREEOF

MASTER OF ARTS

in

T H E F A C U L T Y OF G R A D U A T E STUDIES
(Department of Educational Studies)

W e accept this thesis as c o n f o r m i n g

to the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d

T H E UNIVERSITY O F BRITISH C O L U M B I A

October, 2000

E d w a r d R o n a l d H o w e , 2000
 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced

degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it

freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive

copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written

permission.

Department

The University of British Columbia

Vancouver, Canada

Date

DE-6 (2/88)
 ABSTRACT

Critical thinking has received much attention among educators, yet

remains largely undeveloped in traditional teacher-centred classrooms. Critical

thinking is used in at least three major contexts: (1) the media and general public,

(2) teacher pedagogy, and (3) academic discourse. Critical thinking must be better

understood by individuals within all three levels. The purposes of this study

were (1) to obtain an overall sense of what secondary school teachers believed

critical thinking to entail; (2) to compare and contrast B.C. and Japanese

secondary teachers' conceptions of critical thinking; (3) to investigate the nature

of B.C. and Japanese secondary teachers' conceptions of critical thinking with

respect to gender, age, teaching experience and subject taught; and (4) to

determine whether critical thinking is a significant part of B.C. and Japanese

teaching and the curriculum at the secondary level.

Over 150 secondary teachers from B.C. and Japan were asked to (1) sort

through 50 potential definers denoting possible attributes of critical thinking; (2)

rank the 10 most significant to critical thinking; and (3) answer a questionnaire

about the nature of critical thinking.

The quantitative data, effectively reduced through factor analysis, yielded a

five factor solution: Scientific Reasoning, Cognitive Strategizing, Conscientious

Judgements, Relevance, and Intellectual Engagement. B . C . teachers

conceptualized critical thinking through Cognitive Strategizing and Relevance,

while Japanese teachers favoured Conscientious Judgements and Intellectual

Engagement. From a synthesis of quantitative and qualitative data from teachers

surveyed as well as expert opinion, critical thinking was found to be a process in

which an individual is actively engaged in analyzing, reasoning, questioning,

and creatively searching for alternatives in an effort to solve a problem or to

make a decision or judgement. Teachers indicated that critical thinking was not

rote memorization, demonstrating factual knowledge, comprehension or

application. It was more than following a given algorithm or set of procedures.

While over half the teachers surveyed indicated critical thinking was part of the

curriculum and their teaching, many were unable to articulate how to teach it

effectively. There were significant differences in teachers' conceptions of critical

thinking. Culture accounted for more differences than gender, age, teaching

experience, subject area, or the teaching of critical thinking. Using discriminant

analysis, 27 definers distinguished between B.C. and Japanese teachers. While

B.C. teachers tended to choose "Decision making," "Problem solving,"

"Divergent thinking," "Metacognitive skills," "Higher order thinking,"

"Deductive reasoning," and "Identifying/removing bias," Japanese teachers

tended to chose "Fairness," "Adequacy," "Objective," "Consistency,"

"Completeness," Precision," and "Specificity." Over 96 percent of the teachers

were correctly classified by culture.

Further research is necessary on how to teach critical thinking across the

curriculum and successfully integrate it with B.C. and Japanese educational

reforms in areas such as curriculum development and teacher training. Critical

thinking is a Western expression, yet the concept is not confined to the West.

The author proposes the use of a new term for critical thinking with less

emphasis on "critical" and more emphasis on "thinking"kangaeru chikara or

"powerful thinking" better encompasses the nature of critical thinking as it is

conceived by B.C. and Japan's teachers. Teacher training must incorporate

powerful thinking and teachers must model critical thinking, for any effort to

reform the structure or organization of education ultimately depends on the

effectiveness of the teacher.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST O F T A B L E S vii

LIST O F F I G U R E S vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION T O T H E STUDY 1

The Problem: Critical T h i n k i n g Misconceptions 2
Background to the Study 3
Rationale and Conceptual Framework 4
Research Methodology and Data Analysis 7
Purposes 8
Organization of the Chapters 9

C H A P T E R 2 E D U C A T I O N IN BRITISH C O L U M B I A A N D J A P A N 10
Education i n British C o l u m b i a 10
Historical Perspective 10
Higher Education 11
Teacher Education 12
Education i n Japan 14
Historical Perspective 15
Comparative Perspective 16
Higher Education 18
Teacher Education 22
Comparisons Between B . C . and Japanese Teachers 25
Educational Reforms i n B . C . and Japan 28
Teacher Education Reforms i n B . C . and Japan 30
Summary 30

CHAPTER 3 CRITICAL THINKING 32

The Components of Critical T h i n k i n g 32
Learning Critical T h i n k i n g 34
Distortions of Critical T h i n k i n g i n the M e d i a 36
Critical T h i n k i n g Research 38

iv
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH M E T H O D O L O G Y 39
Sample 39
Schools 40
Teachers 45
Instrument Development 46
Critical Thinking Cards 46
Translation of Critical Thinking Definers 46
Procedures 47
P/iase 1Pilot Study 47
Phase 2Instrument Design 48
Phase 3Survey of B.C. Teachers 48
Phase 4Survey of Japanese Teachers 49
Data Preparation and Analysis 49
Summary 50

CHAPTER 5RESULTS-CHARACTERISTICS OFRESPONDENTS 52

Gender 52
Age 54
Teaching Experience 54
Subject Areas 55
Summary 56

CHAPTER 6 RESULTS-CRITICAL THINKING 57

Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g 57
Differences Between B . C . and Japanese Teachers 61
Differences Based on the Total N u m b e r of Definers Chosen 63
Differences Based on Gender 64
Differences Based on Age 64
Differences Based on Career Experience 64
Relationships Based on Critical T h i n k i n g i n the Curriculum 65
Relationships Based on Critical T h i n k i n g i n Teaching 65
Distinguishing B . C . from Japanese Teachers 66
Ranking Selected Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g 68
The Structure of Critical T h i n k i n g 70
Elements of Critical T h i n k i n g and the Factoring Procedure 71
Factors of Critical T h i n k i n g 71
Factor 1: Scientific Reasoning 71
Factor 2: Cognitive Strategizing 73
Factor 3: Conscientious Judgements 73
Factor 4: Relevance 73
Factor 5: Intellectual Engagement 74
Scale Scoring 74

V
 Relationships Between Critical T h i n k i n g Scale Scores and
Socio-demographic Characteristics of B.C. and Japanese Teachers 75
Culture 76
Gender!AgelTeaching Experience 77
Critical Thinking in the Curriculum and the
Teaching of Critical Thinking 77
Total Number of Critical Thinking Definers Chosen 79
Subject Areas 79
Summary 79

CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION 81
Teachers' Conceptions of Critical T h i n k i n g 81
H o w Critical T h i n k i n g is Taught 83
Comparative Perspective 84
Implications of the Study 89

CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSIONS 91

Critical Analysis of the Methodology 91
Critical Analysis of the Results 94
Levels of Critical T h i n k i n g 94
Comparative Education Perspective 95
Recommendations and Implications for Future Studies 97

REFERENCES 101

A P P E N D I X A : Teacher Questionnaire (English Version) 108

A P P E N D I X B: Teacher Questionnaire (Japanese Version) 110

A P P E N D I X C : Critical T h i n k i n g Definers Spreadsheet 112

A P P E N D I X D : Rotated Component Matrix of 50 Critical T h i n k i n g

Definers 113

vi
 LIST O F T A B L E S

Table 1 Descriptions of B . C . and Japanese Schools Selected 39

Table 2. C o d i n g of Critical T h i n k i n g Card Sort 49

Table 3. Characteristics of Selected Teachers i n B . C .

and Japanese H i g h Schools 53

Table 4. Differences in Fifty Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g between

Teachers i n B . C . and Japanese H i g h Schools 58

Table 5. Correlations Between Fifty Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g

and Seven Characteristics of Teacher Demographics 62

Table 6. Critical T h i n k i n g Definers that Significantly

Distinguished Between B . C . and Japanese Teachers 66

Table 7. Accuracy of Discriminant Function Distinguishing

B . C . and Japanese Teachers 67

Table 8. Critical T h i n k i n g Factor Loadings 72

Table 9. Relationships Between Critical T h i n k i n g Scale Scores

and Socio-demographic Characteristics of B . C . and Japanese Teachers 75
Table 10. Critical T h i n k i n g as Part of the Prescribed Curriculum 78

Table 11. Critical T h i n k i n g Taught i n the Classroom 78

vii
 LIST OF F I G U R E S

Figure 1. M a p of Japan 41

Figure 2. M a p of British C o l u m b i a 41

Figure 3. M a p of T h e Lower M a i n l a n d (Greater Vancouver) 42

Figure 4. M a p of Kanto Region (Greater Tokyo) 42

Figure 5. Example of a Critical T h i n k i n g Card 46

Figure 6. Distribution of Respondents on the Single Canonical

Discriminant Function of Significant Critical T h i n k i n g Definers 68

Figure 7. Percentage of Critical T h i n k i n g Definers Endorsed,

then Subsequently Ranked i n the T o p T e n 69

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the many people who have helped to make this

thesis possible. M y research supervisor, Roger Boshier as well as m y other

committee members: John Collins, Ishu Ishiyama, and Hans Schuetze helped

guide me through the process of designing appropriate research tools and in the

analysis of data. A special thank you to my wife, E m m y who helped immensely

with translation and who showed a great deal of patience throughout my

graduate work. Also, my Japanese liaison, Touji Tanaka from Tsukuba

University was very kind and helpful. H e enabled me to determine how suitable

my research question was from a Japanese educator's perspective. In addition, Dr.

Tanaka took time from his own research to contact each Principal from the

Japanese high schools and to arrange for my subsequent visits to each high

school. O n my initial visit to Tsukuba, Dr. Tanaka's graduate student, Tomomi

Netsu was generous with his time and he was instrumental in the process of the

translations of the critical thinking definers. Reiko Louie, a Japanese teacher here

in B.C. was also a great help in the double-translationa process that can be very

time-consuming. O n my visit to Tsukuba's technical high school, another one of

Dr. Tanaka's graduate students, Yoshihei Okabe must be thanked for spending an

entire afternoon as chauffeur and guide to Tsukuba. Thank you to my father-in-

law, Fumikazu O h k i for obtaining numerous Japanese books and Monbusho

documents as well as serving as an educational consultant and contact to various

Japanese individuals and institutions. Thank you to Susan Carpenter and Maria

Trache and especially to John Collins in helping me with the data analysis.

Finally, thank you to all my colleagues (both university graduate students and

teachers) who have given their time to provide insight into the meaning of

critical thinking.

ix
 1
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Like many other regions in the world, British Columbia is undergoing

major changes in education. Educational reforms reflect international trends in

education, advancements in communication technology and globalization of the

economy. It is important, however, not to lose sight of the ultimate goal of these

reformsto improve student learning. In particular, educators are interested in

teaching strategies that will improve student learning within the context of an

ever-shrinking world. It was with this in mind that the Critical Thinking

Cooperative was formed in 1994 as a project involving school districts, the

Ministry of Education, and other educators across the province. Its purpose was

to support learning and assessment resources and long-term, field-based

professional development in the area of critical thinking. Similarly, in the U K ,

the Oxford Centre for Comparative Studies was formed in 1990. Its mandate was

to make contributions to two important questions in the study of comparative

education: (1) What lessons can be learnt from cross-national studies of issues in

education? and (2) What problems of comparative methods do such studies have

to address? Its first published paper raised the question... "what are the specific

lessons that the British could learn from the Japanese education system..."

(Phillips, 1990, p. 159). M u c h literature in this field has drastically oversimplified

the Japanese educational system. It is the opinion of many researchers in

comparative education that there is much work to be done in this field.

In 1990, the Alberta Department of Education set up a committee to

investigate the curriculum, values and lessons from other countries, principally

Japan and Germany. Their report, International Comparisons in Education,

stated that there are no definitive measures that compare Alberta directly with
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i n t e r n a t i o n a l systems. C a n a d i a n c o m p a r i s o n s are f l a w e d d u e to a l a c k of

e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d therefore o p e n to c o n t r o v e r s y . T h e r e p o r t recommended

s e v e r a l e d u c a t i o n practices f r o m the c o m p a r i s o n c o u n t r i e s , transferable to

A l b e r t a , regardless o f societal differences. These practices i n c l u d e d teacher

t r a i n i n g a n d s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( A l b e r t a D e p t . of E d u c a t i o n , 1992, p p . 1-3).

I n T o k y o , J a p a n , the N a t i o n a l Institute for E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h ( N I E R )

made similar recommendations including nationwide and international

c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s o n a c h i e v e m e n t w i t h a focus o n l e a r n i n g m o t i v e s , a t t i t u d e s

a n d t h o u g h t processes of i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e N I E R m a d e s e v e r a l recommendations

to the Japanese g o v e r n m e n t i n c l u d i n g : a n e m p h a s i s o n i n d i v i d u a l i t y ,

cultivation of creativity, t h i n k i n g ability a n d p o w e r of expression, h u m a n i z a t i o n

of the e d u c a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o p i n g w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ( N I E R ,

1986a, 1986b). S i m i l a r l y , i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , the M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n has

m a n d a t e d that b y the y e a r 2000, a l l c u r r i c u l a w o u l d e m p h a s i z e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g

and critical t h i n k i n g , literacy and communication, team w o r k and information

t e c h n o l o g y ( B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n , 1993).

The Problem: Critical T h i n k i n g Misconceptions

It w o u l d a p p e a r that " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f e d u c a t i o n a l

reforms i n J a p a n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a ( M o n b u s h o , 1992, 1995; N o r r i s , 1988;

S c h l e c h t y , 1997). I n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d e l s e w h e r e , there is m u c h t a l k a m o n g

educators, p o l i t i c i a n s a n d the m e d i a . H o w e v e r , m u c h is i d l e r h e t o r i c , as " c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g " has b e c o m e the latest " b u z z w o r d " i n e d u c a t i o n . E v e r y o n e seems to

agree o n its i m p o r t a n c e , yet f e w articulate e x a c t l y w h a t they m e a n b y " c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g . " H e r e are e x a m p l e s f r o m recent n e w s p a p e r s :

 3
Y o u n e e d to be able to t h i n k v e r y c r i t i c a l l y a n d be h i g h l y literate to
use the Internet effectively, says T e r r y C l a r k , the h e a d o f V a n c o u v e r
P u b l i c L i b r a r y ' s c h i l d r e n ' s d i v i s i o n (Vancouver Sun, O c t o b e r 20,
1998, p . A l ) .

K i t K r i e g e r , p r e s i d e n t of the B . C . Teachers F e d e r a t i o n , suggests that

i n s t e a d o f a s k i n g " w h a t d i d y o u d o i n s c h o o l t o d a y , " ask y o u r c h i l d
w h a t q u e s t i o n s w e r e r a i s e d i n h i s o r h e r m i n d t o d a y . T h a t w a s the
q u e s t i o n a s k e d b y the p a r e n t s of N o b e l p h y s i c i s t H a n s Bette w h e n he
w a s a s t u d e n t . It d e v e l o p e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g rather t h a n a b s o r p t i v e
l e a r n i n g (Vancouver Sun, J a n u a r y 15, 1999, p . B 7 ) .

T e d M c C a i n a n d B i l l H e n d e r s o n , t w o i n n o v a t i v e B . C . teachers a w a r d e d the

P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s A w a r d for T e a c h i n g excellence e s p o u s e t h e i r v i e w s o n the

importance of teaching "critical t h i n k i n g " :

M c C a i n a n d H e n d e r s o n s a y a l t h o u g h their s t u d e n t s l e a v e h i g h
s c h o o l w i t h h i g h l y m a r k e t a b l e , c u t t i n g - e d g e s k i l l s , the t e c h n i c a l
lessons are the least i m p o r t a n t t h i n g t h e y take f r o m the c l a s s r o o m .
T h e focus o f their t e a c h i n g is p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , t h i n k i n g c r i t i c a l l y
a n d w o r k i n g as a t e a m (Vancouver Sun, J u n e 23, 1998, p . B 4 ) .

" C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is n o l o n g e r relegated to the pages o f s c h o l a r l y j o u r n a l s n o r is

it m e r e l y the h o t t o p i c o f e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h e r s . R a t h e r " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is

n o w i n the p u b l i c ' s v o c a b u l a r y , h o w e v e r its m e a n i n g r e m a i n s v a g u e a n d

convoluted.

B a c k g r o u n d to the S t u d y

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g has r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n a m o n g e d u c a t o r s , yet

r e m a i n s l a r g e l y u n d e v e l o p e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l teacher-centred s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l

c l a s s r o o m s . A t present, there is m u c h research i n p r o g r e s s o n the m e a n i n g ,

t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y , a n d m e t h o d s of t e a c h i n g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . H o w e v e r , there is s t i l l

debate a b o u t w h a t is m e a n t b y " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . " W h i l e e s p o u s e d b y e d u c a t o r s

a n d e m p l o y e r s b o t h i n B . C . a n d J a p a n , there has b e e n little e x a m i n a t i o n o f the

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w a y c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n these t w o e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s . P r i o r to

this s t u d y , b a s e d o n searches of e d u c a t i o n a l databases i n c l u d i n g E R I C a n d the

w o r l d w i d e w e b , there w a s n o data w h i c h c o m p a r e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n B . C . a n d

J a p a n . I n o r d e r to foster c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b y students, teachers m u s t first c r i t i q u e

present e d u c a t i o n a l practices a n d the beliefs u n d e r l y i n g t h e m . T o u n d e r s t a n d the

n a t u r e o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , e d u c a t o r s m u s t be a s k e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t the n a t u r e of

k n o w l e d g e , l e a r n i n g a n d the process of t h i n k i n g .

Rationale and Conceptual Framework

C o m p a r a t i v e E d u c a t i o n is n o t yet a c o h e s i v e d i s c i p l i n e b u t is rather a n

eclectic m i x o f a p p r o a c h e s w i t h i n a b r o a d e r f i e l d . T h e s p e c t r u m of a p p r o a c h e s

r a n g e f r o m c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m to p o s i t i v i s m . M a n y c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n

researchers' c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s l i e s o m e w h e r e w i t h i n these b o u n d a r i e s , for

t h e y are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e concepts. H o w e v e r , a t t e m p t s to

f o r m u l a t e m e t h o d s that d r a w o n b o t h e n d s of the s p e c t r u m h a v e l a r g e l y n o t

b e e n successful. N o t e w o r t h y e x c e p t i o n s m a y i n c l u d e the case s t u d y ,

m o r p h o g e n e t i c a p p r o a c h a n d H o l m e s ' p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a p p r o a c h ( E p s t e i n , 1988).

W h i l e this s t u d y is d e c i d e d l y p o s i t i v i s t i n n a t u r e , the a u t h o r r e c o g n i z e s the

i m p o r t a n c e o f c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m a n d p o s i t i v i s m to c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n , as

' c o m p a r i s o n ' has different m e a n i n g s for p o s i t i v i s t s a n d r e l a t i v i s t s .

C u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m uses c o m p a r i s o n to g a i n a m u t u a l respect for

differences w h i l e g u a r d i n g against e t h n o c e n t r i s m . F o r the r e l a t i v i s t ' c o m p a r i s o n '

is n o t a g e n e r a l i z i n g process b u t is i n s t e a d a m e t h o d to d i s c o v e r c u l t u r a l

absolutes. H e r s k o v i t s , B o a s , a n d B e n e d i c t w e r e a m o n g the first researchers to use

c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m , b e l i e v i n g a l l assessments w e r e m a d e r e l a t i v e to s t a n d a r d s

d e r i v e d f r o m c u l t u r e ( E p s t e i n , 1988). C u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m d e n i e s that m e a n i n g f u l
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c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n s are p o s s i b l e as a l l e d u c a t i o n a l p h e n o m e n a are

e m b e d d e d i n c u l t u r e s that are u n i q u e . T h u s , c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s t s w o u l d s e e m at

o d d s w i t h those w h o e m b r a c e the roots of c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n a n d w h o are

largely positivists.

P o s i t i v i s m has b e e n c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n ' s m a i n s t r e a m t r a d i t i o n since

M a r c - A n t i o n e J u l l i e n set the stage i n the e a r l y 19th c e n t u r y . S i r M i c h a e l S a d l e r ,

also s a w the p r a c t i c a l v a l u e of s t u d y i n g f o r e i g n e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s i n o r d e r to

m a k e i m p r o v e m e n t s at h o m e . F o r o v e r o n e h u n d r e d a n d e i g h t y y e a r s , p o s i t i v i s t

s c h o l a r s h a v e e x a m i n e d i n v a r i a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s t r a n s c e n d i n g the b o u n d a r i e s o f

p a r t i c u l a r societies. F r o m c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n ' s ' f o u n d i n g fathers' J u l l i e n a n d

S a d l e r , to t h e i r m o d e r n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s N o a h a n d E c k s t e i n , p o s i t i v i s m has

prevailed.

A l t h o u g h there are g r a v e p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t i n e v e r y effort to

s t u d y e d u c a t i o n a n d society c o m p a r a t i v e l y , a n d severe
a d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s r a i s e d b y attempts to a p p l y s o c i a l science
t e c h n i q u e s to c o m p a r a t i v e w o r k , the p r o m i s e b o t h o f the g e n e r a l
f i e l d of c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n a n d the specific m e t h o d s
a d v o c a t e d h e r e r e m a i n s great. T h e p o t e n t i a l of the f i e l d , as w e
h a v e a r g u e d , lies first i n the p r o m i s e of e x t e n d i n g the g e n e r a l i t y
of p r o p o s i t i o n s b e y o n d the confines of a s i n g l e society; s e c o n d , i n
the p r o v i s i o n o f a n arena w h e r e p r o p o s i t i o n s , testable o n l y i n a
c r o s s - n a t i o n a l context, c a n be i n v e s t i g a t e d ; t h i r d as a f i e l d for
i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y w o r k ; a n d f i n a l l y , as a n i n s t r u m e n t for
p l a n n e r s a n d p o l i c y m a k e r s ( N o a h & E c k s t e i n , 1998, p p . 28-29).

F r o m a p o s i t i v i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , c r o s s - n a t i o n a l data c a n be u s e d to test a n d

verify propositions about relationships between teaching practices a n d learning

o u t c o m e s . T h u s , i n c o m p a r i n g B . C . a n d Japanese teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g , a p o s i t i v i s t a p p r o a c h w a s u s e d i n o r d e r to seek m e a n i n g that

t r a n s c e n d e d the t w o c u l t u r e s .

T h e r a t i o n a l e for d o i n g a s t u d y of this n a t u r e is p e r h a p s n o t i m m e d i a t e l y

o b v i o u s . S o m e e d u c a t o r s i n i t i a l l y m a y feel the t w o e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s ( a n d
c u l t u r e s for that matter) are so d i s s i m i l a r that little c a n be g a i n e d f r o m one

s t u d y i n g the other i n a n y d e t a i l . H o w e v e r , m u c h c a n be l e a r n e d f r o m cross-

c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n s ( C u m m i n g s & A l t b a c h , 1997; E l l i n g t o n , 1992; E p s t e i n , 1988;

H a r a d a , 1993; H o w a r t h , 1991; K o b a y a s h i , 1990; N e w Y o r k State E d u c a t i o n D e p t . ,

1992; R o h l e n & L e T e n d r e , 1996; S h i m a h a r a & S a k a i , 1995; S c h r i e w e r , 1988;

S t e v e n s o n & S t i g l e r , 1992). H o w e v e r , c o m p a r i s o n s h a v e l e d to a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l

e c o n o m i c c o m p e t i t i v e a g e n d a , a n d w h a t T h o m a s R o h l e n , a u t h o r o f the w e l l -

k n o w n s t u d y : Japan's High Schools, calls "the r i s i n g t i d e o f n a i v e e n t h u s i a s m for

e d u c a t i o n ' s benefits a m o n g e c o n o m i s t s , scientists, b u s i n e s s p e o p l e , (and) elected

o f f i c i a l s " ( R o h l e n , 1995, p . 104). R o h l e n reflects further o n the W e s t e r n

p e r c e p t i o n s o f Japanese e d u c a t i o n a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i o n b y s t a t i n g :

O u r defensiveness, for w h a t e v e r reason, has l e d to d i s t o r t i o n s i n the

p u b l i c i m a g e o f e d u c a t i o n i n East A s i a . P o r t r a i t s e m p h a s i z i n g " e x a m
h e l l s , " a u t h o r i t a r i a n teachers, s t u d e n t m a l a i s e , l a c k o f c r e a t i v i t y , a n d
excessive c o n f o r m i t y are c o m m o n . These p o r t r a i t s raise d o u b t s that
there is a n y t h i n g to be l e a r n e d f r o m s c h o o l s y s t e m s w i t h s u c h a
s e e m i n g l y a l i e n character. Success at s u c h a p r i c e , w e s a y to o u r s e l v e s ,
is a c t u a l l y n o success at a l l . I c a n n o t agree. I t h i n k I s p e a k for m o s t of
m y c o l l e a g u e s w h o s t u d y A s i a n e d u c a t i o n i n a s s e r t i n g that there is
m u c h to l e a r n . W e f i n d m a n y faults w i t h A s i a n s y s t e m s o f e d u c a t i o n
a n d d o n o t a l w a y s agree o n w h a t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t to t h e i r success.
H o w e v e r , these differences m a k e for l i v e l y debate, n o t d i s m i s s a l of
the t o p i c . W e seek to u n d e r s t a n d first a n d o n l y t h e n to d r a w p r a c t i c a l
lessons (1995, p . 104).

O n a p e r s o n a l note, as a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teacher w i t h e x p e r i e n c e

t e a c h i n g i n b o t h B . C . a n d J a p a n , I h a v e a great interest i n c o m p a r a t i v e

e d u c a t i o n . A f t e r s p e n d i n g t w o years t e a c h i n g at s e v e r a l j u n i o r h i g h

s c h o o l s i n T o k y o , I w a s i m p r e s s e d b y the o r g a n i z a t i o n , teacher

a c c u l t u r a t i o n a n d ethos of Japanese s c h o o l s . A t the s a m e t i m e , I also n o t e d

deficiencies i n t e a c h i n g strategies a n d i n i t i a l teacher t r a i n i n g . It o c c u r r e d to

m e that m u c h c o u l d be g a i n e d f r o m c o m p a r i n g different e d u c a t i o n
 7
systems a n d b o r r o w i n g ideas f r o m a b r o a d . Y o u c o u l d say that I w a s

e n l i g h t e n e d f r o m m y e x p e r i e n c e overseas a n d r e b o r n as a c o m p a r a t i v e

educator!

I n c r e a s i n g l y , Japanese e d u c a t o r s are c o m i n g to C a n a d a a n d the U . S . to

l e a r n a b o u t W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n a l systems. O v e r 3000 teachers are sent a b r o a d

e v e r y y e a r ( K o b a y a s h i , 1993, p . 11). Since 1993, o v e r 600 C a n a d i a n s p e r y e a r h a v e

t a k e n p a r t i n the J a p a n E x c h a n g e a n d T e a c h i n g (JET) P r o g r a m ( M o n b u s h o , 1996,

p . 51). T h e y are d o i n g so because of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n ,

g l o b a l i z a t i o n of the e c o n o m y , a n d i n c r e a s e d t r a d e a n d t o u r i s m . A n d b y their

presence, great f o r w a r d strides h a v e b e e n m a d e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a n d

the e x c h a n g e o f ideas.

B o t h B . C . a n d J a p a n s t a n d to benefit f r o m this c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y . I n

p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s thesis s h o u l d be o f interest to c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n researchers,

e d u c a t i o n p o l i c y m a k e r s , teacher e d u c a t o r s , a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers.

Researchers, e d u c a t o r s a n d c l a s s r o o m teachers c a n g a i n i n s i g h t s i n t o the n a t u r e

of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . T h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l lessons l e a r n e d c a n b e u s e d to i m p r o v e

teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y c u r r i c u l u m a n d c l a s s r o o m

t e a c h i n g s h o u l d c h a n g e i n o r d e r to e n h a n c e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g .

Research M e t h o d o l o g y and Data A n a l y s i s

T h e task of this thesis w a s to c o m p a r e a n d contrast B . C . a n d Japanese h i g h

s c h o o l teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g across the d i m e n s i o n s o f c u l t u r e ,

subject taught, e x p e r i e n c e , age a n d g e n d e r . I n o r d e r to facilitate this c o m p a r i s o n ,

a t w o p a r t s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t w a s d e s i g n e d (see A p p e n d i x A for the E n g l i s h

v e r s i o n a n d A p p e n d i x B for the Japanese v e r s i o n ) . A f t e r a p i l o t s t u d y a n d

d o u b l e - t r a n s l a t i o n , definers o r d e s c r i p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ( w o r d s a n d
 8
phrases d e n o t i n g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ) w e r e p r i n t e d o n 50 i n d e x c a r d s ( i n E n g l i s h o n

one s i d e a n d Japanese o n the other). Teachers (n=159) f r o m f o u r Japanese a n d s i x

B . C . p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s w e r e a s k e d to sort the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c a r d s , c h o o s i n g

o n l y r e l e v a n t ones. F r o m these, t h e y w e r e r e q u i r e d to r a n k the ten m o s t

significant. T h e results of this card-sort p r o c e d u r e w e r e r e c o r d e d i n a spreadsheet

(see A p p e n d i x C ) . T h u s , q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a w a s c o l l e c t e d f r o m the c a r d sort

p r o c e d u r e a n d q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n a d d i t i o n to q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a f r o m o p e n - e n d e d

questions.

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , w h i l e v a l u e d b y m o s t teachers, r e m a i n s a c o n c e p t that is

not w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , teachers h a v e d i f f i c u l t y e x p r e s s i n g h o w

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c a n be taught. It is h o p e d that this s t u d y w i l l c o n t r i b u t e to the

f i e l d of c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n a n d k n o w l e d g e of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a t o p i c of

great interest to e d u c a t o r s i n B . C . a n d J a p a n .

Purposes

T h e p u r p o s e s of this s t u d y w e r e :

(1) T o o b t a i n a n o v e r a l l sense of w h a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers b e l i e v e d c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g to e n t a i l .

(2) T o c o m p a r e a n d contrast B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of

critical thinking.

(3) T o i n v e s t i g a t e the n a t u r e of B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s

of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w i t h respect to g e n d e r , age, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d subject

taught.

(4) T o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of B . C . a n d

Japanese t e a c h i n g a n d the c u r r i c u l u m at the s e c o n d a r y l e v e l .

 9
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the C h a p t e r s

I n the f o l l o w i n g chapters, the n a t u r e of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n B . C . ' s a n d

Japan's s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s is a n a l y z e d a n d c o m p a r e d . C h a p t e r 2 p r o v i d e s a n

o v e r v i e w of e d u c a t i o n i n B . C . a n d J a p a n . C h a p t e r 3 deals w i t h the c o n c e p t of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . C h a p t e r 4 details the research m e t h o d o l o g y , w h i l e C h a p t e r s 5

a n d 6 r e p o r t the results of the s t u d y . C h a p t e r 7 discusses teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a n d offers a c o m p a r a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e . F i n a l l y , C h a p t e r 8 serves

as a c o n c l u s i o n a n d s u m m a r y of the research f i n d i n g s .
 10
CHAPTER 2

E D U C A T I O N I N BRITISH C O L U M B I A A N D J A P A N

T h r o u g h o u t time, civilizations have asked questions a n d sought answers

i n a search for k n o w l e d g e . E d u c a t i o n h a s a l w a y s b e e n a n essential p a r t o f a n y

society. T o better u n d e r s t a n d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n B . C . a n d J a p a n , first it is

necessary to u n d e r s t a n d the b r o a d e r context o f e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n the t w o r e g i o n s .

Education i n British Columbia

B . C . c o n t i n u e s to b e a p i o n e e r i n p r o g r e s s i v e r e f o r m s t o e d u c a t i o n . A t the

d a w n o f the i n f o r m a t i o n age, B . C . is p o i s e d to b e c o m e a w o r l d l e a d e r i n the role

of teachers a n d the effective u s e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , h o w e v e r further

i m p r o v e m e n t s i n e d u c a t i o n are necessary for B . C . to p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s for the

c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g t h e m . I n p a r t i c u l a r , teacher e d u c a t i o n m u s t c h a n g e i n o r d e r to

reflect the c h a n g i n g n e e d s o f society.

Historical Perspective

E d u c a t i o n i n British C o l u m b i a has e v o l v e d from the one-roomed r u r a l

s c h o o l s o f the late 1800s to the present c o m p l e x s y s t e m . D u r i n g the 1990s, n e a r l y

h a l f the 75 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w e r e i n the process o f a m a l g a m a t i o n a n d

c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . D u e to a h u g e increase i n p o p u l a t i o n , B . C . ' s s c h o o l s w e r e

o v e r c r o w d e d a n d u n d e r - f u n d e d ( B C T F , 1998). T h e r e w a s a n e x p l o s i o n o f E . S . L .

students, e s p e c i a l l y i n the L o w e r M a i n l a n d . These factors h a v e c o m b i n e d to

p r o d u c e a d i f f i c u l t a n d c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t for e d u c a t i o n i n B . C . . I n a d d i t i o n ,

there h a v e b e e n s w e e p i n g changes to the c u r r i c u l u m i n o r d e r to reflect the n e e d

for c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . I n 1988, the E i g h t h B . C . R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n E d u c a t i o n

r e p o r t e d o n the state o f e d u c a t i o n i n B . C . . A s a result, m a n y r e f o r m s t o o k p l a c e

 11
i n c l u d i n g c r i t e r i o n referenced assessment, peer e v a l u a t i o n a n d a focus o n

s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d a p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g . C u r r e n t l y , the c u r r i c u l u m is d i v i d e d

i n t o three p r o g r a m s : p r i m a r y ( K - 3 ) , i n t e r m e d i a t e (4-7), a n d s e c o n d a r y (8-12).

C u r r i c u l a r d e c i s i o n s are m a d e b y the B . C . M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n w h i l e the

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for teacher t r a i n i n g a n d c e r t i f i c a t i o n is left to the B . C . C o l l e g e of

Teachers ( B C C T ) . T h e B C C T is c o m p r i s e d of fifteen teachers, t w o cabinet

appointees, t w o M i n i s t e r of E d u c a t i o n appointees a n d one representative from

the D e a n s o f the F a c u l t i e s of E d u c a t i o n . P r i o r to 1988, there w a s l i t t l e

a c c o u n t a b i l i t y a n d f e w s t a n d a r d s for teachers. Since the B C C T w a s e s t a b l i s h e d

h o w e v e r , teacher q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s h a v e i m p r o v e d .

U n t i l the m i d - 1 9 6 0 s , h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w a s p r o v i d e d

a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y b y its u n i v e r s i t i e s . D u r i n g the 1960s, h o w e v e r , as the d e m a n d

for greater v a r i e t y i n p o s t s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n rose s h a r p l y a n d e n r o l l m e n t

e x p a n d e d , s y s t e m s of p u b l i c l y o p e r a t e d p o s t - s e c o n d a r y n o n - u n i v e r s i t y

i n s t i t u t i o n s b e g a n to d e v e l o p . E n r o l l m e n t s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the 1950s

a n d 1960s w i t h the e x p a n s i o n o f the e c o n o m y . M o r e a n d m o r e p e o p l e w e r e

o b t a i n i n g h i g h s c h o o l d i p l o m a s . I n the late 1960s a n d the 1970s m a n y m o r e w e r e

g o i n g o n to c o l l e g e a n d u n i v e r s i t y . " H u m a n c a p i t a l " w a s c o n s i d e r e d o f p r i m a r y

i m p o r t a n c e to the g r o w t h o f the e c o n o m y . H o w e v e r , d u r i n g the e a r l y 1980s, the

e c o n o m y s l o w e d d o w n a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t rose. I n the 1990s, the g o v e r n m e n t

r e c o m m e n d e d a closer fit b e t w e e n the e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m a n d the l a b o u r m a r k e t ,

yet u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t r e m a i n e d ( L i v i n g s t o n e , 1996).

Higher Education

V i r t u a l l y a l l C a n a d i a n p o s t s e c o n d a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g the

u n i v e r s i t i e s , offer b o t h f u l l a n d p a r t - t i m e a d u l t e d u c a t i o n . O v e r the past 20 years,

 12
w i t h the e m p h a s i s o n l i f e l o n g l e a r n i n g , there has b e e n a m a r k e d increase i n the

n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s f r o m o u t s i d e the u s u a l 1 8 - t o - 2 4 - y e a r - o l d age g r o u p ; i n 1990,

24 percent of u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s w e r e o v e r the age of 24 c o m p a r e d w i t h a l m o s t

18 percent i n 1970-71 (Statistics C a n a d a , 1996). C u r r e n t l y , m o r e t h a n 55 percent o f

a l l u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s are w o m e n , a n d m o r e w o m e n r e c e i v e u n i v e r s i t y

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s t h a n m e n . S i m i l a r l y , o v e r 53 p e r c e n t o f f u l l - t i m e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ,

a n d n e a r l y 63 p e r c e n t o f p a r t - t i m e college s t u d e n t s are w o m e n . A d u l t e d u c a t i o n

is a f a s t - g r o w i n g sector. I n 1990, for e x a m p l e , 3.4 m i l l i o n a d u l t s o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y

20 percent o f C a n a d i a n s w e r e t a k i n g p a r t - t i m e courses (Statistics C a n a d a , 1996).

C a n a d i a n post-secondary institutions have developed comprehensive,

d i v e r s i f i e d s y s t e m s o f e d u c a t i o n , d e s i g n e d to be u n i v e r s a l l y accessible,

r e s p o n d i n g to the d i v e r s e n e e d s o f its residents.

Teacher Education

T e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n i n B . C . has p r o g r e s s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y since the N o r m a l

schools of the e a r l y p a r t of this c e n t u r y . E v e n as r e c e n t l y as the 1960s it w a s

p o s s i b l e to teach i n B . C . ' s p u b l i c s c h o o l s w i t h little o r n o f o r m a l teacher t r a i n i n g .

T h i s has c h a n g e d a great d e a l i n the last decade. T e a c h i n g has g r a d u a l l y b e e n

g a i n i n g status as a l e g i t i m a t e p r o f e s s i o n l i k e m e d i c i n e o r l a w . S i n c e 1988, teacher

e d u c a t i o n a n d c e r t i f i c a t i o n i n B . C . has b e e n r e g u l a t e d b y the B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a

C o l l e g e of Teachers. A l l teachers since 1988 m u s t h a v e o b t a i n e d the e q u i v a l e n t of

at least five years of u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g i n a n a p p r o v e d p o s t - s e c o n d a r y p r o g r a m

l e a d i n g to a B a c h e l o r of E d u c a t i o n degree. U p o n c o m p l e t i o n o f either the

e l e m e n t a r y o r s e c o n d a r y p r o g r a m , g r a d u a t e s m u s t t h e n a p p l y to the T e a c h e r s '

Q u a l i f i c a t i o n S e r v i c e a n d the B C C T i n o r d e r to h a v e their a c a d e m i c c r e d e n t i a l s

assessed. T h e B . C . P r o f e s s i o n a l T e a c h i n g C e r t i f i c a t e i s s u e d is v a l i d i n d e f i n i t e l y
 13
for as l o n g as the i n d i v i d u a l c o n t i n u e s to r e m a i n a m e m b e r o f the C o l l e g e i n

good standing.

T h e T w o Y e a r E l e m e n t a r y T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m at the U n i v e r s i t y o f

B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ( U . B . C . ) is o p e n to a p p l i c a n t s w h o h a v e c o m p l e t e d a m i n i m u m

of 90 credits i n A r t s , Science o r H u m a n K i n e t i c s , i n c l u d i n g r e l e v a n t p r e -

a d m i s s i o n s t u d i e s . T h e T w e l v e - M o n t h E l e m e n t a r y T e a c h e r P r o g r a m , the P i l o t

M i d d l e S c h o o l T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m , a n d the S e c o n d a r y T e a c h e r

E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m are o p e n to a p p l i c a n t s w h o h a v e c o m p l e t e d a f o u r y e a r

B a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e w h i c h i n c l u d e s r e l e v a n t p r e - a d m i s s i o n s t u d i e s . A d m i s s i o n to

teacher e d u c a t i o n is l i m i t e d b y the a v a i l a b l e spaces i n e a c h p r o g r a m a n d

e m p l o y m e n t p r o s p e c t s . Because of the c o m p e t i t i o n for a d m i s s i o n , s t u d e n t s are

often r e q u i r e d to h a v e a g r a d e p o i n t average w e l l a b o v e the 65 p e r c e n t

m i n i m u m . Initially, candidates develop a foundation of teaching t h r o u g h

courses d e s i g n e d to p r o v i d e a b a l a n c e of g e n e r a l a n d s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e a b o u t

curriculum and instruction, including pedagogical knowledge, educational

psychology a n d special education. In addition, students have a t w o w e e k

p r a c t i c u m for o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d o r i e n t a t i o n to the s c h o o l i n w h i c h t h e y w i l l be

d o i n g the e x t e n d e d p r a c t i c u m . A f t e r the first semester of s t u d y , s t u d e n t s enter a

13 w e e k e x t e n d e d p r a c t i c u m c o n s i s t i n g of a 20-30 percent t e a c h i n g a s s i g n m e n t ,

w h i c h is g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d to 80 percent for the f i n a l 4 w e e k s . B y the t i m e they

s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t e the e x t e n d e d p r a c t i c u m , s t u d e n t s s h o u l d h a v e

d e m o n s t r a t e d that t h e y c a n p l a n , i m p l e m e n t a n d e v a l u a t e i n s t r u c t i o n at a

s t a n d a r d e x p e c t e d of a b e g i n n i n g teacher. A f t e r the p r a c t i c u m , s t u d e n t s r e t u r n to

c a m p u s for one semester to e n g a g e i n s t u d i e s d e s i g n e d to p u t t h e i r t e a c h i n g

experiences i n a b r o a d e r context.

S i m o n F r a s e r U n i v e r s t i y (S.F.U.), T h e U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a , T r i n i t y
 14
W e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y as w e l l as other B . C . U n i v e r s i t y - C o l l e g e s a l l offer p r o g r a m s

for teacher p r e p a r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , teacher e d u c a t i o n at B . C . ' s other i n s t i t u t i o n s

v a r i e s s o m e w h a t f r o m U . B . C . ' s m o d e l . S . F . U . has s t u d e n t s take t w o p r a c t i c a . O n e

is a f o u r - w e e k p r a c t i c u m , d o n e at the b e g i n n i n g o f the p r o g r a m , before a n y

s i g n i f i c a n t c o u r s e w o r k has b e e n c o m p l e t e d . T h e other is a t e n w e e k i n t e n s i v e

p r a c t i c u m that d e m a n d s that the s t u d e n t m u s t teach a f u l l c o u r s e l o a d o v e r at

least a s i x w e e k p e r i o d . S . F . U . ' s p r o g r a m attempts to p l a c e m o r e e m p h a s i s o n a

v a r i e t y of p r a c t i c u m experiences a n d o n the b e g i n n i n g teacher as a reflective

p r a c t i t i o n e r . T h e r e is d e c i d e d l y less e m p h a s i s o n p e d a g o g i c a l t h e o r y a n d teacher

education courses.

B a s e d o n this w r i t e r ' s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i n U . B . C . ' s p r o g r a m (1989) a n d

role as a s p o n s o r teacher (school associate) i n S . F . U . ' s p r o g r a m (1996, 1998),

U . B . C . ' s p r o g r a m offers a g o o d b a l a n c e of p e d a g o g i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g .

H a v i n g the e x t e n d e d p r a c t i c u m i n the s a m e s c h o o l as the i n i t i a l t w o w e e k

p r a c t i c u m after the course w o r k offers greater c o n t i n u i t y . A l s o , b y g r a d u a l l y

i n c r e a s i n g the t e a c h i n g l o a d , the s t u d e n t teacher c a n concentrate o n d a i l y l e s s o n

p l a n n i n g a n d the l o n g e r o u t l o o k o f u n i t p l a n n i n g . I n this w r i t e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e , the

S . F . U . p r o g r a m does n o t p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s for the r i g o r o u s t e a c h i n g l o a d of the

ten w e e k p r a c t i c u m . A l s o , b y h a v i n g t w o p r a c t i c a i n different s c h o o l s w i t h

different s c h o o l associates, the p r a c t i c a are a d i s c o n t i n u o u s a n d stressful

e x p e r i e n c e as a result. N e i t h e r p r o g r a m is i d e a l , i n c o m p a r i s o n to J a p a n ' s teacher

education.

Education in Japan

In the 1980s a n d 1990s Japanese i n s t i t u t i o n s of e d u c a t i o n u n d e r w e n t

s i g n i f i c a n t changes. J a p a n ' s r e v i s e d m o d e l of e d u c a t i o n has m u c h to offer. I n

 15
p a r t i c u l a r , the e n c u l t u r a t i o n o f b e g i n n i n g teachers s h o w s great p r o m i s e .

H o w e v e r , m a n y r e f o r m s w e r e n o t sufficient to a d d r e s s t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m s

f a c i n g J a p a n ' s s t u d e n t s . Recent calls for e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m , d r i v e n b y s l o w

e c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n d s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s to i n d u s t r y , further i l l u s t r a t e the n e e d

for c o m p r e h e n s i v e c h a n g e s t o J a p a n ' s r i g i d a u t h o r i t a r i a n e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m .

Historical Perspective

Japanese c u l t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n h a v e p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n s h a p i n g

the e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m . Since the M e i j i r e s t o r a t i o n i n 1868, J a p a n h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y

l o o k e d b e y o n d h e r shores for ideas a n d m o r e efficient w a y s o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g

t h i n g s . T h e Japanese are r e m a r k a b l e i n the w a y they h a v e b e e n able t o take g o o d

ideas f r o m a b r o a d , p e r f e c t i n g a n d a d a p t i n g t h e m for their o w n p u r p o s e s , w h i l e

m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r c u l t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n s . E d u c a t i o n is a p r i m e e x a m p l e of this.

B y learning Western methods of p r o d u c t i o n a n d adapting the W e s t e r n m o d e l of

c a p i t a l i s m to s u i t t h e i r c u l t u r e , J a p a n e v o l v e d f r o m a f e u d a l state to a m o d e r n

i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n i n a short p e r i o d o f t i m e . E m p e r o r M e i j i u n d e r s t o o d that i n

o r d e r f o r J a p a n to b e c o m p e t i t i v e i n the p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d , the c o u n t r y w o u l d

h a v e to l e a r n to b e " m o d e r n . " H e sent s c h o l a r s to E u r o p e , N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d

A s i a to s t u d y the e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s o f other c o u n t r i e s . J a p a n o p e n e d its d o o r s to

the rest o f the w o r l d for the first t i m e i n the h i s t o r y o f the n a t i o n . T h i s p r o v e d to

be the s i n g l e m o s t i m p o r t a n t factor i n f l u e n c i n g Japanese e d u c a t i o n .

A f t e r W o r l d W a r II, d u r i n g the o c c u p a t i o n , Japanese e d u c a t i o n w a s

m o d e l e d o n the A m e r i c a n 6 - 3 - 3 - 4 s y s t e m . I n 1947, the F u n d a m e n t a l L a w o f

E d u c a t i o n a n d the S c h o o l E d u c a t i o n L a w w e r e enacted. U n d e r these l a w s a

f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m w a s e s t a b l i s h e d o n the p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l

o p p o r t u n i t y . I n 1948, a n e w s y s t e m o f u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s w a s e s t a b l i s h e d .
 16
U n i v e r s i t i e s started u n d e r the n e w s y s t e m i n 1949, a n d j u n i o r colleges i n the

f o l l o w i n g year. H o w e v e r , c u r r i c u l u m a n d i n s t r u c t i o n i n Japanese p u b l i c s c h o o l s ,

u n d e r w e n t little c h a n g e as a result ( B e a u c h a m p & V a r d m a n , 1994; O k a n o &

T s u c h i y a , 1999; R o h l e n , 1983; S h i e l d s , 1993; T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998). Japanese

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n is s t i l l c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a d i d a c t i c t e a c h i n g , rote

m e m o r y s t y l e o f l e a r n i n g v e r y s i m i l a r to the A m e r i c a n a n d B r i t i s h p u b l i c

s c h o o l s o f the late 1800'sthe v e r y s y s t e m it w a s m o d e l e d after ( R o h l e n &

L e T e n d r e , 1996, p . 317). T h i s s i t u a t i o n is about to c h a n g e h o w e v e r , as Japanese

e d u c a t i o n is p o i s e d to u n d e r g o a major p a r a d i g m shift f r o m rote l e a r n i n g to

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998). R e c e n t l y , the Japanese M i n i s t r y of

Science a n d E d u c a t i o n ( i n J a p a n e s e - Monbusho) i n i t i a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t a n d far

r e a c h i n g r e f o r m s to e n s u r e their s t u d e n t s h a v e the necessary t h i n k i n g s k i l l s to b e

successful i n the g l o b a l e c o n o m y o f the 21st c e n t u r y .

Comparative Perspective

N o r t h A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n is often c o m p a r e d w i t h that o f E u r o p e a n

c o u n t r i e s , b u t J a p a n is a better c o m p a r i s o n . F i r s t , b o t h J a p a n a n d C a n a d a h a v e

r e a c h e d the " u n i v e r s a l " stage o f s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n a n d the " m a s s " stage o f

h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . I n 1995, the t o t a l e n r o l l m e n t rate i n s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l w a s

e s t i m a t e d to b e 85.2 percent i n C a n a d a a n d 95.8 percent i n J a p a n , w h i l e the total

e n r o l l m e n t rate i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n w a s e s t i m a t e d at 68 p e r c e n t i n C a n a d a a n d

45.2 percent i n J a p a n (Statistics C a n a d a , 1996; M o n b u s h o , 1996, p . 18). I n contrast,

m a n y E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s s t i l l h a v e l o w e r e n r o l l m e n t rates i n s e c o n d a r y a n d

post s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n . S e c o n d , b o t h J a p a n a n d C a n a d a h a v e c o m p r e h e n s i v e

public elementary a n d junior h i g h schools offering a broad-based liberal

e d u c a t i o n , i n contrast w i t h E u r o p e ' s selective s y s t e m . D e s p i t e these s i m i l a r i t i e s ,

 17
J a p a n ' s i n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t i o n a l s y s t e m is a s t r i k i n g contrast to the p l u r a l i s t i c

C a n a d i a n p r o v i n c i a l s y s t e m . J a p a n offers a clear e x a m p l e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l

l i n k a g e s b e t w e e n s c h o o l s a n d w o r k p l a c e s . Japanese s c h o o l - w o r k l i n k a g e s are

r e g u l a t e d b y the P u b l i c E m p l o y m e n t S e c u r i t y Office (a n a t i o n a l e m p l o y m e n t

agency) a n d are b a s e d o n l o n g - t e r m " s e m i f o r m a l contacts" b e t w e e n s c h o o l s a n d

e m p l o y i n g f i r m s ( O k a n o , 1993; R o s e n b a u m & K a r i y a , 1989).

I n J a p a n , the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for e n g e n d e r i n g the h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t of

y o u n g p e o p l e is s h a r e d b y f a m i l y , s c h o o l , a n d the w o r k p l a c e . H i g h s c h o o l s a n d

colleges take a n active r o l e i n f i n d i n g e m p l o y m e n t for t h e i r g r a d u a t e s . " I n

g e n e r a l , the i n t e r l o c k i n g , o v e r l a p p i n g , m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

s h a r e d b y the f a m i l y , s c h o o l , a n d c o m p a n y for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the

i n d i v i d u a l is a n i m p o r t a n t factor b e h i n d the success o f Japanese e d u c a t i o n "

( W h i t e , 1987, p . 73). J a p a n ' s h i g h s c h o o l s p r o v i d e a b r o a d a c a d e m i c f o u n d a t i o n

a n d the o p p o r t u n i t y for s t u d e n t s to be selective i n t h e i r c h o i c e o f career p a t h .

U p o n g r a d u a t i o n f r o m j u n i o r h i g h (grade 9), s t u d e n t s take v a r i o u s h i g h s c h o o l

entrance e x a m s to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h h i g h s c h o o l t h e y w i l l a t t e n d . H i g h s c h o o l

entrance e x a m s t h e n sort e a c h age c o h o r t i n t o w h a t a m o u n t s to a n eight- to ten-

tier h i g h s c h o o l r a n k i n g s y s t e m ( R o h l e n , 1983, p . 308). F u t u r e o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d

status l e v e l s (elite, m a n a g e r i a l , b l u e - c o l l a r , a n d so forth) are c l o s e l y e q u a t e d to

this r a n k i n g . F u r t h e r , at the p o i n t o f h i g h s c h o o l entrance the entire age c o h o r t is

d i v i d e d i n t o three l a r g e l y i m m u t a b l e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y d i s t i n c t i o n s : those l e a v i n g

s c h o o l , those e n t e r i n g v o c a t i o n a l r a n k s , a n d those g o i n g o n to a c a d e m i c h i g h

schools. T h e r a t i o o f s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g a c a d e m i c (general) h i g h s c h o o l s has b e e n

s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g f r o m 60 p e r c e n t i n 1970 to o v e r 74 p e r c e n t c u r r e n t l y . T h e

other s t u d e n t s a t t e n d s p e c i a l i z e d v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s i n A g r i c u l t u r e , I n d u s t r y ,

C o m m e r c e , F i s h e r y , H o m e E c o n o m i c s , N u r s i n g a n d others. S i n c e 1994, the

 18
M o n b u s h o has i n t r o d u c e d c o m p r e h e n s i v e s c h o o l s . N o w , there is a t r e n d t o w a r d

a l l h i g h s c h o o l s o f f e r i n g a m o r e l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e choices

for s t u d e n t s ( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998, p . 29). I n J a p a n , o v e r 95 p e r c e n t o f a l l

s t u d e n t s are a d v a n c i n g to h i g h s c h o o l a n d n e a r l y as m a n y are g r a d u a t i n g ,

s i g n i f y i n g the n e a r d e m i s e of the h i g h s c h o o l degree as a m a r k of d i s t i n c t i o n . T h e

t y p e of h i g h s c h o o l a n d the status of o n e ' s u n i v e r s i t y w e r e c r u c i a l m e a s u r e s .

H i g h s c h o o l s i n J a p a n r e l y o n e x a m c o m p e t i t i o n for p r o v i d i n g d i s c i p l i n e a n d

f o u n d a t i o n s of l e a r n i n g , w h i l e l e a v i n g to u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d the w o r k p l a c e s the

f i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for d e c i d i n g w h a t a d d i t i o n a l s k i l l s a n d specific t r a i n i n g are

needed.

Higher Education

W h i l e p a r t s o f the Japanese e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m are c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y to be

the best i n the w o r l d , h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e d b y b o t h the Japanese a n d

others to be s e r i o u s l y i n a d e q u a t e b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s . T h e R e p o r t o f the

U n i v e r s i t y C o u n c i l i n 1991 r e c o m m e n d e d v a s t i m p r o v e m e n t s i n the q u a l i t y o f

t e a c h i n g a n d research, i n o r d e r to b r i n g Japanese u n i v e r s i t i e s to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l

a c a d e m i c l e v e l ( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998, p . 33). T h e d e m a n d for excellence, so

p r e v a l e n t f r o m k i n d e r g a r t e n t h r o u g h s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l , s t o p s at the u n i v e r s i t y

d o o r s t e p . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the p r e s e n t s y s t e m o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is n o t p r o v i d i n g

k n o w l e d g e , s k i l l s , a n d the c r e a t i v i t y n e e d e d to enable J a p a n to c o m p e t e g l o b a l l y

i n the " i n f o r m a t i o n a g e " o r to s u c c e e d i n its l o n g - r a n g e c o m m i t m e n t to

restructure its m a n u f a c t u r i n g base ( H a i d u c e k , 1991, p . 40). A salient e x a m p l e is

f o u n d i n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n of N o b e l P r i z e s ( N a t u r a l Science,

1901-1995) a w a r d e d . W h i l e the U . S . w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f o v e r 260 m i l l i o n

p r o d u c e d 175 N o b e l P r i z e s , C a n a d a ' s p o p u l a t i o n of 30 m i l l i o n p r o d u c e d s e v e n
 19
N o b e l P r i z e s a n d yet J a p a n ' s p o p u l a t i o n of 125 m i l l i o n has p r o d u c e d o n l y five

N o b e l P r i z e s ( U e d a , 1997, p . 11,109). A m o r e recent e x a m p l e is the Japanese

g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n a b i l i t y to d e a l w i t h the e c o n o m i c r e c e s s i o n of the 1990s.

F i n a n c i a l experts i n other G - 7 c o u n t r i e s r e p e a t e d l y t r i e d to a d v i s e the Japanese

g o v e r n m e n t o f d a n g e r s i n t h e i r fiscal m a n a g e m e n t p o l i c i e s b u t to n o a v a i l . A t

least the M o n b u s h o r e c o g n i z e s the deficiencies i n Japanese h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d ,

as a result, is a g g r e s s i v e l y p u r s u i n g r e f o r m s , i n c l u d i n g i m p o r t i n g A m e r i c a n

institutions of h i g h e r education. Several A m e r i c a n colleges a n d universities

i n c l u d i n g M I T , H a r v a r d a n d U C L A have opened branches i n Japan. T h r o u g h

s u c h a t t e m p t s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , m a n y Japanese see this as a m e a n s b y

w h i c h t h e y w i l l be able to c o m p e t e i n the g l o b a l e c o n o m y a n d be f u l l y accepted b y

the rest of the w o r l d . I n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of e d u c a t i o n has b e e n r e c o g n i z e d b y

the M o n b u s h o as a n i m p o r t a n t area o f r e f o r m .

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n J a p a n has f u n c t i o n e d as a s e l e c t i o n

process u s e d to m a i n t a i n a n elitist h i e r a r c h i c a l structure. T h r o u g h strict e n t r a n c e

quotas a n d use o f c o m p e t i t i v e e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n s , a d m i s s i o n to the t o p

u n i v e r s i t i e s w a s l i m i t e d . N a t i o n w i d e , i n 1980 a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t o f a l l g r a d u a t e s

w e r e a d v a n c i n g to h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , b u t f r o m the p u b l i c a c a d e m i c h i g h s c h o o l s

the rate w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 percent ( R o h l e n , 1983, p . 85). U n i v e r s i t y

e n r o l l m e n t s i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y d u r i n g the 1960s a n d 1970s a n d c o n t i n u e d i n

the 1980s a n d e a r l y 1990s w i t h i n c r e a s e d c o m p e t i t i o n for e n t r a n c e to the m o s t

p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g to the M o n b u s h o (1996), h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n

e n r o l l m e n t for h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s i n c r e a s e d f r o m a m e r e 10.2 p e r c e n t of the

age c o h o r t i n 1960, a n d 18.7 percent i n 1970, to a s u b s t a n t i a l 33.5 p e r c e n t i n 1980.

A l t h o u g h o v e r 80 p e r c e n t of h i g h s c h o o l f r e s h m e n a i m e d at h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n

there w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t space for a l l a p p l i c a n t s ( R o h l e n , 1983, p . 82). H o w e v e r ,

 20
private universities a n d special t r a i n i n g schools have absorbed increased

n u m b e r s of u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s w i s h i n g to c o n t i n u e t h e i r s t u d i e s

a n d since the p o p u l a t i o n " b u l g e " of the 1992 c o h o r t o f g r a d u a t e s , there has b e e n

n o n e e d for further q u a n t i t a t i v e e x p a n s i o n s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s ( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a ,

1998, p . 33). F o r i n d i v i d u a l s n o t g o i n g to college it has m e a n t b e g i n n i n g w o r k

w i t h a major d i s a d v a n t a g e because t h e y l a c k e d the necessary c r e d e n t i a l s . U n t i l

v e r y recently, g o i n g b a c k to s c h o o l w a s n o t a n o p t i o n a n d r a r e l y h a v e the m o s t

talented h i g h school graduates gained p r o m o t i o n above u n i v e r s i t y educated

e m p l o y e e s . H o w e v e r , i n d i v i d u a l s fortunate e n o u g h to be a d m i t t e d i n t o the best

n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t i e s s u c h as T o k y o U n i v e r s i t y or the e x c e p t i o n a l p r i v a t e

u n i v e r s i t i e s s u c h as W a s e d a , w e r e a s s u r e d a p r o m i s i n g career i n g o v e r n m e n t o r

business.

I n recent years the M o n b u s h o has a t t e m p t e d to c h a n g e the elitist structure

of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , to r e f o r m the e x a m - b a s e d a d m i s s i o n s to u n i v e r s i t i e s , a n d to

e l i m i n a t e g o v e r n m e n t a n d b u s i n e s s l i n k s to the m o s t p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s

( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998, p . 30). H o w e v e r , the c r i t i c a l d e t e r m i n i n g factor for

Japanese p o s t - s e c o n d a r y s t u d e n t s is s t i l l the u n i v e r s i t y e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n s

rather t h a n w h a t is s t u d i e d d u r i n g the u n d e r g r a d u a t e degree. Japanese p e o p l e

f o n d l y r e m i n i s c e a b o u t the f r e e d o m f r o m s t u d y , w o r k a n d a d u l t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d as carefree u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s . W h i l e N o r t h A m e r i c a n h i g h e r

e d u c a t i o n d e m a n d s h a r d w o r k a n d intense s t u d y , Japanese h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is

w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d a n d accepted as a p l a c e of rest a n d r e l a x a t i o n before f a c i n g the

r i g o u r s o f the w o r k p l a c e .

W h i l e J a p a n ' s u n d e r g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s are less t h a n satisfactory, they are

r e l a t i v e l y c o m p e t e n t i n c o m p a r i s o n to g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s w h i c h h a v e b e e n

u n d e r d e v e l o p e d a n d w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d as a n area w h e r e d r a s t i c i m p r o v e m e n t s
 21
m u s t be m a d e . O n M a y 1995, o n l y 68 p e r c e n t of J a p a n ' s u n i v e r s i t i e s h a d a

g r a d u a t e s c h o o l a n d o n l y 49 p e r c e n t offered d o c t o r a l courses ( M o n b u s h o , 1996, p .

29). W h i l e the n u m b e r of u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v i n g a g r a d u a t e s c h o o l i n e d u c a t i o n

i n c r e a s e d f r o m o n l y three i n 1985 to m o r e t h a n 43 i n 1995, a c c o r d i n g to the

M o n b u s h o , d e m a n d s s t i l l exist for b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e a n d quantitative

i m p r o v e m e n t s at g r a d u a t e s c h o o l s ( M o n b u s h o , 1996, p . 31; S h i m a h a r a , 1995b, p .

180). C u r r e n t r e f o r m p r o p o s a l s seek to m a k e g r a d u a t e s t u d y i n m a n y fields m o r e

accessible, b u t s y s t e m a t i c strategies for a c h i e v i n g this g o a l h a v e n o t b e e n

d e v e l o p e d ( H a w l e y , 1990, p . 47). T h i s r e m a i n s a p r o b l e m for J a p a n ' s u n i v e r s i t i e s ,

h o w e v e r there is s o m e e v i d e n c e of u n i v e r s i t i e s b e c o m i n g m o r e f l e x i b l e i n

admissions and accommodating lifelong learning.

D e s p i t e these deficiencies i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , the n e e d s o f Japanese

society are for m o r e v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g a n d less u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s . T h e

b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e is d e v a l u e d as m o r e a n d m o r e receive it, yet the d e m a n d g r o w s

for m o r e t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s . B u t J a p a n has e n t e r e d a n age of m a s s h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ,

a n d the t r e n d is d i f f i c u l t to reverse. J a p a n ' s p r i v a t e sector has r e s p o n d e d to the

d e m a n d for m o r e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . T h e r e s u l t is a n a b u n d a n c e o f i n s t i t u t i o n s

b u t a l o w e r q u a l i t y of i n s t r u c t i o n .

M a n y Japanese p o s t s e c o n d a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s f u n c t i o n o u t s i d e the

m a i n s t r e a m . A case i n p o i n t is the f u n c t i o n of colleges i n J a p a n a n d the

i m b a l a n c e o f m a l e to female s t u d e n t s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d colleges ( F u j i m u r a -

F a n s e l o w , 1993, p p . 163-165). O n l y recently has p r o g r e s s t o w a r d f u l l e q u a l i t y of

p a r t i c i p a t i o n for w o m e n i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n b e e n r e a l i z e d ( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a ,

1998, p . 34). H o w e v e r , m a n y females a t t e n d a j u n i o r college. M o s t c o l l e g e

s t u d e n t s w i l l n o t g o o n to u n i v e r s i t y . J u n i o r colleges i n J a p a n d o n o t serve the

s a m e r o l e as colleges i n C a n a d a o r the U . S . . U n i v e r s i t y transfer is n o t a n o p t i o n

 22
n o r is it a g o a l for college g r a d u a t e s w h o enter the w o r k force d i r e c t l y as

secretaries a n d j u n i o r e m p l o y e e s . " T w o o u t of e v e r y three females are h e a d e d for

j u n i o r colleges, w h e r e a s n i n e o f e v e r y ten m a l e s are a i m i n g at f o u r - y e a r

u n i v e r s i t i e s . . . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 p e r c e n t of those s t u d e n t s g o i n g o n p a s t h i g h

s c h o o l attend j u n i o r colleges, yet 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e m are female... T h e percentage

of w o m e n i n f o u r - y e a r u n i v e r s i t i e s i n c r e a s e d f r o m 8 p e r c e n t i n 1960 to 18 percent

i n 1980" ( R o h l e n , 1983, p . 85). C u r r e n t l y , 91.8 percent o f s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n

Japan's j u n i o r colleges are female w h i l e o n l y 31.2 p e r c e n t o f u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s

are females ( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998, p . 32). A l t h o u g h the r a t i o o f females

e n r o l l e d i n u n i v e r s i t y has i n c r e a s e d , c l e a r l y , as r e c o g n i z e d b y the M o n b u s h o ,

there is a n e e d for further r e f o r m s to Japan's h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n .

Teacher Education

Japanese teacher e d u c a t i o n is r e g u l a t e d b y n a t i o n a l l a w s e s t a b l i s h e d b y the

c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t statute r e g u l a t i n g the Japanese

n a t i o n a l s y s t e m o f teacher e d u c a t i o n is the L a w for C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f E d u c a t i o n a l

P e r s o n n e l , p a s s e d i n 1849 a n d m o s t r e c e n t l y r e v i s e d i n 1988. T h i s , i n c o n j u n c t i o n

w i t h other l a w s , set f o r t h the basic characteristics of Japanese teacher e d u c a t i o n .

These m a y be b r i e f l y s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w s :

1. C e r t i f i c a t i o n and teacher t r a i n i n g is t h e primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the

Monbusho.

2. T h e M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a t i o n is a d v i s e d b y the C o u n c i l o f T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n ,
w h i c h is c o m p o s e d o f e x p e r t s i n teacher e d u c a t i o n . F o r m a j o r p o l i c y i s s u e s
p u b l i c h e a r i n g s are h e l d .

3. E a c h o f the 47 p r e f e c t u r e s h a v e b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n w h i c h i s s u e t e a c h i n g
certificates v a l i d for t e a c h i n g i n a l l prefectures.
 23
4. N e w teachers are r e c r u i t e d b y the p r e f e c t u r a l b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n a n n u a l l y
from q u a l i f i e d teachers a n d teachers i n t r a i n i n g t h r o u g h competitive
s c r e e n i n g tests.

5. F i r s t y e a r t e a c h e r s h a v e a o n e y e a r p r o b a t i o n a r y p e r i o d b e f o r e b e c o m i n g
permanent employees. D u r i n g this time they m u s t receive significant i n -
service training.

6. T h e p l a n n i n g o f a l l i n i t i a l a n d i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g is the p r e f e c t u r a l b o a r d of
education's responsibility.

7. U n i v e r s i t i e s a n d c o l l e g e s w h e r e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g o c c u r s m u s t f i r s t be
a u t h o r i z e d b y the M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n as i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g .
( K o b a y a s h i , 1993, p p . 5-6)

T e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n i n J a p a n takes the f o r m o f a u n i t e d p a t t e r n . T h e

c u r r i c u l u m for p r e - s e r v i c e e d u c a t i o n at e a c h u n i v e r s i t y a n d c o l l e g e is d e v e l o p e d

w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f the L a w for C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f E d u c a t i o n a l P e r s o n n e l .

Since e d u c a t i o n is u n i v e r s a l l y v a l u e d b y Japanese society, teachers are h i g h l y

r e g a r d e d , a n d w e l l p a i d . H a l f the s a l a r y of e d u c a t i o n a l p e r s o n n e l is p a i d b y the

c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s m a k e s it p o s s i b l e for l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s to a s s i g n the

necessary n u m b e r o f teachers w i t h o u t b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d b y the l o c a l f i n a n c i a l

s i t u a t i o n . I n this w a y , J a p a n has a c h i e v e d its m a n d a t e for e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l

opportunity.

I n o r d e r to b e c o m e a teacher, o n e m u s t o b t a i n a teacher's certificate b y

c o m p l e t i n g the subjects i n a u n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m for teacher e d u c a t i o n . T h e m o s t

c o m m o n w a y to b e c o m e a certified teacher is to c o m p l e t e the teacher t r a i n i n g

c u r r i c u l a at a M o n b u s h o a u t h o r i z e d j u n i o r c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y . A t p r e s e n t

there are o v e r 800 i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r i n g teacher t r a i n i n g t h r o u g h o u t J a p a n

( S h i m a h a r a & S a k a i , 1995). A d v a n c e d , 1st class, a n d 2 n d class certificates are

a w a r d e d for c o m p l e t i o n of M a s t e r ' s degrees, four y e a r B a c h e l o r ' s degrees a n d 2-3

year A s s o c i a t e degrees r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n o r d e r to teach e l e m e n t a r y o r l o w e r

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l a 2 n d class certificate is r e q u i r e d . T h e r e is n o 2 n d class certificate

 24
for u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers. T o teach i n u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s a 1st

class certificate is r e q u i r e d . A s a result of recent reforms to teacher e d u c a t i o n ,

teachers h o l d i n g a 2 n d class m u s t m a k e a n effort to o b t a i n a 1st class certificate b y

t a k i n g 45 u n i v e r s i t y c r e d i t s u p o n c o m p l e t i o n o f five y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g . T h e

n u m b e r of c r e d i t s c a n be r e d u c e d a c c o r d i n g to the n u m b e r of y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g

e x p e r i e n c e . C u r r e n t l y , d u e to the i n c r e a s i n g c o m p e t i t i o n for t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n s ,

m o s t n e w teachers o b t a i n a four year B a c h e l o r ' s degree a n d 1st class certificate, yet

o n l y one-fourth of a l l graduates receive teaching appointments (Shimahara &

S a k a i , 1995). C o n s e q u e n t l y , there is a t r e n d for teachers to a t t a i n h i g h e r degrees.

A c c o r d i n g to T a k a k u r a a n d M u r a t a (1998) m o r e t h a n 90 p e r c e n t o f teachers f r o m

p r i m a r y s c h o o l to u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l h a v e g r a d u a t e d f r o m i n s t i t u t i o n s of

h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ( u n i v e r s i t y o r j u n i o r college). H o w e v e r , Japanese p r e - s e r v i c e

teachers take c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer courses for c e r t i f i c a t i o n c o m p a r e d to B . C . ' s

teachers. U n t i l the recent r e f o r m s i n teacher e d u c a t i o n , m o s t p r o s p e c t i v e h i g h

s c h o o l teachers i n J a p a n t o o k a p p r o x i m a t e l y 32-40 c r e d i t s i n t h e i r subject area,

a n d m e r e l y 11-13 credits i n p e d a g o g i c a l studies ( H a w l e y , 1990, p . 38). S h i m a h a r a

and Sakai add:

T h e f l a w o f p o s t w a r teacher p r e p a r a t i o n w a s e v i d e n t e s p e c i a l l y i n
the c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s at the s e c o n d a r y l e v e l that w e r e i n
force u n t i l 1990: m e r e l y 14 c r e d i t s of p r o f e s s i o n a l s t u d i e s , i n c l u d i n g
t w o c r e d i t s i n s t u d e n t t e a c h i n g , e q u i v a l e n t to t w o w e e k s o f c l i n i c a l
e x p e r i e n c e . S t u d e n t s s e e k i n g teacher c e r t i f i c a t i o n at i n s t i t u t i o n s
w h o s e p r i m a r y m i s s i o n w a s n o t teacher e d u c a t i o n t e n d e d to meet
o n l y the m i n i m u m r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e s e w e r e the s t u d e n t s w h o , o f
late, f i l l e d t w o - t h i r d s of the l o w e r s e c o n d a r y p o s i t i o n s a n d n i n e -
tenths o f the u p p e r s e c o n d a r y p o s i t i o n s i n the p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s t e m
(1995, p . 234).

H o w e v e r , s i n c e 1990 m o d e s t i m p r o v e m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e i n the n u m b e r of

p r o f e s s i o n a l c r e d i t s necessary for c e r t i f i c a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a n u p p e r s e c o n d a r y

teacher m u s t n o w o b t a i n 40 credits i n t h e i r subject area a n d n i n e t e e n c r e d i t s i n

 25
p r o f e s s i o n a l subjects i n c l u d i n g : essence a n d goals of e d u c a t i o n ; t e a c h i n g

methods; educational guidance and counseling; and a teaching practicum

( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998, p . 86-89). T h i s p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g is s t i l l m u c h less

t h a n the 60 c r e d i t s of a four y e a r B a c h e l o r ' s degree a n d the e q u i v a l e n t o f t w o f u l l

a c a d e m i c years (30 credits) of m e t h o d s courses a n d p e d a g o g i c a l s t u d i e s r e q u i r e d

of e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s at B . C . ' s u n i v e r s i t i e s . A l s o , the p r a c t i c u m for b o t h Japanese

a n d B . C . s t u d e n t s c o n t i n u e s to be a n area w h e r e i m p r o v e m e n t s are necessary.

Comparisons Between B . C . and Japanese Teachers

W h i l e Japanese teachers are e x p e c t e d to a d d r e s s a l l aspects o f s t u d e n t s ' life

at s c h o o l , B . C . teachers t e n d to be p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of

c o g n i t i v e c o m p e t e n c e . T h e r o l e of teachers is different i n e a c h e d u c a t i o n a l

s y s t e m a n d c u l t u r e . I n N o r t h A m e r i c a , t e a c h i n g is c o n s i d e r e d to be a n

i d i o s y n c r a t i c p r o f e s s i o n a n d the c o m m o n l o r e is that teachers can't be t a u g h t

h o w to teach because t h e y are b o r n n o t m a d e ( R o h l e n & L e T e n d r e , 1996; cf.

S t e v e n s o n & S t i g l e r , 1992). A c c o r d i n g to T a k a k u r a a n d M u r a t a (1998), the v i e w of

' t e a c h i n g as a p r o f e s s i o n ' is a r e l a t i v e l y n e w c o n c e p t i n J a p a n . R a t h e r , t e a c h i n g is

a craft that c a n be perfected t h r o u g h practice a n d l e a r n e d t h r o u g h the s h a r e d

w i s d o m o f e x p e r i e n c e d teachers. S t i g l e r , F e r n a n d e z a n d Y o s h i d a p r o v i d e a n

excellent metaphor:

If m u s i c w e r e u s e d as a n a n a l o g y , the Japanese c o n c e p t i o n o f the

i d e a l teacher w o u l d be l i k e that o f the concert p i a n i s t : the great
p i a n i s t is n o t e x p e c t e d to w r i t e the concerto b u t o n l y to p e r f o r m it
w e l l . T h e A m e r i c a n teacher, b y a n a l o g y , is e x p e c t e d n o t o n l y to
teach b u t also to w r i t e the score. A n i n n o v a t i v e teacher i n the
U n i t e d States is o n e w h o o r g a n i z e s h e r o w n c u r r i c u l u m , m a k e s h e r
o w n m a t e r i a l s , a n d i m p l e m e n t s h e r lessons w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t
i n i t i a t i v e . I n J a p a n , the i n n o v a t i v e teacher is o n e w h o s k i l l f u l l y
teaches the l e s s o n that is p r e s c r i b e d b y the text (1996, p . 216).
 26
I n Japanese s c h o o l s , b e g i n n e r s l e a r n a great d e a l f r o m e x p e r i e n c e d teachers

t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l contact o r zatsudan as w e l l as p r o g r a m s o f i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g .

T h i s is often a o n e - w a y p e d a g o g i c a l e x c h a n g e h o w e v e r , w i t h l i t t l e to be offered

f r o m the n e o p h y t e to the s e a s o n e d v e t e r a n m e n t o r teacher. T h e r e f o r e , it is

d i f f i c u l t for n e w t e a c h i n g strategies to be d i s s e m i n a t e d f r o m u n i v e r s i t i e s t h r o u g h

s t u d e n t teachers a n d e v e n t u a l l y to b e c o m e accepted b y the m a i n s t r e a m , since it is

a s s u m e d the m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d teachers m u s t p a s s d o w n a l l the lessons to be

l e a r n e d . I n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , f r e q u e n t l y just the o p p o s i t e is true. E x p e r i e n c e d

teachers l e a r n a great d e a l f r o m their s t u d e n t teachersit is w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d as

one o f the best f o r m s of p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , since teachers d o n o t h a v e

m a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s for c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d peer c o n s u l t a t i o n . M a n y recent

d e v e l o p m e n t s s u c h as c r i t e r i o n referenced assessment h a v e o n l y b e c o m e a p a r t

of the r e p e r t o i r e of e x p e r i e n c e d teachers t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s t u d e n t s .

Teachers i n b o t h B . C . a n d J a p a n t e n d to v i e w l e a r n i n g to teach as a n

a p p r e n t i c e s h i p w h e r e p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e l e a r n e d w h i l e t e a c h i n g takes

precedent over theory learned i n university.

T h e Japanese i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g of teachers serves as a m o d e l for the

e n c u l t u r a t i o n of b e g i n n i n g teachers a n d has b e e n r e c o g n i z e d as a l e s s o n to be

l e a r n e d f r o m the Japanese e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m ( R o h l e n & L e T e n d r e , 1996;

S h i m a h a r a & S a k a i , 1995; S t e v e n s o n & S t i g l e r , 1992). I n J a p a n , a l l n e w l y

a p p o i n t e d teachers u n d e r g o 20 d a y s of i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g at t h e i r p r e f e c t u r a l -

l e v e l i n - s e r v i c e center p r i o r to t a k i n g their p o s i t i o n s . N e w teachers are p r o v i d e d

w i t h the e q u i v a l e n t of 125 d a y s of p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g t h e i r first

y e a r u n d e r the tutelage of one o r m o r e s e n i o r teachers. F i r s t y e a r teachers i n

J a p a n n o w r e c e i v e o n e y e a r of m e n t o r i n g f r o m a s p e c i a l l y t r a i n e d master teacher

( H a w l e y , 1990, p . 42; T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998, p . 91). "It consists of s u p e r v i s e d

 27
t e a c h i n g b y s e n i o r teachers i n s c h o o l s t w o d a y s p e r w e e k for 30 w e e k s , s t u d y i n

l o c a l e d u c a t i o n centres o n e d a y p e r w e e k for 30 w e e k s , a n d r e s i d e n t i a l t r a i n i n g

for 4 n i g h t s " ( K o b a y a s h i , 1993, p.10). P r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n t e a c h i n g is

further e n h a n c e d b y l o c a l e d u c a t i o n centres p r o v i d i n g o n g o i n g i n - s e r v i c e

t r a i n i n g a n d " h a n d s o n " e x p e r i e n c e s for s e c o n d a r y s p e c i a l i s t s a n d e l e m e n t a r y

generalists a l i k e . M u c h l i k e the rest o f Japanese p r o f e s s i o n s , m o s t o f the t r a i n i n g

o c c u r s i n the w o r k p l a c e . P r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g of teachers i n c l u d e s a g e n e r a l

e d u c a t i o n w i t h p r o f e s s i o n a l courses i n p e d a g o g i c a l t h e o r y , e d u c a t i o n a l

p s y c h o l o g y , t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s as w e l l as s p e c i a l i z e d subjects. H o w e v e r , the

teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y courses that h a v e little

relevance to the c l a s s r o o m a n d a p r a c t i c u m that consists o f a v e r y s h o r t stay of

o n l y a f e w w e e k s i n a s c h o o l . M a n y p r e v i o u s g r a d u a t e s of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s

teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s l a m e n t s i m i l a r w e a k n e s s e s , b u t there is a n

i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n ; w h i l e p r e - s e r v i c e teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s i n B . C . m a y

be s u p e r i o r to the Japanese p r o g r a m s , Japanese p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i n -

service t r a i n i n g for the b e g i n n i n g teacher far surpass B . C . ' s " s i n k o r s w i m " first

year teaching experiences.

D u r i n g a t w o y e a r stay i n J a p a n (1990-1992), the w r i t e r w a s a n assistant

E n g l i s h teacher i n l o w e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s i n the T o k y o area a n d o b s e r v e d i n -

service a n d p r e - s e r v i c e teachers of E n g l i s h classes. O n o n e o c c a s i o n , i n the

w r i t e r ' s g r a d e 9 E n g l i s h class, a s t u d e n t teacher w a s o b s e r v e d at the s a m e t i m e h e

w a s b e i n g e v a l u a t e d b y h i s f a c u l t y a d v i s o r . T h e s t u d e n t teacher t a u g h t the same

lesson, i n e x a c t l y the same w a y , u s i n g the s a m e style as h i s s p o n s o r teacher. I n

fact, the entire l e s s o n h a d b e e n rehearsed p r e v i o u s l y for the benefit o f the

s t u d e n t teacher a n d the f a c u l t y a d v i s o r . T h e " p e r f o r m a n c e " h o w e v e r , w a s

a b y s m a l . T h e s t u d e n t teacher a p p e a r e d to be v e r y a n x i o u s a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l e i n
 28
h i s role as a teacher. H e refused to face the students. Instead he t a l k e d to the

b o a r d w h i l e m o v i n g a r o u n d n e r v o u s l y . D e s p i t e the fact that the m a t e r i a l w a s n o t

n e w to the s t u d e n t s a n d the entire l e s s o n w a s a r e p e t i t i o n , this w a s the first ( a n d

last) t i m e this s t u d e n t teacher t a u g h t this class. T h e w r i t e r later l e a r n e d that m o s t

s p o n s o r teachers w o u l d rather n o t h a v e a s t u d e n t teacher at a l l , a n d that this one

class w a s d o n e m e r e l y as a s h o w to appease the f a c u l t y a d v i s o r .

J a p a n ' s teachers r e c o g n i z e that the u n i v e r s i t y d o e s little to p r e p a r e s t u d e n t

teachers for the p r o f e s s i o n of t e a c h i n g a n d teachers d o little to c h a n g e the status

q u o . T h i s is f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n S t e v e n s o n a n d S t i g l e r ' s The Learning Gap:

T h e r e a l t r a i n i n g of A s i a n teachers o c c u r s i n t h e i r on-the-job
e x p e r i e n c e after g r a d u a t i o n f r o m college... g r a d u a t e s o f teacher
t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s are s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d n o v i c e s w h o n e e d the
g u i d a n c e a n d s u p p o r t of their e x p e r i e n c e d colleagues... the s y s t e m of
teacher t r a i n i n g is m u c h l i k e a n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p ( S t e v e n s o n &
Stigler, 1992, p . 159).

T h i s is i n contrast to the e x p e r i e n c e of B . C . ' s teachers, w h o c o m p l a i n that

m o s t o f w h a t t h e y k n o w h a d to be l e a r n e d b y t h e m s e l v e s , a l o n e , i n i s o l a t i o n ,

w h i l e o n the job. T h e r e is a s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c y i n B . C . ' s p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n since

there is l i t t l e p r o v i s i o n for m e n t o r s h i p a n d i n s u f f i c i e n t t i m e to reflect o n

t e a c h i n g practices. T e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n is l i m i t e d to p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g w i t h a l a c k

of e m p h a s i s o n i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g . T h i s s i t u a t i o n is less t h a n i d e a l .

Educational Reforms i n B.C. and Japan

W h i l e W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s are a t t e m p t i n g e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s to p r o m o t e

n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s a n d a c e n t r a l i z e d u n i f o r m s y s t e m , J a p a n is a t t e m p t i n g to

d e c e n t r a l i z e t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a n d to m a k e it m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e r a t h e r t h a n

m o r e f o c u s e d . " C o m p a r a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , Japanese a n d A m e r i c a n s c h o o l reforms

are n o w e v o l v i n g i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . J a p a n is s l o w l y d i v e r s i f y i n g its s c h o o l s
 29
w h i l e the U n i t e d States is t r y i n g to p r o m o t e n e w n a t i o n a l a c a d e m i c standards"

( S h i m a h a r a , 1995a; T a k a k u r a , 1993). I n J a p a n , w h e r e the c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t

p l a y s a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g p o l i c y , t w o d i v e r s e t r e n d s i n teacher

e d u c a t i o n h a v e e m e r g e d . O n the o n e h a n d , the p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of teachers

has i m p r o v e d d u e to the i n c r e a s i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s for p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g , a n d

o n the other h a n d , l i b e r a l i z a t i o n has t a k e n p l a c e t h r o u g h the a d d i t i o n of

p r o g r a m s i n n o n t e a c h i n g areas.

B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s r e f o r m s to teacher e d u c a t i o n h a v e b e e n p r e d o m i n a t e l y

i n f l u e n c e d b y the f a c u l t y of e d u c a t i o n at e a c h of the u n i v e r s i t i e s . D e s p i t e m u c h

p r o g r e s s i n p r o f e s s i o n a l teacher t r a i n i n g , c r i t i c i s m of faculties o f e d u c a t i o n has

r e m a i n e d q u i t e s t r o n g ( G o o d s o n , 1995). U n i v e r s i t y s c h o o l s o f e d u c a t i o n h a v e

t e n d e d to d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m the concerns o f c l a s s r o o m teachers, a n d the

research a g e n d a has n o t often p r o d u c e d k n o w l e d g e u s e f u l to the p r a c t i t i o n e r .

A l s o , there are n o p e r m a n e n t , d u r a b l e m o d e l s of teacher t r a i n i n g ( B a r m a n ,

S u t h e r l a n d , & W i l s o n , 1995, p . 313). T h e C a r n e g i e R e p o r t , A Nation Prepared:

Teachers for the 21st Century (1986), the r e p o r t of the H o l m e s G r o u p ,

Tomorrow's Teachers (1986), a n d J o h n G o o d l a d ' s , Teachers of Our Nation's

Schools (1990), a l l c o n c l u d e that s c h o o l s / c o l l e g e s / f a c u l t i e s o f e d u c a t i o n n e e d

reform.

P e r k i n s (1992) m a k e s c o n v i n c i n g a r g u m e n t s for r e f o r m s to p r e - s e r v i c e a n d

in-service teacher e d u c a t i o n . H e suggests J a p a n ' s e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m offers a

m o d e l for the p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t of teachers a n d the p r o m o t i o n o f p o t e n t

t e a c h i n g practices. T h e k e y elements of J a p a n ' s m o d e l i n c l u d e : t i m e to t h i n k , a

s h a r e d c u l t u r e of the craft of t e a c h i n g , a n d a n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p m o d e l of teacher

d e v e l o p m e n t . Japanese teachers s p e n d less h o u r s p e r d a y a c t u a l l y t e a c h i n g classes

t h a n t h e i r B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . M o r e t i m e is d e v o t e d to t h i n k i n g
 30
a n d r e f l e c t i n g a b o u t their t e a c h i n g . " T h e y p l a n lessons, share p l a n s w i t h o n e

another, get c r i t i q u e s , attend w o r k s h o p s , o b s e r v e other teachers t e a c h i n g , w a t c h

v i d e o t a p e s o f t e a c h i n g practices... T h r o u g h o r g a n i z e d t i m e a n d c o m m i t m e n t ,

teachers c a n l e a r n to teach m u c h better t h a n n a t i v e i n g e n u i t y a l o n e c o u l d a l l o w "

( P e r k i n s , 1992, p . 225). R a t h e r t h a n w o r k i n g i n i s o l a t i o n , J a p a n ' s teachers

r e c o g n i z e the p o w e r of c o l l a b o r a t i o n . T h i s is e v e n e v i d e n t i n the v e r y p h y s i c a l

structure o f the s c h o o l s . F o r e x a m p l e , the staff r o o m is a r r a n g e d w i t h teachers of

each g r a d e l e v e l seated at d e s k s g r o u p e d together, i n o r d e r to p r o m o t e d a i l y

exchanges. T h i s is w h e r e a l l the teachers p l a n their lessons d u r i n g s e v e r a l h o u r s

of the w o r k i n g d a y w h e n t h e y are n o t i n front of the c l a s s r o o m . T h i s is i n direct

contrast to teachers i n B . C . , w h o d o m o s t o f t h e i r l e s s o n p l a n n i n g at h o m e o r i n

the i s o l a t i o n o f t h e i r o w n c l a s s r o o m .

Teacher Education Reforms i n B . C . and Japan

Several educational reforms i n v o l v i n g cost-saving a n d efficiency

m e a s u r e s are b e i n g c o n t e m p l a t e d b y the B . C . M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n . These

i n c l u d e : y e a r r o u n d s c h o o l i n g , efficiency s c h e d u l i n g (for e x a m p l e , the e x t e n d e d

s c h o o l d a y ) , a n d different timetables (Semester S y s t e m , C o p e r n i c a n , Q u a r t e r

S y s t e m ) . N o n e of these " r e f o r m s " i n t h e i r c u r r e n t v e i n a d d r e s s the u n d e r l y i n g

p r o b l e m s of the e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m n o r d o t h e y i m p r o v e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g o r

teacher t r a i n i n g . M o n e y s a v e d is n o t l i k e l y to go b a c k i n t o the e d u c a t i o n of y o u n g

people.
 31
Summary

M a n y of J a p a n ' s practices are c o m p l e m e n t a r y o r s i m i l a r to c u r r e n t

s u g g e s t e d r e f o r m s to B . C . ' s e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m . Y e t , the B . C . a n d Japanese m o d e l s

are far f r o m perfect. I m p r o v e m e n t s m u s t be m a d e to the teacher e d u c a t i o n

p r o g r a m s of J a p a n ' s u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d to the p e d a g o g i c a l t r a i n i n g o f p r e - s e r v i c e

teachers. T h i s fact is w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d b y e d u c a t o r s i n J a p a n . " W e m u s t p a y

m o r e a t t e n t i o n to s t u d e n t t e a c h i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h a sense of m i s s i o n as a teacher

m i g h t arise. If the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m p r e - s e r v i c e p r e p a r a t i o n is n o t a t t e n d e d to, the

effects of teacher i m p r o v e m e n t s i n e d u c a t i o n m a y h a v e little i n f l u e n c e o n the

q u a l i t y of t e a c h i n g i n J a p a n ( M i z o u e & I n o u e , 1993, p . 28). T h r o u g h further

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s , the Japanese teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s c a n

be i m p r o v e d . M u c h c a n be l e a r n e d f r o m B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s teacher e d u c a t i o n

p r o g r a m s . L i k e w i s e , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s t r a i n i n g of teachers c a n be i m p r o v e d b y

s t u d y i n g J a p a n ' s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p m o d e l of i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l

d e v e l o p m e n t . T e a c h e r s m u s t be g i v e n o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n f r o m o n e a n o t h e r

a n d to benefit f r o m the a c c u m u l a t e d w i s d o m of g e n e r a t i o n s o f s k i l l e d

p r a c t i t i o n e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , teachers m u s t b e g i v e n a d e q u a t e t i m e for c o l l a b o r a t i o n ,

p l a n n i n g a n d reflection. The reforms of education i n b o t h B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and

J a p a n r e q u i r e a r e t h i n k i n g o f the p r o f e s s i o n of t e a c h i n g . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a n

essential e l e m e n t of these r e f o r m s , for a n y effort to r e f o r m the s t r u c t u r e o r

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d s o n the effectiveness of the teacher.

 32
CHAPTER 3

CRITICAL THINKING

T h e t e a c h i n g o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g at a l l l e v e l s of e d u c a t i o n has s t r o n g s u p p o r t

i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , the U K a n d e l s e w h e r e ( D a n i e l s , 1998, p . l ) . " T h e f i e l d o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g is m o r e v i b r a n t t h a n ever. T h e r e is m u c h r e s e a r c h i n p r o g r e s s o n the

m e a n i n g of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , o n the t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s k i l l s to a

w i d e r a n g e o f subject areas, a n d o n m e t h o d s of t e a c h i n g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " ( N o r r i s ,

1985, p . 40).

The Components of Critical Thinking

T h e r e is debate a b o u t w h a t is m e a n t b y the t e r m " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . " I n the

past, a t t e m p t s to define c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g e n c o m p a s s e d its f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n ,

i n c l u d i n g s k i l l s a n d strategies as w e l l as l e v e l s of c o m p l e x i t y i n v o l v e d . O f t e n c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g is l i n k e d to c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g , p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a n d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g as

w e l l as i n d u c t i v e a n d d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . H o w e v e r , t e r m s s u c h as c r e a t i v e

t h i n k i n g , p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g refer to the c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n w h i c h

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m a y o c c u r ( D a n i e l s , 1998, p . l ) . C o n v e r s e l y , s o m e e d u c a t i o n a l

p h i l o s o p h e r s a r g u e that c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is i n d u c t i v e , e n c o m p a s s i n g d i v e r g e n t a n d

creative t h i n k i n g s k i l l s . O t h e r s c o n t e n d it is p r i m a r i l y d e d u c t i v e , c o n v e r g e n t a n d

logical i n nature.

T h e r e are c e r t a i n elements that m a y o r m a y n o t be i n c l u d e d i n a

d e f i n i t i o n . O n e e l e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h e t h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is
c o n v e r g e n t o r d i v e r g e n t . A n o t h e r describes w h a t the c r i t i c a l t h i n k e r
does. A t h i r d e l e m e n t focuses o n the attitude o r d i s p o s i t i o n o f the
t h i n k e r . Y o u d o n ' t u s u a l l y f i n d a l l three elements i n e v e r y d e f i n i t i o n
( F r e n c h & R h o d e r , 1992, p . 184).

D a n i e l s (1998) characterizes c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as a n o r m a t i v e concept. A c r i t i c a l

t h i n k e r is s o m e o n e w h o is t h i n k i n g w e l l . T o t h i n k w e l l i n a n y area o f h u m a n
 33

practice one m u s t m a k e j u d g m e n t s u s i n g r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a a n d s t a n d a r d s . M c P e c k
(1990), N o r r i s , S i e g e l a n d P a u l h a v e t r o u b l e a g r e e i n g o n a c o m m o n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

p a r a d i g m . P a u l characterizes c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as...

a u n i q u e k i n d o f p u r p o s e f u l t h i n k i n g i n w h i c h the t h i n k e r
systematically a n d habitually imposes criteria a n d intellectual
s t a n d a r d s u p o n the t h i n k i n g ; t a k i n g charge o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
t h i n k i n g ; g u i d i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h i n k i n g a c c o r d i n g to the
s t a n d a r d s w h i l e assessing the effectiveness of the t h i n k i n g a c c o r d i n g to
the p u r p o s e , the c r i t e r i a , a n d the s t a n d a r d s (1993, p . 21).

N e v e r t h e l e s s , N o r r i s a r g u e s that m a n y q u e s t i o n s associated w i t h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ,

w h i c h p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to a n s w e r , i n v o l v e e m p i r i c a l issues. S i n c e

these c o n c e r n the n a t u r e of h u m a n m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s , h y p o t h e s e s s h o u l d be tested

e m p i r i c a l l y b y researchers i f there are n o p h i l o s o p h e r s i n c l i n e d to t a c k l e the

problem.

W h a t t h e n is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ? H o w is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g different f r o m

creative t h i n k i n g , p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a n d other f o r m s o f t h i n k i n g ? B l o d g e t t -

M c D e a v i t t ' s (1995) s u r v e y of a d u l t e d u c a t o r s f o u n d that c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is p e r c e i v e d

as a process a n d a b r o a d concept, w i t h t w o g e n e r a l c o m p o n e n t s : reflective a n d

a n a l y t i c a l . R e s p o n d e n t s d i s c u s s e d the reflective n a t u r e o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as

" l o o k i n g at the b i g g e r s c h e m e of t h i n g s , " " t h i n k i n g a b o u t other a l t e r n a t i v e s , " a n d

"it's the i d e a that it's n o t i n i s o l a t i o n . " R e s p o n d e n t s d i s c u s s e d the a n a l y t i c a l

c o m p o n e n t i n t e r m s of the " a b i l i t y to d o v e r y c o m p l e x r e a s o n i n g (and) to t h i n k

about t h i n g s f r o m different p e r s p e c t i v e s . " A c o m m o n e l e m e n t f r e q u e n t l y i n c l u d e d

i n m o s t c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g l i t e r a t u r e is r e a s o n i n g . R e a s o n i n g i n v o l v e s "the

p r o d u c t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n of a r g u m e n t s , the m a k i n g of inferences a n d the d r a w i n g

of c o n c l u s i o n s , the g e n e r a t i o n a n d t e s t i n g of h y p o t h e s e s . It r e q u i r e s b o t h d e d u c t i o n

a n d i n d u c t i o n , b o t h a n a l y s i s a n d synthesis, a n d b o t h c r i t i c a l i t y a n d c r e a t i v i t y "

( N i c k e r s o n , 1986, p p . 1-2). C r e a t i v i t y r e q u i r e s c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g since... " b o t h c r i t i c a l

f i l t e r i n g a n d c r i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e to the c r e a t i v i t y of a c r e a t i v e

p r o d u c t . A c c o r d i n g l y , it is s o m e w h a t m i s l e a d i n g to p o s i t t w o c o m p l e t e l y separate

styles of t h o u g h t c r i t i c a l a n d creativebecause the f o r m e r is n e c e s s a r i l y a p a r t of the

latter" ( N i c k e r s o n , P e r k i n s & S m i t h , 1985, p . 89). I n a d d i t i o n , P a u l (1993) suggests

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g differs f r o m p r o b l e m s o l v i n g . It does n o t i n v o l v e s e q u e n t i a l steps

b u t a g r o u p of s k i l l s a n d strategies c h o s e n a n d u s e d as n e e d e d . A w o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n

of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g u s e d i n this thesis is e s s e n t i a l l y d e e p e r t h i n k i n g o r h i g h e r o r d e r

thinking.

Learning Critical T h i n k i n g

A n a n a l y s i s of teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m u s t be p l a c e d w i t h i n

the larger f r a m e w o r k of c o g n i t i v e a n d e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g y . P i a g e t , K h o l b e r g ,

S e l m e n , B l o o m , V y g o t s k y a n d G u i l f o r d e a c h p r o p o s e d different d e v e l o p m e n t a l

m o d e l s d e s c r i b i n g the stages o f l e a r n i n g . A l l theories of c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t are

g r o u n d e d i n the p r i n c i p l e s that p e o p l e d e v e l o p at different rates, d e v e l o p m e n t is

r e l a t i v e l y o r d e r l y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t takes p l a c e g r a d u a l l y . P i a g e t ' s c o g n i t i v e

d e v e l o p m e n t t h e o r y c o n t a i n s f o u r stages: (1) s e n s o r i m o t o r ; (2) p r e - o p e r a t i o n a l ; (3)

concrete o p e r a t i o n a l a n d (4) f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n a l . T h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l stage i n

Piaget's t h e o r y is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y the use of p r o p o s i t i o n a l t h i n k i n g , c o m b i n a t o r i a l

a n a l y s i s , a n d abstract r e a s o n i n g . A c c o r d i n g to Piaget, m o s t c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n the ages

of e l e v e n a n d fifteen are c a p a b l e of r e a c h i n g the f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n a l stage (Inhelder

& Piaget, 1958). H o w e v e r , K u h n (1979) c o n t e n d s that m a n y a d u l t s w i l l n e v e r r e a c h

the f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n a l stage. If this is true, t h e n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m a y n o t be attained

b y e v e r y o n e , as P i a g e t ' s f i n a l stage reflects h i g h e r o r d e r c o g n i t i v e processes.

K h o l b e r g ' s stages of m o r a l j u d g e m e n t a n d S e l m a n ' s stages of s o c i a l

p e r s p e c t i v e t a k i n g b o t h p a r a l l e l P i a g e t ' s c o g n i t i v e stages ( M u u s s , 1988). T h e concrete

 35
o p e r a t i o n s i n P i a g e t ' s m o d e l c o r r e s p o n d to K o h l b e r g ' s p r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l e v e l of

m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . S i m i l a r l y , the shift f r o m c h i l d h o o d to a d o l e s c e n c e i n v o l v e s a

d r a m a t i c shift f r o m concrete to abstract t h o u g h t processes a n d i n m o r a l j u d g e m e n t s .

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n these theories is s u c h that the a t t a i n m e n t o f P i a g e t ' s

c o g n i t i v e stages is a necessary p r e c o n d i t i o n for the a t t a i n m e n t o f the c o r r e s p o n d i n g

level of K h o l b e r g ' s m o r a l judgement and Selmen's societal perspective-taking.

T h u s , the m a s t e r y o f h i g h e r o r d e r t h i n k i n g s k i l l s does n o t g u a r a n t e e the i n d i v i d u a l

has a t t a i n e d the s a m e l e v e l of m o r a l r e a s o n i n g ( M u u s s , 1988).

B l o o m ' s (1956) t a x o n o m y of e d u c a t i o n a l objectives f r o m the c o g n i t i v e

d o m a i n consists o f s i x l e v e l s (listed i n o r d e r of c o m p l e x i t y ) : (1) k n o w l e d g e ; (2)

c o m p r e h e n s i o n ; (3) a p p l i c a t i o n ; (4) a n a l y s i s ; (5) s y n t h e s i s ; a n d (6) e v a l u a t i o n . T h e

h i g h e r o r d e r t h i n k i n g s k i l l s of a n a l y s i s , s y n t h e s i s a n d e v a l u a t i o n are n o t attainable

u n t i l the o t h e r l o w e r o r d e r s k i l l s h a v e b e e n w e l l d e v e l o p e d . T h e r e f o r e , c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g m a y n o t be a r e a l i s t i c l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e u n t i l s t u d e n t s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d

the l o w e r o r d e r s k i l l s o f k n o w l e d g e , c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n . M o r e o v e r ,

y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s a n d m e n t a l l y c h a l l e n g e d i n d i v i d u a l s m a y n o t b e c a p a b l e of c r i t i c a l

thinking.

W h e r e a s P i a g e t c h a r a c t e r i z e d a c h i l d ' s l e a r n i n g as a little scientist c o n s t r u c t i n g

a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the w o r l d l a r g e l y alone, V y g o t s k y (1978) p r o p o s e d a z o n e of

p r o x i m a l d e v e l o p m e n t d e p e n d i n g p r i m a r i l y o n a c h i l d ' s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h other

p e o p l e w i t h i n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e z o n e of p r o x i m a l d e v e l o p m e n t is a p h a s e i n

w h i c h a c h i l d c a n m a s t e r a task g i v e n a p p r o p r i a t e s u p p o r t . T h u s , c h i l d r e n c a n r e a c h

their f u l l l e a r n i n g p o t e n t i a l a n d m o s t c a n d e m o n s t r a t e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g p r o v i d e d

t h e y are g i v e n the necessary s c a f f o l d i n g .

G u i l f o r d ' s (1966) S t r u c t u r e of Intellect (SI) t h e o r y suggests i n t e l l i g e n c e is

c o m p r i s e d o f o p e r a t i o n s , contents, a n d p r o d u c t s . T h e r e are five k i n d s of o p e r a t i o n s

(cognition, m e m o r y , divergent p r o d u c t i o n , convergent p r o d u c t i o n and evaluation),

six k i n d s of p r o d u c t s (units, classes, r e l a t i o n s , s y s t e m s , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a n d

i m p l i c a t i o n s ) , a n d five k i n d s of contents ( v i s u a l , a u d i t o r y , s y m b o l i c , s e m a n t i c , a n d

b e h a v i o u r a l ) . T h u s , there are t h e o r e t i c a l l y 150 different c o m p o n e n t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .

R e a s o n i n g a n d p r o b l e m s o l v i n g s k i l l s ( c o n v e r g e n t a n d d i v e r g e n t o p e r a t i o n s ) c a n be

s u b d i v i d e d i n t o 30 d i s t i n c t a b i l i t i e s . A l t h o u g h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s n o t m e n t i o n e d

b y G u i l f o r d d i r e c t l y , it l i k e l y constitutes a s y n t h e s i s of m a n y of these t h i n k i n g

abilities.

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c a n n o t be l e a r n e d i n i s o l a t i o n . P e r h a p s it c a n n o t be t a u g h t

e x p l i c i t l y . H o w e v e r , it c a n be i n t e g r a t e d i n a l l subject areas a n d r e l a t e d to the ideas

students a l r e a d y h a v e . A b r o a d , h o l i s t i c , a n d g l o b a l a p p r o a c h to t e a c h i n g c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g is necessary. " C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g often r e q u i r e s i m a g i n i n g p o s s i b l e

consequences, g e n e r a t i n g o r i g i n a l a p p r o a c h e s , or i d e n t i f y i n g a l t e r n a t i v e

p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h u s v i r t u a l l y a n y f o r m of h u m a n p r a c t i c e c a n i n v o l v e c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g " ( D a n i e l s , 1998, p . 1). F u r t h e r m o r e , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m a y h a v e different

c o n n o t a t i o n s w i t h i n the contexts of v a r i o u s n a t i o n s a n d yet there is l i k e l y c o m m o n

elements to be s h a r e d . W h i l e different e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s t e n d to s u p p o r t different

e p i s t e m o l o g i e s , a l l h a v e the s a m e u l t i m a t e g o a l t o p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s for life b e y o n d

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . A c o m m o n d e f i n i t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m a y n o t b e s h a r e d b y a l l .

O n e m u s t a c c o u n t for the c u l t u r a l a n d c o n t e x t u a l aspects o f t h i n k i n g as w e l l .

H o w e v e r , a b r o a d e r d e f i n i t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s h o u l d be r e l e v a n t a n d

understood b y educators i n b o t h British C o l u m b i a a n d Japan.

Distortions of Critical Thinking in the Media

T h e t e r m " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . It m a y h a v e b e c o m e a

" b u z z w o r d " i n e d u c a t i o n u s e d w i t h o u t m u c h t h o u g h t to its m e a n i n g b y m a n y

 37
educators, p o l i t i c i a n s a n d the g e n e r a l p u b l i c . D e v e l o p i n g " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g s k i l l s " is

seen b y s o m e as a p a n a c e a to the ills o f B . C . ' s e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m as i l l u s t r a t e d b y the

f o l l o w i n g q u o t e s f r o m the Vancouver Sun newspaper:

F r o m D i l b e r t b y Scott A d a m s :
C h a r a c t e r 1: "I teach m y k i d s that these t h i n g s are r i g h t a n d these t h i n g s
are w r o n g . P e r i o d . E n d o f S t o r y .
C h a r a c t e r 2: " W o u l d n ' t that teach t h e m to b e l i e v e a n y t h i n g t h e y ' r e t o l d
without a p p l y i n g any critical t h i n k i n g ? "
C h a r a c t e r 1: "I d o n ' t t h i n k about that."
C h a r a c t e r 2: " D u h . "
(1997 U n i t e d F e a t u r e S y n d i c a t e , Inc.)

F r o m J a n u a r y 25, 1999 Vancouver Sun, p . A 1 0 :

T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , p r o b l e m s o l v i n g , a n a l y t i c a l a n d
c o m m u n i c a t i o n s k i l l s is r e q u i r e d for successful c o m p l e t i o n o f
courses... t h e r e b y f u l f i l l i n g a n i m p o r t a n t tenet o f a u n i v e r s i t y
e d u c a t i o n e d u c a t i o n for l i v i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n for m a k i n g a l i v i n g .
(John P i e r c e , D e a n o f A r t s , S i m o n F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y )

F r o m J u n e 22, 1999 Vancouver Sun, p . A l l :

The well-educated person can analyze problems i n a critical manner,
c o n d u c t research, m a k e creative c o n n e c t i o n s of d a t a a n d w h e n
necessary, c o m m u n i c a t e a n d w o r k effectively w i t h others to f i n d
s o l u t i o n s . A t least that is w h a t e d u c a t o r s tell us. ( G a r y B a u s l a u g h ,
former college educator and administrator)

F r o m S e p t e m b e r 4, 1998 Vancouver Sun:, p . E 7 :

K i d s t o d a y are l i k e l y to h a v e three or f o u r job changes i n the future,
u n l i k e t h e i r p a r e n t s , so t h e y n e e d s k i l l s a r o u n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a n d
critical t h i n k i n g . (Dorothy Fowler, principal, Burnaby Central
Secondary School)

F r o m S e p t e m b e r 4, 1998 Vancouver Sun, p . E 3 :

T h e m i n i s t r y has b e e n u p d a t i n g its courses since 1995. B y 2000 a l l
curricula w i l l emphasize p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g and critical t h i n k i n g , literacy
and c o m m u n i c a t i o n , team w o r k , a n d information technology. (Lori
Culbert)
 38
Critical T h i n k i n g Research

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a t o p i c of great i m p o r t a n c e to b o t h J a p a n ' s a n d B r i t i s h

C o l u m b i a ' s e d u c a t i o n systems. A l t h o u g h there is m u c h interest, little d a t a is

a v a i l a b l e , since f e w c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n d o n e . T h i s is p e r h a p s d u e to a

r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s associated w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l

comparative research i n education. In A l t b a c h ' s w o r d s , " C o m p a r a t i v e a n d

i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n is a f i e l d w i t h o u t a clear research a g e n d a , w i t h o u t w i d e l y

accepted p a r a d i g m s for research, w i t h o u t a g r e e d m e t h o d o l o g i e s , a n d w i t h o u t a clear

h i e r a r c h y . . . ( N e v e r t h e l e s s ) , . . . c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t o r s are i n a p o s i t i o n to benefit

from a g r o w i n g international consciousness i n education i n m a n y countries"

( A l t b a c h & T a n , 1995, p . x v i i i ) . F u r t h e r research is necessary o n c o m p a r a t i v e

e d u c a t i o n r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g i e s a n d o n s u c h t o p i c s for c o m p a r i s o n as c u r r e n t

t e a c h i n g strategies, i n d e p e n d e n t o r s t u d e n t c e n t r e d l e a r n i n g , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a n d

the role of the teacher. T h i s w i l l h e l p to i m p r o v e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , it

w i l l p r o v i d e a c r o s s - c u l t u r a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n of

learning.

E d u c a t o r s c a n n o t c o n t i n u e to f u n c t i o n as n a t i o n a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s . F e w
can stick to the o l d style of t h i n k i n g a n d b e h a v i n g as t h e y once d i d . . . A s
it is i r r e l e v a n t for a n y society to i m p o r t a r e a d y - m a d e m o d e l o f
m o d e r n i z a t i o n , so it is for a n y to i m p o r t o r to e x p o r t a n e d u c a t i o n
s y s t e m . I n n o v a t i o n i n teacher e d u c a t i o n c a n b e m o s t d i f f i c u l t .
G l o b a l i s m as a p a r a d i g m is s t i l l v a g u e i n s h a p e a n d characteristic.
H o w e v e r , the recent d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t s y s t e m theories s h o w that the
w o r l d is m o v i n g v e r y s l o w l y b u t s t e a d i l y t o w a r d a n e w s y s t e m . I n a
g l o b a l age, the t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n s h o u l d be r e f o r m e d , a n d the w a y s of
e d u c a t i n g a n d t r a i n i n g teachers also n e e d to be t r a n s f o r m e d .
C o m p a r a t i v e g l o b a l i s m m a y w o r k as a strategy for i n n o v a t i o n i n
teacher e d u c a t i o n ( O c h o a & S u z u k i , 1993, p . 74).

C l e a r l y , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t i n e d u c a t i o n that r e q u i r e s

further research. T h e s e i d e a s are essential elements to the c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k for

this s t u d y .
 39
CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH M E T H O D O L O G Y

This study was designed to compare and contrast British Columbia and

Japanese high school teachers' conceptions of critical thinking across the

dimensions of culture, subject area, experience, age and gender. To facilitate this

comparison, a two part survey instrument was designed (see Appendix A for the

English version and Appendix B for the Japanese version). Here is a description

of the schools and teachers selected; the instrument development; the

procedures used and the data preparation.

Sample

The sample consisted of 159 teachers from ten high schools in B . C . and

Japan. Six schools were selected from the Lower Mainland of B . C . and four

schools were chosen from the Kanto region of Japan. Of the 71 B . C . teachers

surveyed there were 38 men and 33 women. Of the 88 Japanese teachers surveyed

there were 75 men and 13 women. Table 1 summarizes the nature of the schools.

Table 1 Descriptions of B.C. and Japanese Schools Selected

School Category Average annual Student Number of Teachers
household income* Enrollment 2
Teachers 2
Surveyed
1. Queen Elizabeth comprehensive $ 42,600 1610 89 10
2. Enver Creek comprehensive $ 55,700 1320 72 27
3. Princess Margaret comprehensive $ 40,200 1464 80 12
4. Fleetwood Park comprehensive $ 60,500 1241 72 12
5. North Surrey comprehensive $ 55,400 1128 69 8
6. Elgin Park comp rehensi ve $ 87,300 1113 61 2
7. Komaba elite academic 5,940,000 491 46 18
8. Otsuka general academic 7,060,000 724 44 28
9. Tsukuba vocational 7,340,000 565 60 17
10. Sakado comprehensive 7,700,000 478 42 25
Notes: 1 Based on 1996 Canada Census and 1999 Japanese Ward Offices data for each school's
catchment area. As Komaba's students come from all over Tokyo, the number is an average for
Greater Tokyo. Enrollments and staffing as of September 2000.
 40
A l t h o u g h the t w o n a t i o n a l s a m p l e s are w e l l b a l a n c e d i n t e r m s o f s c h o o l s

c h o s e n a n d teachers s u r v e y e d , it is necessary to a c k n o w l e d g e the differences i n

e t h n i c i t y , r e l i g i o n a n d S E S . J a p a n is a far greater h o m o g e n e o u s s o c i e t y t h a n

B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . T h e r e are f e w e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n is the n o r m

for the m a r g i n a l g r o u p s s u c h as Japanese b o r n K o r e a n s . B . C . ' s e t h n i c p l u r a l i s m

a n d m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m is i n stark contrast to J a p a n ' s r a c i a l h o m o g e n e i t y a n d

i n t o l e r a n c e for others. W h i l e there are s o m e C h r i s t i a n s , J e w s a n d o t h e r r e l i g i o n s

i n J a p a n , Japanese are p r e d o m i n a n t l y B u d d h i s t a n d S h i n t o . H o w e v e r , t h e y

r e a d i l y accept other r e l i g i o n s i n h a r m o n y w i t h B u d d h i s t beliefs. I n fact

B u d d h i s m a n d S h i n t o are n o t p r a c t i c e d w i t h r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c i s m b u t rather are

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o e v e r y d a y life as c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . A n o v e r w h e l m i n g

m a j o r i t y of Japanese d o n o t b e l o n g to a n y c h u r c h n o r d o t h e y p r a c t i c e a n y

r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s other that those that are a p a r t of t h e i r c u l t u r e r e l a t i n g to

b i r t h , d e a t h a n d s e a s o n a l festivals. B . C . is p r e d o m i n a n t l y C h r i s t i a n , h o w e v e r

there is greater r e l i g i o u s d i v e r s i t y t h a n i n J a p a n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , T h e L o w e r

M a i n l a n d has s i g n i f i c a n t i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n s o f S i k h s , M u s l i m s , B u d d h i s t s ,

a n d other r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s . M o s t p e o p l e w i t h i n Japanese s o c i e t y c o n s i d e r

t h e m s e l v e s m i d d l e class. T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n this s t u d y w e r e n o different. T h e

teachers s u r v e y e d i n B . C . a n d J a p a n w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i d d l e class as w e r e

m o s t of the p a r e n t s a n d s t u d e n t s f r o m the s c h o o l s s u r v e y e d (see T a b l e 1). W h i l e

there w e r e s o m e differences i n S E S a m o n g the s c h o o l s , this w a s n o t a major

factor i n d e t e r m i n i n g the representativeness of the s t u d y .

Schools

T h e h i g h s c h o o l s a n d teachers i n v o l v e d i n this s t u d y w e r e selected o n the

basis of g e o g r a p h i c , a c a d e m i c a n d other c o m p a r a t i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . H i g h
schools o f s i m i l a r c o m p o s i t i o n (size, s t u d e n t / t e a c h e r p o p u l a t i o n , g r a d e levels,

s o c i o e c o n o m i c status, age of teachers, a n d subjects offered) w e r e c h o s e n . S p e c i a l

schools a p p e a l i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y to a c a d e m i c a l l y o r v o c a t i o n a l l y i n c l i n e d s t u d e n t s

w e r e o n l y i n c l u d e d f r o m J a p a n since these are a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f the Japanese

s c h o o l s y s t e m , w h i l e they are r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n B . C . ' s s c h o o l s y s t e m . A

serious a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to choose schools that w e r e c o m p a r a b l e a n d

representative of e a c h s y s t e m . T h e c o l l e c t i v e d a t a f r o m a l l the teachers i n e a c h

r e g i o n represents a n " a v e r a g e s c h o o l " i n n e a r l y a l l respects. A l l the schools

c h o s e n w e r e l o c a t e d i n c o m m u n i t i e s close to major u r b a n centres. Y e t they w e r e

neither "inner-city" nor " c o u n t r y " schools.

G e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d systemically, i n c o m p a r i n g schools, one consideration

t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t w a s the l o c a t i o n of e a c h s c h o o l w i t h i n their s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

a n d r e g i o n (see F i g u r e s 1-4).

Figure 1. M a p of Japan 1
Figure 2. M a p of British C o l u m b i a 2

!
Tokyo-A Bilingual Atlas (p. 148), 1991, New York: Kodansha. Copyright 1991 by Kodansha.
2
Canada Map, 1997, Victoria: Davenport Maps Ltd.. Copyright 1997 by Davenport Maps Ltd..
Adapted with permission.
 42

F i g u r e 3. M a p o f T h e L o w e r M a i n l a n d ( G r e a t e r V a n c o u v e r ) 3

Japan Secondary Schools

1. K o m a b a
2. O t s u k a I
3. T s u k u b a
%iM^ A 4. S a k a d o J

F i g u r e 4. M a p of K a n t o R e g i o n (Greater T o k y o ) 4

3 .C. Map, 1997, Victoria: Davenport Maps Ltd. Copyright 1997 by Davenport Maps Ltd.
B

Tokyo-A Bilingual Atlas (pp. 6-7), 1991, New York: Kodansha. Copyright 1991 by Kodansha.
4

Adapted with permission.

 43
T w o of the Japanese s c h o o l s selected w e r e l o c a t e d w i t h i n T o k y o ( K o m a b a

and Otsuka). The Ibaraki (Tsukuba H i g h School of Technology) a n d Saitama

(Sakado) s c h o o l s w e r e l o c a t e d w i t h i n the prefectures of I b a r a k i a n d S a i t a m a . A l l

f o u r s c h o o l s w e r e w i t h i n the K a n t o r e g i o n of J a p a n . T h e s i x B . C . s c h o o l s c h o s e n

(Queen Elizabeth, E n v e r Creek, Princess Margaret, Fleetwood Park, N o r t h Surrey

a n d E l g i n P a r k ) w e r e l o c a t e d w i t h i n the s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o f S u r r e y , a m u n i c i p a l i t y

w i t h i n the L o w e r M a i n l a n d of B . C . I n this respect, S u r r e y ' s p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s

are c o m p a r a b l e to I b a r a k i - k e n ' s a n d S a i t a m a - k e n ' s p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s . H o w e v e r ,

the c o m p a r i s o n is c o m p l i c a t e d since I b a r a k i a n d S a i t a m a are prefectures ( m u c h

like a province i n Canada) w i t h m a n y private h i g h schools a n d national h i g h

schools i n a d d i t i o n to the p r e f e c t u r a l p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s . T w o s c h o o l s ( K o m a b a

and Otsuka) chosen were from municipalities ( M e g u r o - K u and B u n k y o - K u

r e s p e c t i v e l y ) w i t h i n the c i t y of G r e a t e r T o k y o itself. J a p a n ' s h i g h s c h o o l s offer

s t u d e n t s m a n y choices; f r o m s c h o o l s w i t h a s p e c i a l focus s u c h as v o c a t i o n a l

t r a i n i n g o r a c a d e m i c s to c o m p r e h e n s i v e h i g h s c h o o l s that a p p e a l to a w i d e r a n g e

of s t u d e n t s w i t h v a r i o u s b a c k g r o u n d s a n d goals after g r a d u a t i o n . F o r this reason,

the four Japanese p u b l i c h i g h schools selected w e r e (1) a c a d e m i c ( K o m a b a ) ; (2)

a c a d e m i c / g e n e r a l ( O t s u k a ) ; (3) v o c a t i o n a l ( T s u k u b a H i g h S c h o o l of T e c h n o l o g y ) ;

a n d (4) c o m p r e h e n s i v e (Sakado), r e s p e c t i v e l y i n o r d e r to facilitate a c o m p a r i s o n

w i t h B . C . ' s c o m p r e h e n s i v e p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s w h i c h are the n o r m . I n J a p a n ,

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 p e r c e n t of s t u d e n t s a t t e n d p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s o f w h i c h o v e r 70

p e r c e n t are a c a d e m i c / g e n e r a l . T h e p r o p o r t i o n of v o c a t i o n a l h i g h s c h o o l s has

b e e n s t e a d i l y d e c r e a s i n g to the present l e v e l of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25 p e r c e n t

( T a k a k u r a & M u r a t a , 1998, p . 29). I n 1994, as a result o f the e d u c a t i o n a l reforms to

the the h i g h s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m , S a k a d o H i g h S c h o o l c h a n g e d f r o m a v o c a t i o n a l

s c h o o l s p e c i a l i z i n g i n a g r i c u l t u r e to a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s c h o o l , o f f e r i n g o t h e r
 44
courses l e a d i n g to different p a t h s u p o n g r a d u a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the t r e n d i n J a p a n

is for h i g h s c h o o l s to b e c o m e c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n n a t u r e , these are f e w i n n u m b e r

since it w a s o n l y i n 1994 that the c h a n g e to c o m p r e h e n s i v e s c h o o l s b e g a n to be

implemented.

I n a d d i t i o n , the n a t u r e of i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n e a c h e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m

r e q u i r e d c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n of s u i t a b l e s c h o o l s a n d p a r t i c i p a n t s . M o s t h i g h s c h o o l s

i n B . C . e n r o l l e d l o c a l students f r o m grades 8 t h r o u g h 12 a n d d i d n o t r e q u i r e

entrance e x a m s . H e n c e , t h e y w e r e o p e n to a l l s t u d e n t s w h o r e s i d e d w i t h i n the

c a t c h m e n t area of the s c h o o l . O n the other h a n d , a l l Japanese h i g h s c h o o l s e n r o l l

students f r o m grades 10 t h r o u g h 12 a n d r e q u i r e entrance e x a m s a n d , as s u c h ,

m a y choose the m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e students. T h e r e f o r e , it w a s n o t u n c o m m o n for

h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s to t r a v e l a great d i s t a n c e to a t t e n d the best s c h o o l s . F o r this

r e a s o n , a g a i n a c a d e m i c , v o c a t i o n a l a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e Japanese h i g h s c h o o l s ,

e n r o l l i n g l o c a l s t u d e n t s w e r e c h o s e n i n o r d e r to facilitate the c o m p a r i s o n . I n the

selection of h i g h s c h o o l s i n B . C . , a n attempt w a s m a d e to c h o o s e h i g h s c h o o l s

that w e r e c l o s e l y m a t c h e d i n terms of g r a d e l e v e l s offered. F o r e x a m p l e , Q u e e n

E l i z a b e t h S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l i n S u r r e y has t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n a s e n i o r s e c o n d a r y

s c h o o l (grades 11-12) b u t at the t i m e o f the s t u d y w a s i n t r a n s i t i o n to a f u l l

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l (grades 8-12). T h e teachers at this s c h o o l h a d b e e n t e a c h i n g

students b e t w e e n the ages of 15 to 18 years. T h i s w a s c o m p a r a b l e to the age of

Japanese h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s w h i c h w e r e f r o m " k o u k o - n o i c h i - n e n s e i " to " s a n -

n e n s e i " (grades 10-12 a n d ages 15 to 18 years). A l l s c h o o l s c h o s e n h a d a n average

p o p u l a t i o n o f staff a n d s t u d e n t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s c h o o l systems.
 45
Teachers

Teachers w e r e d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o s e n f r o m a v a r i e t y o f subject b a c k g r o u n d s ,

ages a n d e x p e r i e n c e . D u e to the r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s a m p l e sizes for e a c h g r o u p

(Japanese n=88 a n d B . C . n=71), it w a s necessary to select sufficient n u m b e r s of

l a n g u a g e arts teachers, science teachers a n d other subject specialists as w e l l as a

range o f ages a n d e x p e r i e n c e of teachers. T h u s , p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the

v a r i a b l e s o f subject area, age, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d the teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d a n a l y z e d across the t w o c u l t u r e s .

Teachers w e r e a p p r o a c h e d i n p e r s o n i n the staff r o o m o r i n t h e i r c l a s s r o o m once

the P r i n c i p a l a n d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t g a v e a p p r o v a l to d o so. E a c h teacher's subject

area a n d t h e i r a p p r o x i m a t e age a n d e x p e r i e n c e w a s k n o w n . It w a s easier to o b t a i n

data f r o m Japanese p a r t i c i p a n t s since their p r i n c i p a l s exercise m u c h m o r e p o w e r

t h a n W e s t e r n c o u n t e r p a r t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n Japanese teachers w e r e a s k e d to

p a r t i c i p a t e b y their p r i n c i p a l m o s t w e r e " w i l l i n g " to d o so. I n contrast, the B . C .

teachers' p a r t i c i p a t i o n rates w e r e l o w e r since t h e y d i d n o t feel o b l i g e d to

c o m p l e t e the s u r v e y . Since data c o l l e c t i o n f r o m the Japanese s c h o o l s w a s m o r e

efficient, o n l y f o u r s c h o o l s w e r e v i s i t e d , w h e r e a s s i x s c h o o l s w e r e s u r v e y e d i n

B . C . i n o r d e r to o b t a i n a c o m p a r a b l y s i z e d s a m p l e . I r o n i c a l l y , it w a s m o r e difficult

to o b t a i n d a t a f r o m teachers i n the researcher's o w n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t h a n f r o m the

Japanese s c h o o l teachers! N o n e t h e l e s s , of the 159 teachers c h o s e n , o n l y one

teacher d i d n o t agree to c o m p l e t e the s u r v e y . F i n a l l y , it s h o u l d be n o t e d that the

researcher is n o t o n e of the teachers i n the s a m p l e .

 46
Instrument Development

Critical Thinking Cards

A list of d e s c r i p t o r s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ( w o r d s / p h r a s e s ) w a s d e r i v e d

p r i m a r i l y f r o m the l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w (see i n p a r t i c u l a r , M c P e c k , 1990; N i c k e r s o n ,

1986; N i c k e r s o n , P e r k i n s a n d S m i t h , 1985; N o r r i s , 1985; P a u l , 1993) b u t also f r o m

B . C . a n d Japanese teachers. These d e s c r i p t o r s w e r e t h e n p r i n t e d o n i n d e x cards

(see F i g u r e 5) i n a large b o l d - f a c e d font (first i n E n g l i s h a n d later i n Japanese o n

the other s i d e ) .

Analysis

Figure 5. Example of a Critical T h i n k i n g Card

A c a r d sort p r o c e d u r e w a s c h o s e n since it w a s v i s u a l a n d tactile. T h i s

m e t h o d o f o b t a i n i n g d a t a a l l o w e d p a r t i c i p a n t s to m a n i p u l a t e the d e s c r i p t o r s of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g h e l p i n g to facilitate c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n a m a n n e r m o s t

a p p r o p r i a t e to e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t . O n e l a n g u a g e arts teacher a c t u a l l y s p r e a d a l l the

cards o u t o n a table a n d p r e c e d e d to a n a l y z e t h e m s t r u c t u r a l l y a n d l i n g u i s t i c a l l y !

O t h e r s p r e f e r r e d to cycle t h r o u g h the i n d e x cards l i k e a d e c k of p l a y i n g cards,

e l i m i n a t i n g d e f i n e r s as t h e y s h u f f l e d the d e c k .

Translation of Critical Thinking Definers

E a c h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definer w a s d o u b l e - t r a n s l a t e d for a c h e c k of a c c u r a c y

a n d r e l i a b i l i t y . T h i s w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y c o n s u l t i n g t w o Japanese i n d i v i d u a l s

w i t h b a c k g r o u n d s i n e d u c a t i o n . T h e first i n d i v i d u a l (a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t i n

e d u c a t i o n at T s u k u b a U n i v e r s i t y , Japan) t r a n s l a t e d the E n g l i s h w o r d s i n t o
 47
Japanese. T h e n , the s e c o n d i n d i v i d u a l (a certified teacher i n J a p a n a n d a Japanese

teacher c u r r e n t l y i n B . C . ) t r a n s l a t e d these Japanese w o r d s b a c k i n t o E n g l i s h . A l l

the definers f r o m this n e w list w e r e e x a c t l y the same as the o r i g i n a l definers o r

w e r e close e n o u g h that a n a t i v e s p e a k e r c o u l d e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r m e a n i n g .

Procedures

T h e research r e p o r t e d here i n v o l v e d four p h a s e s s p r e a d o v e r a p e r i o d o f

t w o years.

Phase 1Pilot Study

F i r s t , a p i l o t s u r v e y w a s c o n d u c t e d i n o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e the s u i t a b i l i t y o f

the research q u e s t i o n to e d u c a t i o n i n B . C . a n d J a p a n . D u r i n g the s u m m e r o f 1997,

s e v e r a l Japanese h i g h s c h o o l s i n the K a n t o r e g i o n ( i n the v i c i n i t y o f T o k y o ) w e r e

v i s i t e d . Teachers f r o m a v a r i e t y o f b a c k g r o u n d s , i n c l u d i n g E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e

specialists, g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n e d u c a t i o n , a n d u n i v e r s i t y professors i n

e d u c a t i o n a l s t u d i e s , w e r e c o n t a c t e d t h r o u g h p e r s o n a l references. Teachers w e r e

i n t e r v i e w e d w i t h the a i d o f a n interpreter, a b o u t their c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g . T h e y w e r e a s k e d , " W h a t is ' c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ' ? " I n a d d i t i o n , lessons

w e r e o b s e r v e d . T h e n i n the fall o f 1997, s e v e r a l h i g h s c h o o l s i n B . C . ' s L o w e r

M a i n l a n d ( i n the v i c i n i t y o f V a n c o u v e r ) w e r e v i s i t e d . D u r i n g these v i s i t s to h i g h

schools i n B . C . a n d J a p a n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y teachers w e r e e a c h a s k e d to

p r o v i d e w o r d s o r phrases d e s c r i b i n g " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . " A list o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

d e s c r i p t o r s w a s t h u s g e n e r a t e d f r o m the r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e ( B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a

M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n , 1993; F r e n c h a n d Pdioder, 1992; H a l a d y n a , 1997; M c P e c k ,

1990; N i c k e r s o n , 1986; N i c k e r s o n , P e r k i n s a n d S m i t h 1985; N o r r i s , 1985, 1988;

P a u l , 1993; V e r u i n , 1996) a n d f r o m the i n p u t o f teachers.

 48

Phase 2Instrument Design

N e x t , a list o f 50 definers d e s c r i b i n g the m o s t c o m m o n teachers'

c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s d e r i v e d f r o m the p i l o t s u r v e y . These

definers w e r e t h e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Japanese a n d E n g l i s h w i t h a d o u b l e

t r a n s l a t i o n for a c h e c k o f r e l i a b i l i t y . E a c h definer w a s t h e n w r i t t e n o n a n i n d e x

c a r d ( E n g l i s h o n o n e s i d e a n d Japanese o n the other; see A p p e n d i x C for a

c o m p l e t e list). I n a d d i t i o n , a q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s d e s i g n e d i n c l u d i n g b a s i c

d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n (gender, age, subject area, a n d years o f t e a c h i n g

experience) as w e l l as o p e n - e n d e d questions c o n c e r n i n g teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g (see A p p e n d i x A for the E n g l i s h v e r s i o n a n d A p p e n d i x B for the

Japanese t r a n s l a t i o n o f the teacher q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) .

Phase 3Survey of B.C. Teachers

F r o m late J u n e 1998 t h r o u g h D e c e m b e r 1998, 71 teachers f r o m s i x S u r r e y

schools i n B . C . w e r e selected o n a v o l u n t a r y basis to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the s t u d y . T h e y

w e r e a p p r o a c h e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d w e r e a s k e d to (1) classify the c a r d s as relevant

to c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g o r n o t r e l e v a n t to c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a n d t h e n (2) to choose the

t e n m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c a r d s a n d r a n k t h e m 1-10. T h e researcher w a s present

d u r i n g the c a r d sort p r o c e d u r e a n d the q u e s t i o n n a i r e b u t o n l y to clarify the

procedures. H o w e v e r , generally, n o additional intervention or explanation w a s

r e q u i r e d . A n y q u e s t i o n s a b o u t the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers w e r e n o t a n s w e r e d

w i t h a n y e x p l a n a t i o n . R a t h e r , the response w a s i n v a r i a b l y , " I f y o u are u n s u r e

about the m e a n i n g o f a w o r d , p l a c e it i n the 'other' p i l e . O n l y p l a c e w o r d s that

y o u are sure relate to c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , i n the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g p i l e . " E a c h

p a r t i c i p a n t ' s c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers c h o s e n w e r e t a l l i e d i n a spreadsheet o f a l l

50 c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g cards a n d t h e n the r a n k i n g w a s n o t e d (see A p p e n d i x C ) .

 49

Phase 4Survey of Japanese Teachers

I n M a r c h 1999, the q u e s t i o n n a i r e / c a r d sort w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d to 88

s e c o n d a r y teachers at the f o u r h i g h s c h o o l s i n the K a n t o r e g i o n o f J a p a n .

Japanese p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e c h o s e n i n m u c h the same w a y as t h e i r B . C .

c o u n t e r p a r t s , w i t h the assistance of D r . T a n a k a f r o m T s u k u b a U n i v e r s i t y i n

J a p a n . T h e w r i t e r ' s b i l i n g u a l a n d b i c u l t u r a l s k i l l s p r o v e d h e l p f u l as w e l l as the

p e r s o n a l contacts m a d e d u r i n g p r e v i o u s v i s i t s to J a p a n .

Data Preparation and Analysis

O n c e the d a t a w a s c o l l e c t e d , the Japanese q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e p h o t o c o p i e d

a n d t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h . T h e a n s w e r s to the o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n s w e r e r e a d ,

s u m m a r i z e d a n d t h e n c o d e d as to their r e l e v a n c e to c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . T h e n the

q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a f r o m the c a r d sort a n d the d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n w a s

entered i n t o SPSS. E a c h p a r t i c i p a n t w a s c o d e d b y s c h o o l , n u m b e r a n d c o u n t r y of

o r i g i n . If a r e s p o n d e n t chose a c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definer it w a s r e c o r d e d as a " 1 "

a n d i f they d i d n o t choose a definer it w a s r e c o r d e d as a " 0 " . I n a d d i t i o n , the t o p

ten definers c h o s e n a n d r a n k e d w e r e c o d e d as s h o w n i n T a b l e 2.

Table 2 Coding of Critical T h i n k i n g (CT) Definers Card Sort

Ranking Code
CT definer not chosen 0
CT definer chosen but not ranked 1
#10 2
#9 3
#8 4
#7 5
#6 6
#5 7
#4 8
#3 9
#2 10
#1 11
Note: In order to facilitate the data analysis, the ranking of the top ten definers were coded such
that a definer ranked #1 was entered into SPSS as an '11'. Thus, definers that were considered less
important were given sequentially smaller numerical values.
Separate fields w e r e u s e d for g e n d e r , age, t e a c h i n g subject, n u m b e r o f years

t e a c h i n g a n d the r e s p o n s e s to "Is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g p a r t o f the c u r r i c u l u m for y o u r

subject area?" a n d "Is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t a u g h t i n y o u r c l a s s r o o m ? " N e x t , the

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g d a t a w a s t r a n s f o r m e d a n d n e w v a r i a b l e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d so that

there w a s a c o p y of the data that s h o w e d a l l definers c h o s e n as r e l e v a n t to c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g as " 1 " a n d those n o t c h o s e n as " 0 . " I n other w o r d s , i f a n o n - z e r o

n u m b e r w a s i n a c e l l for c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers it w a s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a " 1 "

m e a n i n g " c h o s e n . " F i n a l l y , u s i n g the S P S S d a t a file the v a r i a b l e s age a n d

t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e w e r e g r o u p e d i n t o decades a n d five y e a r i n t e r v a l s

r e s p e c t i v e l y i n o r d e r to facilitate the a n a l y s i s . T h e r a t i o n a l e for this is that n o v i c e

teachers l i k e l y h a v e different i d e a s t h a n v e t e r a n teachers. F r o m the w r i t e r ' s

p e r s p e c t i v e a n d i n d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h those s u r v e y e d , teachers go t h r o u g h a series

of phases: (1) a c c u l t u r a t i o n (1-4 years); (2) g r o w t h as a n e w p r o f e s s i o n a l (5-9

years); (3) e s t a b l i s h i n g r o u t i n e s a n d f i r m t e a c h i n g p h i l o s o p h y (10-14 years); a n d

(4) either m a i n t a i n i n g the status q u o o r e m b r a c i n g n e w t e a c h i n g strategies (15+

years). T h u s , it s e e m e d n a t u r a l to i n v e s t i g a t e age a n d t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e w i t h

these g r o u p i n g s i n a d d i t i o n to the characteristics of g e n d e r a n d subject areas.

Summary

T h e s a m p l e c o n s i s t e d of 159 teachers f r o m s i x B . C . h i g h s c h o o l s a n d four

Japanese h i g h s c h o o l s . Teachers w e r e c h o s e n f r o m a v a r i e t y of subject

b a c k g r o u n d s , ages a n d e x p e r i e n c e . T h e research i n v o l v e d f o u r p h a s e s s p r e a d

o v e r a p e r i o d of t w o years. F i r s t , a p i l o t s u r v e y w a s c o n d u c t e d i n o r d e r to

d e t e r m i n e the s u i t a b i l i t y o f the research q u e s t i o n to e d u c a t i o n i n B . C . a n d J a p a n .

N e x t , a list of 50 definers d e s c r i b i n g the m o s t c o m m o n teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s d e r i v e d f r o m the p i l o t s u r v e y a n d l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w . Each
 51
c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g d e f i n e r w a s t h e n d o u b l e - t r a n s l a t e d for a c h e c k o f a c c u r a c y a n d

r e l i a b i l i t y . F r o m late J u n e 1998 t h r o u g h D e c e m b e r 1998, 71 teachers f r o m s i x

S u r r e y s c h o o l s i n B . C . w e r e selected o n a v o l u n t a r y basis to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the

s t u d y . I n M a r c h 1999, the q u e s t i o n n a i r e / c a r d sort w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d to 88

s e c o n d a r y teachers at the f o u r h i g h s c h o o l s i n the K a n t o r e g i o n o f J a p a n . T h e

n a t u r e o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s e x a m i n e d as teachers i n t e r p r e t e d it. T h e d a t a

o b t a i n e d f r o m the c a r d s o r t / q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s u s e d to i n v e s t i g a t e the o v e r a l l

sense o f w h a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers b e l i e v e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g to e n t a i l a n d to

c o m p a r e B . C . a n d Japanese teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . F i n a l l y , the

questions p o s e d w e r e d o teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g v a r y as a

f u n c t i o n of subject area, g e n d e r , age a n d t e a c h i n g experience?

 52
CHAPTER 5

RESULTS-CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

B . C . a n d J a p a n w e r e c h o s e n for this c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y for s e v e r a l reasons:

(1) b o t h h a v e r e a c h e d the stages of u n i v e r s a l s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n a n d m a s s

h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ; (2) e d u c a t o r s i n e a c h r e g i o n h a v e b e g u n to a n a l y z e the n a t u r e

of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ; (3) there is c o n s i d e r a b l e interest i n r e f o r m s to teacher

e d u c a t i o n i n b o t h r e g i o n s ; a n d (4) as t h e y are b o t h o n the P a c i f i c R i m a n d share

commonalities (varied climates a n d geography a n d economies r e l y i n g o n exports

t h r o u g h s h i p p i n g ) , t h e y are i d e a l for a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y . B . C . w a s c h o s e n

i n s t e a d o f C a n a d a since p r o v i n c e s h a v e different e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s w h i l e J a p a n

has a h i g h l y u n i f o r m e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m .

I n a d d i t i o n to teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , the d a t a c o l l e c t e d

i n c l u d e d g e n d e r , age, years of t e a c h i n g experience a n d t e a c h i n g subject, as w e l l as

other i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g teachers' v a l u e s . S o m e of the d a t a (see A p p e n d i x A

S u r v e y q u e s t i o n s 5-7) m a y be u s e d i n further s t u d i e s a n d is n o t d i s c u s s e d at

l e n g t h i n this thesis. T a b l e 3 s u m m a r i z e s the characteristics o f the B . C . a n d

Japanese teachers s u r v e y e d .

Gender

A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 3, of the 159 teachers s u r v e y e d , the n u m b e r o f m e n

(n=113) w a s greater t h a n the n u m b e r of w o m e n (n=46). W h i l e the n u m b e r o f

B . C . m e n (n=38) a n d w o m e n (n=33) teachers s u r v e y e d w e r e n e a r l y e q u a l , 85

percent o f Japanese teachers s u r v e y e d w e r e m e n . H o w e v e r , these d e m o g r a p h i c s

are characteristic o f h i g h s c h o o l s e s p e c i a l l y i n J a p a n . A t the t i m e of the s t u d y ,

o n l y 24 p e r c e n t o f s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers i n J a p a n w e r e female w h i l e i n B . C .

the n u m b e r w a s 41.4 percent ( M o n b u s h o , 1997; B C T F , 1998).

Table 3
Characteristics of Selected Teachers i n B . C . and Japanese H i g h Schools
n % n 0/
10 n 0/
/o t value t-prob
Gender Total B.C. 1
Japan 1

Women 46 28.9 33 46.0 13 15.0

Men 113 71.1 38 54.0 75 85.0
Total 159 100.0 71 44.7 2
88 55.3 2
4.65 0.000

Age
20-29 years old 22 13.8 15 21.1 7 8.0
30-39 years old 51 32.1 22 30.0 29 33.0
40-49 years old 49 30.8 18 25.4 31 35.2
50+ years old 37 23.3 16 22.5 21 23.9

Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

Total 41.40 9.55 39.59 10.10 42.85 8.92 2.17 0.032

Teaching experience n % n % n %
< 5 years 27 17.0 20 28.2 7 8.0
5-9 years 19 11.9 13 18.3 6 6.8
10-14 years 26 16.0 8 11.3 18 20.5
15-19 years 32 20.1 9 12.7 23 26.1
20-24 years 19 11.9 6 8.5 13 14.8
25-29 years 18 11.3 10 14.1 8 9.1
30-34 years 14 8.8 5 7.0 9 10.2
35 or more years 4 2.5 0 0.0 4 4.5

Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

Total 15.93 9.90 13.11 10.30 18.20 9.01 3.33 0.001

Subject Areas n % n % n %
Language Arts 24 15.1 13 18.3 11 12.5
Math 23 14.5 13 18.3 10 11.4
Science 3 32 20.1 19 26.8 13 14.8
Social Studies 19 11.9 9 12.7 10 11.4
Fine Art 8 5.0 3 4.2 5 5.7
Foreign Languages 15 9.4 5 7.0 10 11.4
Other 3 38 23.9 9 12.7 29 33.0
1
Percent by column.
2
Denotes a percent of the total sample.
3 Denotes pairs of groups significantly different in terms of the number of teachers in Science
and Other subject areas using a Multiple Range Test at the .050 level.
 54
Age

B o t h B . C . a n d J a p a n ' s t e a c h i n g p o p u l a t i o n s are a g i n g . W i t h n e w , y o u n g e r

teachers r e p l a c i n g those r e t i r i n g , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g that 45.9 p e r c e n t o f the

teachers s u r v e y e d w e r e i n t h e i r t w e n t i e s a n d thirties w h i l e 23.3 p e r c e n t w e r e i n

their fifties a n d sixties (see T a b l e 3). T h e m e a n age of s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers i n

this s t u d y w a s 42.85 years o l d for J a p a n a n d 39.59 years o l d for B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a .

These statistics c o m p a r e w e l l w i t h the latest data a v a i l a b l e f r o m the M o n b u s h o

a n d B . C . M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n g i v i n g the average ages as 41.6 a n d 43.0 ( i n c l u d i n g

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ) r e s p e c t i v e l y ( B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a T e a c h e r s ' F e d e r a t i o n , 1998;

M o n b u s h o , 1997). Japanese teachers are p r o p o r t i o n a l l y o l d e r t h a n B . C .

t e a c h e r s b o t h i n this s a m p l e a n d i n the t e a c h i n g p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e .

Teaching Experience

Japanese teachers h a d m o r e career e x p e r i e n c e (x=18.2 years) t h a n B . C .

teachers (x=13.1 years). T h i s five y e a r difference w a s s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t

(t=3.33, p<.001). W h i l e t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d age w e r e r e l a t e d , s o m e teachers

started t e a c h i n g d i r e c t l y after u n i v e r s i t y ( e s p e c i a l l y i n Japan), w h i l e m a n y others

b e g a n t e a c h i n g careers m u c h later i n life. T a b l e 3 c o m p a r e s B . C . a n d Japanese

teachers' career e x p e r i e n c e , their m e a n ages a n d r e s p e c t i v e age ranges.

Irrespective o f c u l t u r e , o v e r h a l f the teachers s u r v e y e d w e r e i n t h e i r t h i r t i e s , yet

this age g r o u p m a y h a v e a w i d e range of t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e . If s o m e o n e w e r e to

enter t e a c h i n g d i r e c t l y after c o m p l e t i n g s c h o o l , w i t h o u t a n y b r e a k i n t h e i r

studies, t h e y w o u l d h a v e ten years of t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e b y the t i m e t h e y w e r e

i n their e a r l y thirties. H o w e v e r , o n l y 24 percent of the B . C . teachers w e r e

veterans, h a v i n g 10-19 years o f t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e c o m p a r e d to 41 percent of

Japanese teachers. A t a n y g i v e n age, Japanese teachers w e r e l i k e l y to h a v e m o r e

 55
career e x p e r i e n c e t h a n B . C . teachers. T h i s is because Japanese teachers t e n d to

b e g i n u n i v e r s i t y at age 18 a n d t h e n g o straight i n t o t e a c h i n g u p o n g r a d u a t i o n . B y

the t i m e a teacher is i n their m i d - t h i r t i e s t h e y h a v e at least t e n y e a r s o f career

experience.

Subject Areas

Teachers i n L a n g u a g e A r t s (24), M a t h (23), Science (32), S o c i a l S t u d i e s (19),

F i n e A r t s (8) a n d F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e (15) r e p r e s e n t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75 percent of

the r e s p o n d e n t s . A n u m b e r of subject areas less f r e q u e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d w e r e p l a c e d

i n t o the c a t e g o r y " O t h e r " i n T a b l e 3. These i n c l u d e d s e v e n B . C . subjects: B u s i n e s s

E d u c a t i o n (3); C o m p u t e r Science (3); I n d u s t r i a l E d u c a t i o n (5); S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n

(3); C o u n s e l i n g (1); C a r e e r E d u c a t i o n (1); L e a r n i n g A s s i s t a n c e (1) a n d s i x Japanese

subjects: A g r i c u l t u r e (6); H o m e E c o n o m i c s (4); T e c h n o l o g y E d u c a t i o n (5);

A r c h i t e c t u r e (2); M e t a l w o r k (1); N u r s i n g (2). T h e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f Japanese

subject areas is d u e to the selective n a t u r e of Japanese a c a d e m i c a n d v o c a t i o n a l

h i g h s c h o o l s , w h i l e the d i v e r s i t y of B . C . subject areas is the r e s u l t of B . C . ' s

comprehensive h i g h schools.

O v e r a l l , there w e r e n o major differences b e t w e e n the t w o c u l t u r e s i n the

n u m b e r s o f teachers r e p r e s e n t i n g the v a r i o u s subject areas. H o w e v e r , there w e r e

p r o p o r t i o n a l l y m o r e B . C . " S c i e n c e " teachers (26.8 percent) t h a n Japanese

" S c i e n c e " teachers (14.8 percent). A l s o , p r o p o r t i o n a l l y m o r e Japanese teachers

(33.0 percent) w e r e i n the " O t h e r " category t h a n B . C . teachers (12.7 percent).

 56
Summary

J a p a n ' s h i g h s c h o o l teachers w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y m e n , w h i l e i n B . C . there

were o n l y slightly more m e n than w o m e n teaching h i g h school. In general,

Japanese teachers are o l d e r a n d m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d t h a n their B . C . c o u n t e r p a r t s .

T h e teachers i n this s a m p l e reflected these characteristics of g e n d e r , age a n d

e x p e r i e n c e . T h e Japanese teachers s u r v e y e d r e p r e s e n t e d a s o m e w h a t greater

d i v e r s i t y a n d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f subject areas c o m p a r e d to the B . C . teachers, as

e v i d e n c e d b y the greater n u m b e r of p e o p l e t e a c h i n g " O t h e r " subjects s u c h as

" A g r i c u l t u r e , " " A r c h i t e c t u r e " a n d " T e c h n o l o g y E d u c a t i o n . " A l s o , there w e r e

p r o p o r t i o n a l l y m o r e " S c i e n c e " teachers s u r v e y e d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a .

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CHAPTER 6

RESULTS-CRITICAL THINKING

T h e p u r p o s e s of this s t u d y w e r e (1) to o b t a i n a n o v e r a l l sense o f w h a t

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers b e l i e v e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g to e n t a i l ; (2) to c o m p a r e a n d

contrast B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ; (3)

to i n v e s t i g a t e the n a t u r e o f B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w i t h respect to gender, age, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d subject

taught; a n d (4) to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of B . C .

a n d Japanese t e a c h i n g a n d the c u r r i c u l u m at the s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . I n o r d e r to

a c h i e v e these g o a l s , 159 B . C . a n d Japanese teachers w e r e s u r v e y e d u s i n g a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t i n g o f d e m o g r a p h i c a n d o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n s as w e l l as a

c a r d sort p r o c e d u r e . F i f t y definers of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , d e r i v e d f r o m the literature

r e v i e w a n d f r o m teachers i n the p i l o t s t u d y w e r e d o u b l e - t r a n s l a t e d a n d t h e n

p r i n t e d o n i n d e x c a r d s ( i n E n g l i s h o n o n e s i d e a n d Japanese o n the other).

Teachers w e r e a s k e d to i n d i c a t e w h i c h definers w e r e r e l e v a n t to c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .

Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g

T a b l e 4 s h o w s the extent to w h i c h teachers i n B . C . a n d J a p a n e n d o r s e d

each of the definers of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , s o r t e d i n d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r . C h o s e n b y 75

percent of the teachers, " A n a l y s i s " w a s the m o s t f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d . T h e t o p

five definers: " A n a l y s i s , " " R e a s o n i n g , " " D r a w i n g inferences," " P r o b l e m s o l v i n g "

a n d " A n a l y t i c a l s k i l l s " w e r e e a c h selected b y o v e r t w o - t h i r d s o f the teachers.

R o u n d i n g o u t the t o p ten w e r e five definers c h o s e n b y o v e r 60 p e r c e n t of the

teachers: " I n d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g , " " C r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g , " " C l a r i f y i n g i d e a s , "

" L o g i c a l " a n d " T h o u g h t f u l j u d g e m e n t s . " It w a s n o t s u r p r i s i n g that these definers

 58
Table 4
Differences i n Fifty Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g between Teachers i n B . C . and
Japanese H i g h Schools
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD t value P"
Definers of Critical Thinking Total B. C. Japan prob

Analysis .75 .43 .83 .38 .69 .46 -2.02 .05

Reasoning .72 .45 .85 .36 .63 .49 -3.16 .00
Drawing inferences .71 .45 .79 .41 .65 .48
Problem solving .70 .46 .90 .30 .53 .50 -5.43 .00
Analytical skills .70 .46 .85 .36 .59 .49 -3.61 .00
Inductive reasoning .64 .48 .73 .45 .56 .50 -2.22 .03
Creative thinking .64 .48 .62 .49 .66 .48
Clarifying ideas .64 .48 .61 .49 .67 .47
Logical .62 .49 .59 .50 .66 .48
Thoughtful judgements .62 .49 .62 .49 .61 .49
Evaluating assumptions .62 .49 .75 .44 .52 .50 -2.95 .00
Objective .60 .49 .42 .50 .75 .44 4.42 .00
Intellectual challenges .60 .49 .56 .50 .63 .49
Independent thinking .60 .60 .65 .48 .57 .50
Hypothesize .59 .49 .70 .46 .50 .50 -2.64 .01
Higher order thinking .59 .49 .77 .42 .44 .50 -4.46 .00
Rational thinking .58 .50 .64 .49 .53 .50
Drawing conclusions .58 .49 .75 .44 .45 .50 -3.86 .00
Deductive reasoning .58 .50 .76 .43 .43 .50 -4.39 .00
Constructive skepticism .58 .50 .66 .48 .51 .50
Investigate .55 .50 .68 .47 .45 .50 -2.85 .01
Open-minded .53 .50 .55 .50 .51 .50
Synthesis .50 .50 .68 .47 .36 .48 -4.09 .00
Identifying/removing bias .47 .50 .65 .48 .32 .47 -4.29 .00
Decision making .45 .50 .70 .46 .25 .44 -6.38 .00
Discovery learning .44 .50 .39 .49 .47 .50
Divergent thinking .42 .50 .63 .49 .25 .44 -5.25 .00
Convergent thinking .41 .49 .46 .50 .36 .48
Evaluation .40 .49 .46 .50 .34 .48
Taking ownership .38 .49 .30 .46 .45 .50 2.06 .04
Self-directed .35 .48 .27 .45 .41 .49
Depth .35 .48 .38 .49 .33 .47
Consistency .35 .48 .18 .39 .48 .50 4.05 .00
Metacognitive skills .34 .48 .52 .50 .20 .40 -4.54 .00
Active participation .34 .48 .34 .48 .34 .48
Socratic questioning .33 .47 .41 .50 .26 .44 -1.98 .05
Relevance .32 .47 .45 .50 .22 .41 -3.24 .00
Specificity .31 .46 .21 .41 .39 .49 2:41 .02
Significance .31 .46 .41 .50 .23 .42 -2.49 .01
Clarity .31 .47 .37 .49 .27 .45

Student-centred .28 .45 .31 .47 .25 .44

Fairness .28 .45 .07 .26 .45 .50 5.86 .01
Accuracy .28 .45 .21 .41 .33 .47
Responsible .26 .44 .17 .38 .33 .47 2.32 .02
Subjective .25 .44 .21 .41 .28 .45
Precision .24 .43 .18 .39 .28 .45
Adequacy .18 .39 .01 .12 .32 .47 5.33 .00
Cooperative learning .16 .37 .21 .41 .13 .33
Disciplined .13 .33 .18 .39 .08 .27
Completeness .13 .34 .04 .20 .20 .41 3.07 .00
Total Words Endorsed 22.72 1.02 24.69 8.74 21.14 1.73 -2.25 .03

Note: Data is derived from critical thinking definers chosen from a deck of 50 critical thinking cards. (n=158)
 59
w e r e c h o s e n m o r e f r e q u e n t l y since t h e y d e s c r i b e the the sorts o f h i g h e r o r d e r

c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s a n d processes teachers associate w i t h t h i n k i n g c r i t i c a l l y .

" A n a l y s i s " w a s c h o s e n m o s t often because p e r h a p s it best e n c o m p a s s e s the

n a t u r e o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n the c l a s s r o o m . A n a l y s i s m e a n s to e x a m i n e

s o m e t h i n g c a r e f u l l y , to b r e a k it i n t o its c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s a n d to m a k e

t h o u g h t f u l j u d g e m e n t s i n o r d e r to c o m e to s o m e c o n c l u s i o n ( B l o o m , E n g l e h a r t ,

F u r s t , H i l l , & K r a t h w o h l , 1956). A n a l y s i s is u s e d i n n e a r l y a l l subject areas. M a t h

teachers e n c o u r a g e t h e i r s t u d e n t s to a n a l y z e a g e o m e t r y p r o b l e m for p o s s i b l e

p a t h s to a s o l u t i o n . Science teachers h a v e s t u d e n t s a n a l y z e d a t a i n s e a r c h for a

p a t t e r n o r r e l a t i o n s h i p . L a n g u a g e teachers ask s t u d e n t s to a n a l y z e a piece of

literature a n d to s u m m a r i z e w h a t t h e y ' v e r e a d i n a p r e c i s . E v e n fine arts teachers

use a f o r m of a n a l y s i s w h e n t h e y ask s t u d e n t s to c r i t i q u e a major p i e c e o f a r t w o r k

o r p e r f o r m a n c e . A n o t h e r r e a s o n that " A n a l y s i s " m a y h a v e b e e n so p o p u l a r is

that it is m e n t i o n e d as a n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n m o s t

b o o k s o n t e a c h i n g p e d a g o g y . I n a d d i t i o n , teachers are w e l l v e r s e d i n B l o o m ' s

t a x o n o m y w h i c h i n c l u d e s a n a l y s i s as a h i g h e r o r d e r c o g n i t i v e s k i l l .

" R e a s o n i n g " is a n o t h e r w o r d f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e o n

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . Teachers chose this w o r d because it is f a m i l i a r a n d e n c o m p a s s e s

m u c h of the s a m e aspects of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g that a n a l y s i s does. " I n d u c t i v e

r e a s o n i n g " w a s m o r e p o p u l a r t h a n " D e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . " O t h e r w o r d s i n the

top ten also reflected this t r e n d t o w a r d c o n s t r u c t i v i s m . " D r a w i n g i n f e r e n c e s " a n d

" C r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g " b o t h s u p p o r t a m o r e i n d u c t i v e , s e l f - d i s c o v e r y a p p r o a c h to

l e a r n i n g . T h u s , it w o u l d a p p e a r m o s t teachers i n this s t u d y e m b r a c e d the

m o d e r n c o n c e p t of the "teacher as f a c i l i t a t o r " as o p p o s e d to the "teacher as

transmitter of k n o w l e d g e . "

M a n y of the definers m o s t f r e q u e n t l y selected b y teachers w e r e l i n k e d .

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" T h o u g h t f u l j u d g e m e n t s " c o u l d b e d e e m e d a p a r t of " A n a l y s i s " a n d " L o g i c a l " is

a part of "Reasoning." " P r o b l e m s o l v i n g " encompasses a w i d e range of critical

t h i n k i n g s k i l l s i n c l u d i n g " C l a r i f y i n g i d e a s . " A l l these concepts m a y be a p a r t of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n s o m e context o f l e a r n i n g .

F o u r t e e n definers w e r e c h o s e n b y fewer t h a n o n e - t h i r d o f the teachers

surveyed: "Completeness," "Disciplined," "Cooperative learning," "Adequacy,"

"Precision," "Subjective," "Responsible," " A c c u r a c y , " "Fairness," "Student-

centred," " C l a r i t y , " "Significance," "Specificity" a n d "Relevance." A l t h o u g h most

of these concepts a p p e a r i n the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g literature, t h e y w e r e n o t p o p u l a r

choices a m o n g the teachers s u r v e y e d . P e r h a p s t h e y d o n o t d e s c r i b e w h a t

c l a s s r o o m teachers b e l i e v e are the essential c o m p o n e n t s of t h i n k i n g c r i t i c a l l y .

W h i l e t h e y a l l d e s c r i b e p o s i t i v e s t u d e n t attributes o r f a v o u r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s

u n d e r w h i c h l e a r n i n g c a n o c c u r , their m e a n i n g is l a r g e l y e m b e d d e d i n

b e h a v i o u r a l objectives r a t h e r t h a n c o g n i t i v e processes o r l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s .

" C o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g , " w a s f o u n d to be of little r e l e v a n c e to c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g a l t h o u g h a p o p u l a r t e a c h i n g style i n b o t h B . C . a n d J a p a n it w a s o n l y

e n d o r s e d b y s i x t e e n percent of teachers. T h i s s e r v e d as a r e l i a b i l i t y check. It

suggests that teachers d i d n o t s i m p l y choose p o p u l a r " b u z z w o r d s " o r v o c a b u l a r y

that w e r e m o s t f a m i l i a r to t h e m . " C o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g " w a s i n c l u d e d as a

distracter a n d is n o t t y p i c a l l y referred to i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g literature.

S o m e w o r d s c o m m o n l y referred to i n the l i t e r a t u r e are n o t p a r t of m o s t

teachers' v o c a b u l a r y . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f the o l d e r m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d

teachers a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r of J a p a n ' s teachers. F o r e x a m p l e , " M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s "

a n d " S o c r a t i c q u e s t i o n i n g " w e r e o n l y selected b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e - t h i r d of the

teachers, h o w e v e r these strategies are often u s e d i n b o t h the h u m a n i t i e s a n d

sciences w i t h o u t teachers b e i n g a w a r e of the f o r m a l w o r d s u s e d to describe t h e m .

 61
I n the o p e n - e n d e d s e c t i o n o f the q u e s t i o n n a i r e , s e v e r a l teachers c o m m e n t e d o n

the use o f q u e s t i o n i n g a n d c o n c e p t - m a p p i n g as tools to foster c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ,

yet t h e y d i d n o t select " S o c r a t i c q u e s t i o n i n g " or " M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s " w h i c h

describe e a c h of these t e a c h i n g strategies respectfully.

D i f f e r e n c e s B e t w e e n B . C . a n d Japanese T e a c h e r s

W h i l e m a n y s i m i l a r i t i e s e x i s t e d b e t w e e n the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers

selected b y Japanese a n d B . C . teachers, there w e r e statistically s i g n i f i c a n t

differences for 27 of the 50 definers (see T a b l e 5 u n d e r C u l t u r e ) . F o u r t e e n definers

w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y different at the p<.001 l e v e l : " P r o b l e m s o l v i n g , " " A n a l y t i c a l

skills," "Objective," " H i g h e r order thinking," " D r a w i n g conclusions,"

"Deductive reasoning," "Synthesis," " I d e n t i f y i n g / r e m o v i n g bias," "Decision

making," "Divergent thinking," "Consistency," "Metacognitive skills,"

" F a i r n e s s " a n d " A d e q u a c y . " A n u m b e r of these definers s h o w e d a m a r k e d

contrast: " D e c i s i o n m a k i n g " w a s c h o s e n b y 70 percent of the B . C . teachers b u t

o n l y 25 p e r c e n t of the Japanese teachers; " D i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g " w a s c h o s e n b y 63

percent a n d 25 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y . M o r e o v e r , B . C . teachers w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to

have chosen " P r o b l e m solving," "Analytical skills," " H i g h e r order thinking,"

" D r a w i n g conclusions," "Deductive reasoning," "Synthesis," "Identifying/

r e m o v i n g b i a s , " a n d " M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s . " Japanese teachers o n the other h a n d ,

w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to h a v e selected " O b j e c t i v e , " " C o n s i s t e n c y , " " F a i r n e s s " a n d

" A d e q u a c y . " W h i l e " F a i r n e s s " w a s selected b y 45 percent of the Japanese teachers,

o n l y s e v e n p e r c e n t of the B . C . teachers e n d o r s e d it. These definers d e s c r i b e

b e h a v i o u r a n d m o r a l i t y c o n c e p t s that are e m p h a s i z e d i n J a p a n ' s s c h o o l s . T h u s ,

w h i l e B . C . teachers m a y h a v e r e l a t e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m o r e to the c o g n i t i v e

d o m a i n , Japanese teachers t e n d e d to f a v o u r the affective d o m a i n .

 62
Table 5
Correlations Between Fifty Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g and Seven Characteristics of
Teacher Demographics
Correlations: Culture Gender Age Teaching CTin CT CT
Definers of Critical Thinking Experience Curriculum Taught Total

Accuracy -.13 .08 .12 .12 -.06 .02 .35**

Active participation .00 -.22* -.14 -.16 .03 .05 .37**
Adequacy -.39** .01 .00 -.02 -.13 -.71 .39**
Analysis .16 -.11 -.10 -.15 -.02 .07 .45**
Analytical skills .28** -.05 -.08 -.15 .11 .13 .46**
Clarifying ideas -.07 -.01 .00 -.05 .08 .13 .51**
Clarity .10 -.02 .01 -.07 .05 .10 .47**
Completeness -.24* .04 .05 .05 -.09 -.02 .33**
Consistency -.31** .06 .04 .07 -.11 -.15 .30**
Constructive skepticism .15 -.04 -.17 -.22* .05 .13 .44**
Convergent thinking . 10 -.01 .05 .04 -.02 .09 .45**
Cooperative learning .12 -.06 -.16 -.16 -.01 .06 .42**
Creative thinking -.04 -.10 .05 .01 .05 -.05 .41**
Decision making .45** -.20 -.20 -.26* .14 .16 .44**
Deductive reasoning .33** -.01 -.05 -.12 .06 .26* .44**
Depth .05 -.11 -.09 -.13 -.08 .04 .51**
Disciplined .16 -.09 -.07 -.09 .10 .09 .27**
Discovery learning -.08 -.02 -.09 -.10 .08 -.02 .44**
Divergent thinking .39 -.07 -.09 -.13 .11 .18 38**
Drawing conclusions .29 -.14 .00 -.05 .15 .07 .54**
Drawing inferences .15 -.16 .06 .03 .03 .00 .52**
Evaluating assumptions .23 -.12 -.18 -.23* .10 .19 .47**
Evaluation .13* -.19 -.16 -.19 .00 .00 .38**
Fairness -.42** .09 -.07 -.04 -.08 -.21* .26**
Higher order thinking .34** -.22* -.23* -.30* .10 .17 .43**
Hypothesize .21* -.05 -.08 -.15 .05 .17 .63**
Identifying/removing bias .33** -.21* -.16 -.22* .09 .11 .53**
Independent thinking .08 -.15 -.04 -.04 .14 .10 .42**
Inductive reasoning .18 .07 .02 .01 .06 .12 .48**
Intellectual challenges -.07 -.01 -.04 -.05 -.02 -.07 .42**
Investigate .22* -.21* -.15 -.22* .11 .15 .50**
Logical -.07 .02 .03 -.01 -.16 -.06 .39**
Metacognitive skills .34** -.18 -.20 -.27* .18 .27** .43**
Objective -.33** .11 .07 .09 -.13 -.20 .26*
Open-minded .04 -.10 -.03 -.07 .00 .00 .39**

Precision -.12 .13 .14 .08 -.09 .00 .46**

Problem solving .40** -.09 -.16 -.22* .16 .15 .42**
Rational thinking .10 -.10 -.03 -.09 -.02 .07 .52**
Reasoning .24* -.12 -.06 -.08 .04 .24* .49**
Relevance .25* -.16 -.11 -.15 .16 .15 .47**

Responsible -.18 .06 .03 .01 .03 -.04 .34**

Self-directed -.15 .06 -.12 -.13 .02 -.01 .30**
Significance .20 -.08 -.14 -.20 .07 .22* .47**
Socratic questioning .16 .06 .00 -.05 .04 .15 .50**
Specificity -.19 .07 -.13 -.14 -.08 -.08 .49**

Student-centred .07 -.04 -.19 -.22* .13 -.02 .37**

Subjective -.08 .05 -.1 -.06 -.02 -.02 .37**
Synthesis .31** .00 .00 -.04 .10 .34** .50**
Taking ownership -.16 -.07 -.13 -.14 .03 .01 .31**
Thoughtful judgements .01 -.08 -.02 -.06 .10 .06 .46**

*p<.01 **<.001
 63
These sorts of contrasts b e t w e e n E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n t h i n k i n g are w e l l

d o c u m e n t e d ( C u m m i n g s & A l t b a c h , 1997; L e w i s , 1995; G a r d n e r , 1989; R e i d , 1999;

R o h l e n & L e T e n d r e , 1996; S h i e l d s , 1993; S h i m a h a r a & S a k a i , 1995; S t e r n , 1995;

S t e v e n s o n & L e e , 1995; S t e v e n s o n & S t i g l e r , 1992). T h e d a t a i n this s t u d y

reflected this to s o m e degree (see C h a p t e r 7 for a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n ) .

S i x definers s i g n i f i c a n t l y differentiated the t w o c u l t u r e s at the p<.01 l e v e l .

B . C . teachers w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to chose " R e a s o n i n g , " " E v a l u a t i n g a s s u m p t i o n s , "

" H y p o t h e s i z e , " "Investigate," a n d " R e l e v a n c e " w h i l e Japanese teachers w e r e

m o r e l i k e l y to h a v e selected " C o m p l e t e n e s s . " It w o u l d a p p e a r that B . C . teachers'

c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c o r r e l a t e d w i t h c o g n i t i v e processes w h i l e

Japanese teachers c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c o r r e l a t e d w i t h m o r e concrete

l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e h a v i o u r a l objectives.

I n a d d i t i o n , s e v e n other definers s h o w e d s i g n i f i c a n t differences b a s e d o n a

t-test: " A n a l y s i s , " " I n d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g , " " T a k i n g o w n e r s h i p , " " S o c r a t i c

q u e s t i o n i n g , " " S p e c i f i c i t y , " " S i g n i f i c a n c e " a n d " R e s p o n s i b l e . " B . C . teachers w e r e

m o r e l i k e l y to h a v e c h o s e n " A n a l y s i s , " " I n d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g , " a n d " S o c r a t i c

q u e s t i o n i n g . " Japanese teachers w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to h a v e selected " T a k i n g

o w n e r s h i p , " " S p e c i f i c i t y " a n d " R e s p o n s i b l e . " These results further i l l u s t r a t e

differences i n the n a t u r e of E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n t h o u g h t w i t h i n the context of

Japanese a n d B . C . h i g h s c h o o l teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .

Differences Based on the Total Number of Definers Chosen

A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 4, the difference i n the n u m b e r of definers c h o s e n b y

B . C . a n d Japanese teachers is s m a l l b u t statistically s i g n i f i c a n t , as the m e a n

n u m b e r of definers c h o s e n w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25 for the B . C . teachers a n d 21 for

the Japanese teachers (t=-2.25, p<.03). M o r e t h a n a f e w teachers chose o n l y ten

 64
w o r d s w h i l e o n e chose a l l 50. It is q u i t e l i k e l y that these i n d i v i d u a l s either

m i s u n d e r s t o o d the i n s t r u c t i o n s ( c o n f u s i n g the r a n k i n g of the t o p ten w o r d s w i t h

the s o r t i n g p r o c e d u r e s u c h that o n l y 10 cards w e r e chosen) o r d e l i b e r a t e l y chose

a n easier w a y to c o m p l e t e the task. S o m e teachers t o o k o n l y 10 m i n u t e s to

c o m p l e t e the s u r v e y w h i l e others l a b o u r e d for as l o n g as h a l f - a n - h o u r .

Therefore, the q u a l i t y o f a n s w e r s f r o m teachers' responses to the o p e n - e n d e d

q u e s t i o n s w a s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n a d d i t i o n to the q u a n t i t a t i v e results f r o m the

card-sort p r o c e d u r e .

Differences Based on Gender

A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 5, o n l y f o u r definers of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w e r e

s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to g e n d e r . " H i g h e r o r d e r t h i n k i n g , " " I n v e s t i g a t e , "

"Identifying/removing bias" and "Active participation" were significantly

different (p<.01) f r o m the other definers. W o m e n w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to choose

each of these.

Differences Based on Age

" H i g h e r o r d e r t h i n k i n g " w a s the o n l y definer s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d (p<.01)

to age (see T a b l e 5). Y o u n g e r teachers t e n d e d to choose this w o r d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y

t h a n their o l d e r c o l l e a g u e s . T h i s is l i k e l y d u e to the recent i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

" H i g h e r o r d e r t h i n k i n g " to teacher e d u c a t i o n . T h i s t e r m w a s n o t u s e d

c o m m o n l y u n t i l the 1980s.

Differences Based on Career Experience

A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 5, n i n e definers w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to career

e x p e r i e n c e . T h r e e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y different at the p<.001 l e v e l : " D e c i s i o n

 65
m a k i n g , " " H i g h e r o r d e r t h i n k i n g " a n d " M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s . " S i x definers w e r e

s i g n i f i c a n t l y different at the p<.01 l e v e l : " C o n s t r u c t i v e s k e p t i c i s m , " " E v a l u a t i n g

assumptions," " I d e n t i f y i n g / r e m o v i n g bias," "Investigate," " P r o b l e m s o l v i n g "

a n d " S t u d e n t - c e n t r e d . " A l l of these definers w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to be c h o s e n b y

teachers w i t h less career experience. T h i s is p r o b a b l y d u e to less e x p e r i e n c e d

teachers b e i n g recent g r a d u a t e s of teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s w h e r e t e a c h i n g

strategies e m p l o y i n g these concepts are e m p h a s i z e d .

R e l a t i o n s h i p s B a s e d o n C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g i n the C u r r i c u l u m

I n a d d i t i o n to p r o v i d i n g s o c i o - d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n , teachers w e r e

a s k e d to c o m p l e t e s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s i n the q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e q u i r i n g t h e m to

reflect o n w h e t h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s p a r t of their s c h o o l s c u r r i c u l u m o r p a r t

of their c l a s s r o o m ' s a g e n d a (see A p p e n d i x A , Q u e s t i o n s 9-11). T h e r e w a s n o

s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the definers c h o s e n b y teachers a n d t h e i r

response to the q u e s t i o n , "Is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g p a r t of the c u r r i c u l u m i n y o u r

subject area?"

Relationships Based on Critical T h i n k i n g i n Teaching

A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 5, s i x definers w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to teachers'

response to the q u e s t i o n , " D o y o u teach c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ? " T e a c h e r s w h o chose

"Deductive Reasoning," "Metacognitive Skills," "Reasoning," "Significance" and

" S y n t h e s i s " w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to a n s w e r " y e s " to the q u e s t i o n , w h i l e teachers

w h o chose " F a i r n e s s " t e n d e d to a n s w e r " n o . " W h i l e " M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s " a n d

" S y n t h e s i s " w e r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t (p<.001), " D e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g , "

" F a i r n e s s , " " R e a s o n i n g " a n d " S i g n i f i c a n c e " w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y different at the

p<.01 l e v e l .
 66

Distinguishing B . C . from Japanese Teachers

T a b l e 6 s h o w s the 27 statistically s i g n i f i c a n t (p<.001) d e f i n e r s of c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g that d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n B . C . a n d Japanese teachers, l i s t e d i n o r d e r of

their d i s c r i m i n a t i n g p o w e r . T h e first definer to enter the e q u a t i o n w a s " D e c i s i o n

m a k i n g " followed b y "Fairness."

Table 6
Critical T h i n k i n g Definers that Significantly Distinguished Between B . C . and
Japanese Teachers

Critical Thinking Definer Wilks' La

Decision making .79

Fairness .61
Higher order thinking .54
Adequacy .48
Synthesis .44
Reasoning .42
Clarifying ideas .39
Identifying/removing bias .38
Objective .36
Intellectual challenges .34
Analytical skills .33
Completeness .32
Disciplined .30
Consistency .28
Accuracy .28
Active participation .27
Discovery learning .26
Problem solving .25
Convergent thinking .24
Student-centred .24
Specificity .24
Cooperative learning .24
Socratic questioning .23
Metacognitive skills .23
Deductive reasoning .23
Analysis .22
Evaluation .22
 67
T h e s e 27 definers of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c o r r e c t l y classified 96.9 p e r c e n t o f the

teachers s u r v e y e d as B . C . o r Japanese. T a b l e 7 s h o w s the extent to w h i c h the

single canonical discriminant function successfully determined which

r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e f r o m B . C . a n d w h i c h w e r e f r o m J a p a n . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of

r e s p o n d e n t s is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6. T h e r e is a clear p a t t e r n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . W h i l e

B . C . teachers t e n d e d to choose " D e c i s i o n m a k i n g / ' " P r o b l e m s o l v i n g , "

"Divergent thinking," "Metacognitive skills," " H i g h e r order thinking,"

" D e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g , " a n d " I d e n t i f y i n g / r e m o v i n g b i a s , " Japanese teachers

t e n d e d to chose " F a i r n e s s , " " A d e q u a c y , " " O b j e c t i v e , " " C o n s i s t e n c y , "

"Completeness," Precision," and "Specificity." The canonical discriminant

f u n c t i o n is a v a r i a b l e l i k e a n u n r o t a t e d factor. F i g u r e 6 s h o w s the d i s t r i b u t i o n of

B . C . a n d Japanese teachers a l o n g this u n i - d i m e n s i o n a l v a r i a b l e , c a l l e d the i n d e x

of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a b o u t c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . T h e n u m b e r s a l o n g the x-axis

are e s s e n t i a l l y z-scores a l o n g this d i m e n s i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n w h i c h the

centre o f a l l the teachers is z e r o a n d each u n i t is one s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a w a y

f r o m zero. O n a v e r a g e B . C . teachers h a d a n i n d e x of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

C b = 2.07 w h i l e Japanese teachers h a d Cj = -1.67. T h u s , B . C . a n d Japanese teachers

w e r e 3.74 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s apart o n this d i m e n s i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .

Table 7
Accuracy of Discriminant Function Distinguishing B . C . and Japanese Teachers

Predicted G r o u p M e m b e r s h i p Actual Group Membership

B.C. Japan Total

B.C. Count 70.0 1.0 71.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 98.6 1.4 100.0

Japan Count 4.0 84.0 88.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 4.5 95.5 100.0

Total Count 71.0 88.0 159.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 100.0 100.0 100.0
 68

Legend: j=Japanese teachers

b=B.C. teachers
1 2
Class centroids: Cj = 1.67
Cb= 2.07

J J b
Frequency b b b
JJ j j
jj b b b b bbbb b
jj j j
jjj b b bb bbbbbb b
J jj j j
J J JJJJJJJJJJJ jbb bb bbbbbb b
j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j bjbb bbbbbbbbbbbbb b
j jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjbbjbjbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb b

-4.0 -2.0Q 0 2.0Cb 4.0

Fairness Decision making
Adequacy Problem solving
Objective Divergent thinking
Consistency Metacognitive skills
Completeness Higher order thinking
Precision Deductive reasoning
Specificity Identifying/removing bias

Figure 6. Distribution of Respondents on the Single Canonical

Discriminant Function of Significant Critical T h i n k i n g Definers

Ranking Selected Definers of Critical T h i n k i n g

I n a d d i t i o n to s e l e c t i n g or n o t s e l e c t i n g definers, teachers w e r e a s k e d to

choose the t e n that w e r e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t to c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . A b r o a d e r scope to

their v i e w s c a n be o b t a i n e d b y i n v e s t i g a t i n g the r a n k i n g of the t o p ten definers

(see F i g u r e 7). W h i l e " F a i r n e s s " w a s r a n k e d i n the t o p ten b y 22.7 p e r c e n t of

Japanese teachers, it w a s r a n k e d b y o n l y 1.4 percent of B . C . teachers. O t h e r

definers w e r e c h o s e n m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t l y b y J a p a n ' s teachers. F o r e x a m p l e ,

" O b j e c t i v e " w a s c h o s e n b y 75 percent a n d r a n k e d i n the top ten b y 59.1 percent of

Japanese teachers w h e r e a s o n l y 42 percent of the B . C . teachers chose it a n d 9.9

 69

Percentage of Definers Endorsed Japan] Percentage of Definers Ranked in the Top Ten
1(75/40)
Reasoning' 1(72/37)
Drawing inferences 1(71/38)
Analytical skills 1(70/48)
Problem solving
1(70/44)
Clarifying ideas
1(64/30)
Creative thinking'
1(64/40)
Inductive reasoning'
1(64/22)
Logical
1(62/24)
Evaluating assumptions 1(62/30)
Thoughtful judgements 1(62/30)
Independent thinking 1(60/30)
Intellectual challenges 1(60/29)
Objective (60/37)
Higher order thinking (59/30)
Hypothesize' 59/23)
Constructive skepticism (58/30)
Deductive reasoning (58/27)
Drawing conclusions (58/21)
Rational thinking (58/26)
Investigate' (55/21)
Open-minded (53/29)
Synthesis 1(50/24)
Identifying/removing bias (47/15)
Decision making (45/16)
Discovery learning ^1(44/22)
Divergent thinking (42/16)
Convergent thinking (41/9)
Evaluation (40/14)
Taking ownership (38/14)
Consistency
Depth (35/9)
Self-directed (35/10)
Active participation (34/14)
Metacognitive skills (34/14)
Socratic questioning 1(33/8)
Relevance (32/8)
Clarity (31/6)
Significance (31/6)
Specificity 31/7)
Accuracy (28/5)
Fairness
1(28/13)
Student-centred
1(28/11)
Responsible
1(26/8)
Subjective
1(25/8)
Precision
(24/5)
Adequacy
J(1 8/4)
Cooperative learning
Completeness
1(16/4)
Disciplined
1(13/3)
1(13/4

F i g u r e 7. Percentage o f C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g D e f i n e r s E n d o r s e d ,
then S u b s e q u e n t l y R a n k e d i n the T o p T e n
 70
percent r a n k e d it i n the t o p ten. Japanese teachers (36 percent) p l a c e d m o r e

i m p o r t a n c e o n " I n d e p e n d e n t t h i n k i n g " t h a n d i d B . C . teachers (21 percent).

M o r e o v e r , 11 p e r c e n t o f the Japanese teachers r a n k e d it as t h e i r n u m b e r one

selection, i n contrast to the B . C . teachers w h e r e o n l y three p e r c e n t g a v e it the t o p

r a n k . T h i s is c o u n t e r to the s t e r e o t y p i c a T n o t i o n s of Japanese v a l u i n g the g r o u p

o v e r the i n d i v i d u a l a n d W e s t e r n v i e w s of c r e a t i n g i n d e p e n d e n c e at the e x p e n s e

of a l l else.

O t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r i s o n s c a n be f o u n d w i t h " C r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g , "

"Problem solving," "Reasoning," and "Thoughtful judgements." W h i l e nearly

the s a m e p e r c e n t a g e of teachers f r o m B . C . a n d J a p a n chose " T h o u g h t f u l

j u d g e m e n t s , " 30 o f the 88 Japanese teachers (34 percent) r a n k e d it a n d 4 chose it

as the n u m b e r one m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t definer. I n contrast, o n l y 18 o f the 71 B . C .

teachers (25 percent) r a n k e d it a n d it w a s n o t c h o s e n as n u m b e r o n e . T h i s serves

to i l l u s t r a t e a n i m p o r t a n t characteristic o f the dataJapan's teachers w e r e m o r e

selective i n t h e i r choices. B . C . ' s teachers t e n d e d to chose m o r e d e f i n e r s (see T a b l e

4, ' T o t a l W o r d s E n d o r s e d ' ) . T h u s , the r a n k i n g is h e l p f u l i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h

definers are m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t to teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .

T h e S t r u c t u r e of C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g

W h i l e p e r f o r m i n g the a n a l y s i s , there a p p e a r e d to be c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r l a p

i n responses as e v i d e n c e d b y the l a r g e n u m b e r of definers c h o s e n b y m a n y

teachers (see T a b l e 4). H e n c e , a teacher c l a i m i n g that " A n a l y s i s " is p a r t of c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g w a s also l i k e l y to e n d o r s e " A n a l y t i c a l s k i l l s " a n d t w e n t y o r m o r e other

definers o n average. Therefore, it w a s d e c i d e d to r e d u c e the d a t a i n t o m o r e

m a n a g e a b l e , a n d p o s s i b l y m o r e m e a n i n g f u l categories. F a c t o r a n a l y s i s , u s i n g

SPSS w a s d e t e r m i n e d to be the m o s t efficient m e a n s to a c h i e v e t h i s .

 71

Elements of Critical T h i n k i n g and the Factoring Procedure

T h e c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x o f 50 c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers for the 158

r e s p o n d e n t s for w h o m data w a s a v a i l a b l e , y i e l d e d 15 factors w i t h e i g e n v a l u e s

greater t h a n o n e , a c c o u n t i n g for 65.6 percent o f the c o m m o n factor v a r i a n c e (see

A p p e n d i x D ) . T h i s m a t r i x w a s subjected to a p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t a n a l y s i s w i t h

e q u a m a x a n d v a r i m a x r o t a t i o n s w i t h four, five a n d s i x o f the largest factors. A

five factor s o l u t i o n w i t h e q u a m a x r o t a t i o n y i e l d e d the m o s t i n t e r p r e t a b l e factor

structure a n d a c c o u n t e d for 40.9 percent o f the c o m m o n factor v a r i a n c e (see

T a b l e 8).

Factors of Critical T h i n k i n g

T h e five factors w e r e l a b e l e d : (1) Scientific Reasoning, (2) Cognitive

Strategizing, (3) Conscientious Judgements, (4) Relevance a n d (5) Intellectual

Engagement. F o r c l a r i t y , T a b l e 8 s h o w s o n l y l o a d i n g s .40 a n d greater.

Factor 1: Scientific Reasoning

F a c t o r 1, Scientific Reasoning, a c c o u n t e d for 10.2 p e r c e n t o f the c o m m o n

factor v a r i a n c e . It c o n s i s t e d o f the f o l l o w i n g e i g h t definers o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g :

D r a w i n g inferences (.68), H y p o t h e s i z e (.65), C o n v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g (.59), I n d u c t i v e

r e a s o n i n g (.59), C r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g (.50), P r o b l e m s o l v i n g (.46), D r a w i n g

c o n c l u s i o n s (.46) a n d D e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g (.41). These definers i n c o r p o r a t e a

scientific q u a l i t y e x e m p l i f y i n g a ' s l e u t h - l i k e ' s e a r c h for d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

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Table 8
C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g Factor L o a d i n g s

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5

Scientific Cognitive Conscientious Relevance Intellectual
Critical Thinking Definers Reasoning Strategizing Judgements Engagement
Drawing inferences .68
Hypothesize .65
Convergent thinking .59
Inductive reasoning .59
Creative thinking .50 .47
Problem solving .46
Drawing conclusions .46 .44
Metacognitive skills .70
Constructive skepticism .64
Socratic questioning .61
Identifying/removing bias .59
Rational thinking .55
Higher order thinking .54
Evaluating assumptions .46
Open-minded .40
Deductive reasoning .41 .44
Accuracy .68
Consistency .61
Objective .60
Adequacy .58
Specificity .54
Precision .54
Fairness .51
Logical .49
Responsible .45
Clarity .61
Relevance .53
Decision making .52
Significance .51
Completeness .50
Synthesis .41
Active participation .62
Taking ownership .56
Discovery learning .56
Student-centred .54
Intellectual challenges .54
Self-directed .45
Subjective .44
Independent thinking .43
Cooperative learning .42 .43
percent of variance explained: 10.2 % 8.6 % 8.3 % 7.4 % 6.5 %
percent cumulative variance: 10.2 % 18.8 % 27.1 % 34.5 % 41.0 %
all percents after rotation
 73

Factor 2: Cognitive Strategizing,

F a c t o r 2, Cognitive Strategizing, a c c o u n t e d for 8.6 p e r c e n t of the c o m m o n

factor v a r i a n c e . It c o n s i s t e d o f the f o l l o w i n g n i n e definers o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g :

M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s (.70), C o n s t r u c t i v e s k e p t i c i s m (.64), S o c r a t i c q u e s t i o n i n g

(.61), I d e n t i f y i n g / r e m o v i n g b i a s (.59), R a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g (.55), H i g h e r o r d e r

t h i n k i n g (.54), E v a l u a t i n g a s s u m p t i o n s (.46), D e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g (.44) a n d O p e n -

m i n d e d (.40). T h e s e definers represent h i g h e r o r d e r c o g n i t i v e strategies that

e n c o u r a g e p r o b i n g q u e s t i o n s a n d c r i t i c a l responses.

Factor 3: Conscientious Judgements

F a c t o r 3, Conscientious Judgements, a c c o u n t e d for 8.3 p e r c e n t o f the

c o m m o n factor v a r i a n c e . It c o n s i s t e d o f the f o l l o w i n g n i n e definers of c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g : A c c u r a c y (.68), C o n s i s t e n c y (.61), O b j e c t i v e (.60), A d e q u a c y (.58),

Specificity (.54), P r e c i s i o n (.54), F a i r n e s s (.51), L o g i c a l (.49) a n d R e s p o n s i b l e (.45).

These definers e m b o d y e t h i c a l , m o r a l a n d c o n s c i e n t i o u s j u d g e m e n t s m a d e i n a

disciplined a n d systematic manner.

Factor 4: Relevance

F a c t o r 4, Relevance, a c c o u n t e d for 7.4 p e r c e n t of the c o m m o n factor

v a r i a n c e . It c o n s i s t e d o f the f o l l o w i n g e i g h t definers of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g : C l a r i t y

(.61), R e l e v a n c e (.53), D e c i s i o n m a k i n g (.52), S i g n i f i c a n c e (.51), C o m p l e t e n e s s

(.51), D r a w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s (.44), C o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g (.42) a n d S y n t h e s i s (.41).

These definers reflect the clear, c o n c i s e a n d u n a m b i g u o u s n a t u r e of c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g . A l s o , there is a l i n k b e t w e e n the c o g n i t i v e a n d affective d o m a i n s i n the

definers of F a c t o r 4. F o r e x a m p l e , D r a w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a n d S y n t h e s i s m a y h a v e

concrete l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s m a n i f e s t e d i n C o m p l e t e n e s s a n d C l a r i t y .
 74

Factor 5: Intellectual Engagement

F a c t o r 5, Intellectual Engagement, a c c o u n t e d for 6.5 p e r c e n t o f the

c o m m o n factor v a r i a n c e . It c o n s i s t e d o f the f o l l o w i n g t e n d e f i n e r s o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g : A c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n (.62), D i s c o v e r y l e a r n i n g (.56), S t u d e n t - c e n t r e d

(.54), I n t e l l e c t u a l c h a l l e n g e s (.54), C r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g (.48), S e l f - d i r e c t e d (.45),

Subjective(.44), I n d e p e n d e n t t h i n k i n g (.43), T a k i n g o w n e r s h i p (.56) a n d

C o o p e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g (.43). These definers share a c o n s t r u c t i v i s t a p p r o a c h to

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l e n g a g e m e n t o c c u r s w h e n a n i n d i v i d u a l is a c t i v e l y

i n v o l v e d i n the l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s a n d i n t r i n s i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d .

Scale S c o r i n g

R e c a l l that r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e a s k e d to either e n d o r s e o r reject c a r d s

p u r p o r t i n g to d e s c r i b e attributes o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . T h u s , i f a d e f i n e r w a s c h o s e n

it w a s c o d e d " 1 " ; a rejected definer w a s c o d e d " 0 " . I n i t i a l l y , m e a n scale scores

w e r e d e r i v e d b y s u m m i n g o v e r responses to the definers c o m p r i s i n g e a c h factor

a n d d i v i d i n g b y the n u m b e r o f definers w i t h i n e a c h e q u a m a x factor. H o w e v e r ,

the results also s h o w e d that the t o t a l n u m b e r o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers c h o s e n

b y each teacher w a s s i g n i f i c a n t (p<.001) across a l l five factors. I n o r d e r to correct

for this artifact, n o r m a l i z e d scale scores w e r e d e r i v e d b y t a k i n g the scale scores

d i v i d e d b y the t o t a l n u m b e r o f definers c h o s e n . T h u s , n o r m a l i z e d scale scores

r a n g e d f r o m z e r o to o n e . L a r g e r scores i n d i c a t e d a greater c o r r e l a t i o n to c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g . W h i l e m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s w e r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e for a l l the

data, a c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x p r o v i d e d the m o s t concise w a y to s u m m a r i z e the

results. T a b l e 9 s h o w s the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n n o r m a l i z e d scale scores

associated w i t h the five c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g factors a n d selected s o c i o - d e m o g r a p h i c

characteristics o f B . C . a n d Japanese teachers.

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Table 9
Relationships Between Critical T h i n k i n g Scale Scores and Socio-demographic
Characteristics of B.C. and Japanese Teachers

Scientific Cognitive Conscientious Relevance Intellectual

Correlation (r=Pearson) Reasoning Strategizing Judgements Engagement

C u l t u r e (Japan=0, B.C.=1) .15 .28** -.51** .37** -.26*

Gender (Woman=0, Man=l) -.03 -.12 .18 -.05 .05

Age .12 -.19 .15 -.03 -.03

Teaching experience .13 -.21* .18 -.10 .01

Critical Thinking i n curriculum .04 -.05 -.08 -.02 .05

Critical Thinking i n classroom -.05 .02 -.14 -.07 .14

N u m b e r of C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g -.01 .02 -.06 .28** -.02

definers chosen

Subject A r e a (r=Eta) .26 .34* .18 .20 .19

Mean SD
Language Arts .25 .10

Math .18 .07

Science .21 .08

Social Studies .24 .11

Fine A r t .21 .15

Foreign Languages .20 .11

Other .16 .09

N o t e : M i n i m u m p a i r w i s e N o f cases = 158 2-tailed s i g n i f i c a n c e : * p < .01 * * p < .001

N o r m a l i z e d Scale Scores u s e d f o r a l l five factors.

Relationships Between Critical T h i n k i n g Scale Scores and Socio-demographic

Characteristics of B.C. and Japanese Teachers

O f the 159 teachers s u r v e y e d , 158 p r o v i d e d data for the factor a n a l y s i s a n d

the n o r m a l i z e d scale scores r e p o r t e d i n T a b l e 9. O n e Japanese teacher refused to

c o m p l e t e the c a r d sort p r o c e d u r e as he felt it w a s a m b i g u o u s , yet h i s c o m m e n t s

a n d q u e s t i o n n a i r e p r o v i d e d v a l u a b l e q u a l i t a t i v e i n s i g h t s so he w a s i n c l u d e d i n

the rest of the a n a l y s i s . P e a r s o n coefficients w e r e u s e d to s h o w c o r r e l a t i o n s

 76
b e t w e e n C u l t u r e , G e n d e r , A g e , T e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e , C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g i n the

c u r r i c u l u m , C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g t a u g h t i n the c l a s s r o o m , N u m b e r of C r i t i c a l

T h i n k i n g d e f i n e r s c h o s e n a n d the n o r m a l i z e d scale scores f r o m the five factors.

L a r g e r a b s o l u t e v a l u e s i n T a b l e 9 i n d i c a t e s t r o n g e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . S i n c e teachers

f r o m J a p a n a n d B . C . w e r e c o d e d w i t h " 0 " a n d "1" r e s p e c t i v e l y , p o s i t i v e

coefficients i n the first r o w of T a b l e 9 reflect factors that w e r e e n d o r s e d m o r e b y

B . C . teachers w h i l e n e g a t i v e coefficients reflect factors that w e r e e n d o r s e d m o r e

b y Japanese teachers. L i k e w i s e , since w o m e n a n d m e n w e r e c o d e d w i t h " 0 " a n d

" 1 " r e s p e c t i v e l y , p o s i t i v e coefficients i n the s e c o n d r o w of T a b l e 9 reflect factors

e n d o r s e d m o r e b y m e n w h i l e n e g a t i v e coefficients reflect factors e n d o r s e d m o r e

b y w o m e n . T h e characteristics of T e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d A g e w e r e e n t e r e d

d i r e c t l y i n t o S P S S as w h o l e n u m b e r integers, therefore n e g a t i v e coefficients i n

the T e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d A g e r o w s of T a b l e 9 i n d i c a t e n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s

(less e x p e r i e n c e or y o u n g e r ) . T h e q u e s t i o n s "Is C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g p a r t of the

c u r r i c u l u m i n y o u r subject area?" a n d " D o y o u teach C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g i n y o u r

c l a s s r o o m ? " w e r e c o d e d " 0 , " " 1 , " a n d " 2 " for the responses " N o , " " M a y b e , " a n d

" Y e s , " r e s p e c t i v e l y . F i n a l l y , since the characteristic of Subject area does n o t enable

a P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n , a n E t a coefficient w a s u s e d i n s t e a d . A s c o r r e l a t i o n s w e r e

m o s t s u c c i n c t i n r e p o r t i n g the results, m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s w e r e o n l y

i n c l u d e d i n the o n e case s h o w i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t difference b e t w e e n subject areas.

Culture

T h e r e w a s a clear d i s t i n c t i o n a n d s i g n i f i c a n t difference b e t w e e n B . C . a n d

Japanese teachers o n f o u r factors. W h i l e Cognitive Strategizing (r = .28, p<.001)

a n d Relevance (r = .37, p<.001) w e r e of greater s i g n i f i c a n c e to the B . C . teachers,

Conscientious Judgements ( r = -.51, p<.001) w a s far m o r e so for the Japanese

 77
teachers. I n a d d i t i o n , b u t to a lesser extent Intellectual Engagement (r = -.26,

p<.01) w a s a l s o f o u n d to be m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t to the Japanese teachers.

Gender/Age/Teaching Experience

T h e r e w e r e n o s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n the teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b a s e d o n t h e i r g e n d e r or age (see T a b l e 9). H o w e v e r , teachers

w i t h less e x p e r i e n c e s u p p o r t e d Cognitive Strategizing (r = -.21, p<.01)

s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e t h a n e x p e r i e n c e d teachers. O l d e r m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d teachers

m a y h a v e different v i e w s t h a n t h e i r y o u n g e r c o l l e a g u e s , r e f l e c t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t

changes i n teacher e d u c a t i o n o v e r the past three decades. " C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is a

r e l a t i v e l y n e w c o n c e p t , h o w e v e r the u n d e r l y i n g ideas o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g are not.

T h u s , w h i l e less e x p e r i e n c e d teachers w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to e n d o r s e Cognitive

Strategizing a n d w e r e m o r e f a m i l i a r w i t h the n e w e r t e r m i n o l o g y (for e x a m p l e :

M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s ) , t a k i n g a l l five factors i n t o a c c o u n t there a p p e a r s to be m o r e

s o l i d a r i t y a m o n g teachers as a c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p t h a n age o r e x p e r i e n c e c a n dictate.

Critical Thinking in the Curriculum and the Teaching of Critical Thinking

T h e r e s p o n s e to q u e s t i o n s "Is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g p a r t o f the c u r r i c u l u m i n

y o u r subject a r e a ? " a n d "Is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t a u g h t i n y o u r c l a s s r o o m ? " p r o v i d e

d a t a to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f B . C . a n d

Japanese t e a c h i n g a n d the c u r r i c u l u m at the s e c o n d a r y l e v e l (see T a b l e s 10-11).

W h i l e 62 p e r c e n t of the B . C . teachers i n d i c a t e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s p a r t of the

c u r r i c u l u m a n d o v e r 70 p e r c e n t c l a i m e d to teach it i n t h e i r c l a s s r o o m , 24 p e r c e n t

of the r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e u n s u r e . T h e r e w a s e v e n m o r e i n d e c i s i o n o n the p a r t o f

J a p a n ' s teachers. W h i l e 41 p e r c e n t of the Japanese teachers i n d i c a t e d that c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g w a s p a r t of the c u r r i c u l u m o n l y 34 p e r c e n t c l a i m e d to t e a c h it a n d 38
 78
percent w e r e u n s u r e . T h e r e w a s n o s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n teachers w h o

i n d i c a t e d that c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s a p a r t of the c u r r i c u l u m for t h e i r subject area

a n d a n y of the n o r m a l i z e d scale scores for the five factors (see T a b l e 9).

M o r e o v e r , there w a s n o s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t e a c h i n g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n

the c l a s s r o o m a n d a n y of the n o r m a l i z e d scale scores for the five factors.

Table 10
Critical T h i n k i n g as Part of the Prescribed Curriculum

B.C. Japan Total

Critical Thinking no Count 10.0 25.0 35.0

part o f the c u r r i c u l u m % of Teachers f r o m : 28.4 14.1 22.0

unsure Count 17.0 27.0 44.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 23.9 30.7 27.7

yes Count 44.0 36.0 80.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 62.0 40.9 50.3

Total Count 71.0 88.0 159.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 11
Critical T h i n k i n g Taught i n the Classroom

B.C. Japan Total

Critical Thinking no Count 4.0 25.0 29.0

taught i n the classroom % of Teachers f r o m : 5.7 28.5 18.3

unsure Count 17.0 33.0 50.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 24.0 37.6 31.5

yes Count 50.0 30.0 80.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 70.5 34.2 50.4

Total Count 71.0 88.0 159.0

% of Teachers f r o m : 100.0 100.0 100.0
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Total Number of Critical Thinking Definers Chosen

E v e n after t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t the t o t a l n u m b e r of definers selected b y

e a c h teacher u s i n g the n o r m a l i z e d scale scores, there s t i l l r e m a i n e d o n e factor

that c o r r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h the n u m b e r of definers c h o s e n . T e a c h e r s w h o

chose a greater n u m b e r of definers t e n d e d to score h i g h e r o n Relevance (r = .28,

p<0.001). O n e p o s s i b i l i t y is that this is m e r e l y a n a n o m a l y . A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e

e x p l a n a t i o n is those teachers that v a l u e d Relevance h a p p e n e d to s p e n d m o r e

t i m e o n the c a r d sort p r o c e d u r e a n d t h u s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to chose a greater

n u m b e r of d e f i n e r s .

Subject Areas

I n c o m p a r i n g the d a t a across subject areas taught, i n t e r e s t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s

a n d contrasts w e r e f o u n d (see T a b l e 9). Cognitive Strategizing w a s the o n l y scale

score to s h o w a n y s i g n i f i c a n t differences (r = .34, p<.01) b e t w e e n teachers o f

v a r i o u s subjects. L a n g u a g e A r t s teachers s c o r e d h i g h e s t , f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y b y

S o c i a l S t u d i e s teachers w h i l e O t h e r teachers s c o r e d l o w e s t . P e r h a p s this is d u e to

the d i v e r s e n a t u r e of the O t h e r g r o u p a n d t h e i r p r e d o m i n a n t l y v o c a t i o n a l

n a t u r e . M o r e o v e r , t e r m s s u c h as S o c r a t i c q u e s t i o n i n g w h i l e c o m m o n to

h u m a n i t i e s teachers w e r e l i k e l y u n f a m i l i a r to m a n y o f the O t h e r teachers.

Summary

B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w e r e

c o m p a r e d a n d c o n t r a s t e d . T h e r e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n B . C . a n d

Japanese teachers for 27 of the 50 c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers. T h e d i s c r i m i n a n t

a n a l y s i s s u c c e s s f u l l y classified 96.9 percent of teachers as either B . C . or Japanese.

B . C . teachers t e n d e d to v i e w c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h definers s u c h as " D e c i s i o n

 80
making," "Problem solving," "Divergent thinking," "Metacognitive skills,"

"Higher order thinking," "Deductive reasoning," and "Identifying/removing

b i a s " w h i l e t h e y f a v o u r e d the factors of Cognitive Strategizing and Relevance.

O n the other h a n d , Japanese teachers c h a r a c t e r i z e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h

definers s u c h as " F a i r n e s s , " " A d e q u a c y , " " O b j e c t i v e , " " C o n s i s t e n c y , "

"Completeness," "Precision," and "Specificity" w h i l e they favoured

Conscientious Judgements a n d Intellectual Engagement. There were no

s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n the teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b a s e d o n

their g e n d e r o r age. Y e t , l a n g u a g e arts teachers, s o c i a l s t u d i e s teachers, a n d

teachers w i t h less e x p e r i e n c e , t e n d e d to s u p p o r t Cognitive Strategizing more

t h a n their other c o l l e a g u e s . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w o u l d a p p e a r to be a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t

of B . C . a n d Japanese t e a c h i n g a n d the c u r r i c u l u m at the s e c o n d a r y l e v e l .

H o w e v e r , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n its present context is m u c h m o r e p e r v a s i v e i n the

c l a s s r o o m s of the B . C . teachers s t u d i e d . . . o r p e r h a p s it is just better u n d e r s t o o d .

W h i l e the results of the d a t a a n a l y s i s h a v e a n s w e r e d the o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e s

of the s t u d y , s o m e q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n . W h a t are teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g i n t h e i r o w n w o r d s ? H o w c a n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g best be taught? A r e there

further q u a l i t a t i v e differences b e t w e e n B . C . a n d J a p a n that n e e d to be

i n v e s t i g a t e d ? W h a t are the i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s t u d y ?

 81
CHAPTER 7

DISCUSSION

T h e results of this s t u d y are r e l e v a n t to B . C . a n d J a p a n since b o t h

e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s w e r e u n d e r g o i n g s i g n i f i c a n t r e f o r m s to teacher e d u c a t i o n

w i t h a focus o n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . W h i l e o v e r h a l f the teachers s u r v e y e d i n d i c a t e d

that t h e y t a u g h t c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , m a n y h a d d i f f i c u l t y e x p r e s s i n g e x a c t l y h o w to

teach it effectively. Teachers a d m i t t e d that t h e y h a d to t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y just to

c o m p l e t e the s u r v e y ! T h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t p a r t of the c a r d sort p r o c e d u r e w a s

r a n k i n g the t o p 10 w o r d s . T h i s task r e q u i r e d teachers to reflect o n the m e a n i n g of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , t e a c h i n g p h i l o s o p h y a n d practice. I n a d d i t i o n , o p e n - e n d e d

q u e s t i o n s " W h a t is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ? " a n d " H o w is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t a u g h t ? "

p o s e d a r e a l c h a l l e n g e , b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h teachers v a l u e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , t h e y

h a v e n o t h a d to t h i n k a b o u t it n o r h a v e t h e y d i s c u s s e d it w i t h t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s .

Instead, c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a tacit c o n c e p t a n d a n i m p l i c i t p a r t o f their t e a c h i n g

p h i l o s o p h y r a r e l y a r t i c u l a t e d . A s a result, s o m e teachers w e r e u n a b l e to c o m p l e t e

a l l the q u e s t i o n s o r g a v e u p b e c a u s e it r e q u i r e d too m u c h t i m e a n d t h o u g h t .

H o w e v e r , s e v e r a l teachers s a i d t h e y benefited f r o m t a k i n g p a r t i n the s u r v e y

since it r e q u i r e d t h e m to t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y a n d to reflect o n their t e a c h i n g practice.

Teachers' Conceptions of Critical T h i n k i n g

W h e r e a s the p r e c e d i n g chapter f o c u s e d o n q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a a n a l y s i s , the

q u a l i t a t i v e aspects w e r e m e r e l y w o v e n i n t o the a n a l y s i s . H e r e m o r e a t t e n t i o n is

g i v e n to teachers r e s p o n s e s to the o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n s . T h u s , w h a t f o l l o w s are

salient e x a m p l e s of teacher's d e f i n i t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g :
 C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is the a b i l i t y to d e d u c t i v e l y r e a s o n , b r e a k d o w n a
problem into workable components and formulate an answer.
( B . C . , Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h , science teacher)

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ; a n i n d e p t h t h i n k i n g t h a t
goes b e y o n d a face v a l u e r e s p o n s e ; i n v e s t i g a t i n g for s p e c i f i c s to
support one's thoughts and opinions/judgements. (B.C., N o r t h
S u r r e y , l a n g u a g e arts teacher)

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is m a k i n g l i n k s to " w h a t y o u k n o w a l r e a d y " to
" n e w i d e a s " p r e s e n t e d . ( B . C . , E l g i n P a r k , science teacher)

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is to get s t u d e n t s to c o n s i d e r t h i n g s f r o m v a r i o u s
a n g l e s a n d to let t h e m g o t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s .
(Japan, K o m a b a , s o c i a l s t u d i e s teacher)

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is to t h i n k d e e p l y a b o u t s o m e t h i n g , t h e n to
a n a l y z e i t a n d f i n a l l y to m a k e j u d g e m e n t s o r c o m e to a
c o n c l u s i o n . (Japan, T s u k u b a , E n g l i s h teacher)

W h i l e these teachers w e r e able to a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e w h a t t h e i r

c o n c e p t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s , others w e r e u n s u r e of the m e a n i n g . S o m e

Japanese teachers c o n f u s e d "hihanteki shikou ( c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ) " w i t h

"dokuritsushita shikousei ( i n d e p e n d e n t t h i n k i n g ) " o r "ikiru chikara (life-long

l e a r n i n g ) . " M o r e t h a n a f e w i n d i v i d u a l s s i m p l y w r o t e "I d o n ' t k n o w " i n

r e s p o n s e to the q u e s t i o n , " W h a t is c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ? " w h i l e s o m e t o o k it too

l i t e r a l l y . I n J a p a n , the w o r d " c r i t i c a l " has a n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n a n d i n the

t r a n s l a t i o n c a n be m i s c o n c e i v e d s u c h that the m e a n i n g is q u i t e l i t e r a l l y "to

q u e s t i o n a u t h o r i t y " o r "to n o t accept t h i n g s as t h e y a p p e a r " as i n s o m e o n e w h o

c r i t i c a l of the g o v e r n m e n t . O n e E n g l i s h teacher f r o m K o m a b a s u g g e s t e d that

" c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is a p r o b l e m a t i c w o r d a n d therefore a n e w Japanese t e r m is

n e e d e d to d e s c r i b e the concept.
 83

H o w Critical T h i n k i n g is Taught
C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is v a l u e d b y B . C . a n d Japan's s e c o n d a r y teachers, h o w e v e r

it has v a r i o u s m e a n i n g s a n d h o w it is to be t a u g h t is n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . C a n

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b e taught? S o m e teachers felt c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c a n best be

fostered o u t s i d e the s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l c l a s s r o o m . A c c o r d i n g to o n e teacher f r o m

B . C . , " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g can't be taught... it c a n ( h o w e v e r ) be d e m o n s t r a t e d a n d

d e v e l o p e d a l l t h r o u g h life, w i t h e a r l y lessons (home, e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l ) b e i n g

m o s t i m p o r t a n t . " O t h e r s felt c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w a s of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e to

s c h o o l i n g a n d m u s t be taught. I n the w o r d s of one Japanese teacher, " i t is the

basic f o u n d a t i o n for h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . " A s s u m i n g t h e n , that c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g (at least as these teachers p e r c e i v e it) is t a k i n g p l a c e i n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l

c l a s s r o o m s h o w is it b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the B . C . a n d Japanese c o u r s e

c u r r i c u l a ? W h a t f o l l o w s are responses to the q u e s t i o n , " H o w d o y o u teach c r i t i c a l

thinking?":

S t u d e n t s n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is b e f o r e t h e y
c a n engage i n the process. ( B . C . , E n v e r C r e e k , s o c i a l s t u d i e s teacher)

P u r s u e the " w h y " b e h i n d the ' r o t e ' a n s w e r s . ( B . C . , F l e e t w o o d P a r k ,

b u s i n e s s e d u c a t i o n teacher)

S t u d e n t s m a k e u p t h e i r o w n labs... ( B . C . , N o r t h S u r r e y , s c i e n c e
teacher)

A s s i g n i n g o p e n - e n d e d case s t u d i e s / p r o b l e m s / i s s u e s for s t u d e n t s to
discuss, debate, a n d evaluate. (B.C., Princess M a r g a r e t , science
teacher)

H a v e students w r i t e d o w n their o w n ideas a n d then present t h e m

to the class. E x p r e s s a n o p i n i o n a b o u t the o t h e r s ' i d e a s , d i s c u s s t h e m
together a n d t h e n w r i t e a s u m m a r y . (Japan, O t s u k a , m a t h teacher)
 84
I let the s t u d e n t s d i s c o v e r p r o b l e m s , let t h e m t h i n k a b o u t h o w to
s o l v e the p r o b l e m s a n d t h e n let t h e m g o a b o u t d o i n g it o n t h e i r
o w n . (Japan, S a k a d o , h o m e e c o n o m i c s teacher)

A f t e r I h e l p t h e m to u n d e r s t a n d the content o f the text, I let t h e m

state t h e i r o w n o p i n i o n . (Japan, O t s u k a , E n g l i s h teacher)

F r o m h i s t o r i c a l references, f i n d v a r i o u s a s p e c t s to c o m p a r e a n d
evaluate w i t h existing theories a n d d a i l y / m o d e r n p h e n o m e n a .
(Japan, O t s u k a , s o c i a l studies teacher)

Just as there are m a n y different t e a c h i n g styles there are m a n y different

contexts i n w h i c h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m a y take p l a c e . N u m e r o u s b o o k s a v a i l a b l e

w i t h titles s u c h as " T e a c h i n g C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g , " " T e a c h i n g S t u d e n t s to T h i n k

C r i t i c a l l y , " a n d " C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g A c r o s s the C u r r i c u l u m " p u r p o r t to g u i d e the

w a y for n o v i c e teachers. H o w e v e r , these m a t e r i a l s r e m a i n i n the d o m a i n of

m o s t l y the a c a d e m i c s w h o p u b l i s h a n d r e a d E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g j o u r n a l s f o u n d i n

u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y c o l l e c t i o n s . W h i l e , m a n y teachers d o n o t use w o r d s s u c h as

" M e t a c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s " o r " S o c r a t i c q u e s t i o n i n g " to d e s c r i b e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , t h e y

i m p l i c i t l y use these t e c h n i q u e s i n their c l a s s r o o m t e a c h i n g as e v i d e n c e d b y their

responses to the o p e n - e n d e d questions.

Comparative Perspective

A r e there s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y

teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ? T h e s i m p l e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n is

" y e s " b u t to leave it u n e x p l o r e d w o u l d be to m i s s i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g s . A s teachers

u n d e r s t a n d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w i t h i n their o w n c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s a n d

c u l t u r a l contexts, there are b o u n d to be differences b e t w e e n B . C . a n d Japanese

teachers. H o w e v e r , there are far too m a n y s i m i l a r i t i e s to be i g n o r e d . W h i l e factor

a n a l y s i s is a p o w e r f u l t o o l i n data r e d u c t i o n , it relies o n differences b u t n o t

b e t w e e n c u l t u r e s . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers that w e r e c h o s e n b y n e a r l y a l l
 85
teachers w o u l d l i k e l y n o t be l o a d e d i n t o a n y one factor. O f the fifty definers, five

w e r e d o u b l e l o a d e d a n d ten l o a d e d b e l o w .40 a n d t h u s w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n the

scale s c o r i n g (see A p p e n d i x D ) . R e c a l l that 75 percent o f the teachers chose

" A n a l y s i s " a n d 72 p e r c e n t chose " R e a s o n i n g , " yet these definers of c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n a n y of the five factor s o l u t i o n s as t h e y d i d n o t

l o a d a b o v e .40 i n a n y one factor. M o r e o v e r , s o m e of the differences b e t w e e n B . C .

a n d Japanese teachers c a n be a t t r i b u t e d to p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t i n the t r a n s l a t i o n of

the w o r d " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " i n a d d i t i o n to c u l t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . O n c e these are

t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t h o w e v e r , the results c a n be better u n d e r s t o o d .

W h i l e B . C . teachers t e n d e d to relate c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g to the c o g n i t i v e

d o m a i n , Japanese teachers t e n d e d to f a v o u r the affective d o m a i n . T h i s contrast

b e t w e e n E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n t h i n k i n g is w e l l d o c u m e n t e d ( C u m m i n g s &

A l t b a c h , 1997; L e w i s , 1995; G a r d n e r , 1989; N a k a n e , 1970; R e i d , 1999; R o h l e n &

L e T e n d r e , 1996; S h i e l d s , 1993; S h i m a h a r a & S a k a i , 1995; S t e r n , 1995; S t e v e n s o n &

L e e , 1995; S t e v e n s o n & Stigler, 1992). G a r d n e r (1989) describes a " k e y i n the l o c k "

s t o r y that further i l l u s t r a t e s contrasts i n E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n w a y s . W h e n

t r a v e l i n g i n S o u t h East A s i a , G a r d n e r a n d h i s w i f e w e r e a b o u t to enter their

h o t e l r o o m w h e n t h e i r t w o y e a r o l d s o n i n s i s t e d o n t a k i n g the k e y to o p e n the

l o c k . R a t h e r t h a n g u i d e the c h i l d ' s h a n d , s h o w i n g h i m h o w to o p e n the d o o r ,

t h e y let the c h i l d d i s c o v e r for h i m s e l f t h r o u g h the process o f t r i a l a n d e r r o r h o w

it is d o n e . A C h i n e s e o b s e r v e r q u e s t i o n e d w h y t h e y d o n ' t s i m p l y s h o w the c h i l d

h o w to o p e n the d o o r b y g u i d i n g h i s h a n d a n d t h u s a v o i d i n g a n y " m i s t a k e s . "

A s there is o n l y one " r i g h t " w a y of d o i n g t h i n g s , the E a s t e r n p h i l o s o p h y is

to h a v e a n e x p e r t teach the " r i g h t " w a y a n d t h u s a v o i d the c o m m o n m i s t a k e s

m a d e b y a n e o p h y t e . O n c e this is d e m o n s t r a t e d it m u s t be p r a c t i c e d o v e r a n d

o v e r m a n y t i m e s u n t i l it is l e a r n e d . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , " m i s t a k e s " w e r e n o t
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e n c o u r a g e d i n Japanese c l a s s r o o m s . S t u d e n t s d i d n ' t q u e s t i o n t h e i r teachers.

T h e r e w a s k n o w l e d g e to b e t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m teacher to s t u d e n t w i t h little r o o m

for debate. P e r h a p s these stereotypes are b e i n g c h a l l e n g e d as J a p a n b e g i n s to

e m b r a c e a c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g .

W h i l e Japanese m a y b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d as g r o u p o r i e n t e d , B r i t i s h

C o l u m b i a n s are m o r e i n d e p e n d e n t . Japanese i n d i v i d u a l s d o w h a t is best for the

g r o u p i n o r d e r to k e e p h a r m o n y w i t h others w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g a sense o f

h o n o u r a n d m o r a l i t y . E q u a l i t y , p a t i e n c e , persistence, p r i d e , h u m i l i t y , u n i t y , a n d

c o m m u n i t y s p i r i t m a y best d e s c r i b e J a p a n ' s teachers. T h e Japanese s c h o o l

c u r r i c u l u m e m p h a s i z e s i n a d d i t i o n to c o u r s e content, s o c i a l i z a t i o n , m o r a l i t y a n d

b e h a v i o u r , rather t h a n c o g n i t i v e abilities. O n the other h a n d , B . C . teachers c o u l d

best b e d e s c r i b e d as d i v e r s e , self-reliant, i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , o r i g i n a l a n d

opinionated. The B.C. school curriculum emphasizes creativity, independent

t h i n k i n g a n d c o g n i t i v e processes. Japanese s t u d e n t s are t a u g h t lessons s u c h as

" d o n o t s a y t h i n g s to u p s e t others," " d o n ' t v o i c e y o u r o p i n i o n , " " t h e n e e d s o f the

f e w d o n o t o u t w e i g h the needs o f the m a n y , " "the n a i l that s t i c k s o u t gets

h a m m e r e d d o w n " a n d " p r a c t i c e , practice, practice... p r a c t i c e m a k e s y o u master."

I n contrast, B . C . s t u d e n t s are t a u g h t to state a n o p i n i o n , b e c r i t i c a l , t h i n k for

oneself a n d b e oneself. W h i l e o r i g i n a l i t y is celebrated a n d e n c o u r a g e d b y B . C . ' s

teachers, the s a m e c a n ' t b e s a i d for J a p a n ' s teachers. T h u s , " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " w i l l

h a v e different c o n n o t a t i o n s w i t h i n the c u l t u r a l context o f the t w o r e g i o n s .

T h e r e w a s less a g r e e m e n t (or p e r h a p s m o r e c o n f u s i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the

t e r m " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " ) a m o n g Japanese teachers. H o w e v e r , B . C . ' s teachers w e r e

n o t a l l o f o n e m i n d either. W h i l e s o m e m a y v a l u e Relevance m o r e t h a n

Cognitive Strategizing others m a y feel s t r o n g l y a b o u t s o m e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n o f

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . Y e t , these are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e c o n c e p t s a n d the r e l a t i v e

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p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e m i n a n y o n e ' s d e f i n i t i o n are l i k e l y to c h a n g e d e p e n d i n g o n the

context o f the l e a r n i n g . P e r h a p s this c a n best be i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h a m e t a p h o r . E a c h

i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n c e p t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m a y be t h o u g h t of as a five

d i m e n s i o n a l c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " a m o e b a " free to m o v e a b o u t w i t h i n the d o m a i n

of Scientific Reasoning, Conscientious Judgements, Cognitive Strategizing,

Relevance a n d Intellectual Engagement.

A l t h o u g h there w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n B . C . a n d J a p a n ' s

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , the s i m i l a r i t i e s w e r e

m e a n i n g f u l . L o o k i n g b e y o n d the s e m a n t i c s of the w o r d s u s e d to d e s c r i b e c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g a n d r e s e a r c h i n g d e e p e r i n t o the u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e p t , the c o m m o n

aspects h a v e b e e n u n c o v e r e d .

T h e results i n d i c a t e that the g e n e r a l n o t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is

s u p p o r t e d b y m o s t of the teachers s u r v e y e d . T h i s s u p p o r t c r o s s e d the b o u n d a r i e s

of g e n d e r , age, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e , subject area, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y w h e r e the

teachers w e r e f r o m . W h i l e the p r e c i s e m e a n i n g o f " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is different

for e a c h i n d i v i d u a l , there w e r e c o m m o n e l e m e n t s to e a c h teacher's c o n c e p t i o n

a n d h o w it w a s s u p p o r t e d i n their c l a s s r o o m . F o r m a n y of the teachers s u r v e y e d ,

t w o o r m o r e o f the five factorsScientific Reasoning, Cognitive Strategizing,

Conscientious Judgements, Relevance a n d Intellectual Engagement were

endorsed.

A s the thesis p r o g r e s s e d , m y o w n c o n c e p t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g e v o l v e d

f r o m a v a g u e n o t i o n of h i g h e r o r d e r t h i n k i n g s u c h as a n a l y s i s , s y n t h e s i s , a n d

e v a l u a t i o n to a c o m p l e x p h i l o s o p h y of t h o u g h t . M y d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g b e c a m e a f u s i o n of e x p e r t o p i n i o n s f r o m the l i t e r a t u r e , teacher

c o n c e p t i o n s f r o m this s t u d y a n d reflections f r o m p e r s o n a l t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e .

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g consists of m a n y d i m e n s i o n s as w e l l as strategies to be u s e d
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d e p e n d i n g o n the context of the s i t u a t i o n . T h e F o u n d a t i o n for C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g

(2000) w e b site lists n o fewer t h a n 35 affective a n d c o g n i t i v e strategies d e s c r i b i n g

the t e a c h i n g of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g to h i g h s c h o o l students:

A . Affective Strategies

S-l thinking independently

S-2 developing insight into egocentricity or sociocentricity
S-3 exercising fairmindedness
S-4 exploring thoughts underlying feelings and feelings underlying thoughts
S-5 developing intellectual humility and suspending judgment
S-6 developing intellectual courage
S-7 developing intellectual good faith or integrity
S-8 developing intellectual perseverance
S-9 developing confidence in reason

B. Cognitive Strategies - Macro-Abilities

S-10 refining generalizations and avoiding oversimplifications

S-ll comparing analogous situations: transferring insights to new contexts
S-l2 developing one's perspective: creating or exploring beliefs, arguments, or theories
S-13 clarifying issues, conclusions, or beliefs
S-14 clarifying and analyzing the meanings of words or phrases
S-15 developing one's perspective: creating or exploring beliefs, arguments, or theories
S-16 evaluating the credibility of sources of information
S-l7 questioning deeply: raising and pursuing root or significant questions
S-l8 analyzing or evaluating arguments, interpretations, beliefs, or theories
S-l9 generating or assessing solutions
S-20 analyzing or evaluating actions or policies
S-21 reading critically: clarifying or critiquing texts
S-22 listening critically: the art of silent dialogue
S-23 making interdisciplinary connections
S-24 practicing Socratic discussion: clarifying /questioning beliefs, theories, or perspectives
S-25 reasoning dialogically: comparing perspectives, interpretations, or theories
S-26 reasoning dialectically: evaluating perspectives, interpretations, or theories

C. Cognitive Strategies - Micro-Skills

S-27 comparing and contrasting ideals with actual practice

S-28 thinking precisely about thinking: using critical vocabulary
S-29 noting significant similarities and differences
S-30 examining or evaluating assumptions
S-31 distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts
S-32 making plausible inferences, predictions, or interpretations
S-33 giving reasons and evaluating evidence and alleged facts
S-34 recognizing contradictions
S-35 exploring implications and consequences
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T h e B . C . a n d Japanese teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g reflected

m a n y of the e x p e r t s ' s u g g e s t e d strategies. F o r e x a m p l e , Japanese teachers

s u p p o r t e d F a i r n e s s a n d C o m p l e t e n e s s (see F i g u r e 6) r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g to

the affective strategies S-3 e x e r c i s i n g f a i r m i n d e d n e s s a n d S-8 d e v e l o p i n g

i n t e l l e c t u a l p e r s e v e r a n c e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . O n the other h a n d , B . C . teachers e n d o r s e d

D e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d D e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g (see F i g u r e 6) r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g

to the c o g n i t i v e strategies S-19 g e n e r a t i n g o r assessing s o l u t i o n s a n d S-25

r e a s o n i n g d i a l o g i c a l l y : c o m p a r i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , o r theories.

M y o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is t h u s a s y n t h e s i s of research

f r o m experts i n the f i e l d o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a n d d a t a f r o m teachers s u r v e y e d . I

v i e w c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as a process i n w h i c h a n i n d i v i d u a l is a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d i n

a n a l y z i n g , r e a s o n i n g , q u e s t i o n i n g , a n d c r e a t i v e l y s e a r c h i n g for a l t e r n a t i v e s i n a n

effort to s o l v e a p r o b l e m o r to m a k e a d e c i s i o n o r j u d g e m e n t . I n s u m m a r y ,

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g m a y best be d e s c r i b e d as p o w e r f u l t h i n k i n g .

I m p l i c a t i o n s o f the S t u d y

T h e r e is i n c r e a s i n g s u p p o r t for d e v e l o p i n g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g f r o m

e d u c a t o r s a n d the p u b l i c i n b o t h B . C . a n d J a p a n . T h e teachers i n this s t u d y

i n d i c a t e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is of great i m p o r t a n c e . A l t h o u g h there w e r e m a n y

o p i n i o n s o n h o w c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c a n best be taught, m o s t teachers s u p p o r t e d the

n o t i o n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c a n be f o s t e r e d p r o v i d e d s t u d e n t s are g i v e n

o p p o r t u n i t i e s to ask q u e s t i o n s , to a n a l y z e p r o b l e m s , to use r e a s o n i n g a n d to

t h i n k c r e a t i v e l y i n o r d e r to m a k e j u d g e m e n t s . These are n o t m e r e l y e n r i c h m e n t

activities b u t rather t h e y s h o u l d be a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of a l l c u r r i c u l a as they are

i m p o r t a n t " l i f e - s k i l l s , " necessary i n the w o r k - p l a c e a n d e l s e w h e r e . W h i l e a f e w

teachers felt h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s w e r e i n c a p a b l e of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , m o s t
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i n d i c a t e d that t h e y e x p e c t e d students to g r a d u a t e f r o m h i g h s c h o o l w i t h the

a b i l i t y to t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y .

W h i l e this s t u d y a n a l y z e d teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , m o r e

research is necessary to e x p l o r e s o m e o f the i m p l i c a t i o n s . If c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is to

be i m p l e m e n t e d across the c u r r i c u l u m i n B . C or J a p a n ' s h i g h s c h o o l s , h o w c a n it

best be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the r e f o r m s c u r r e n t l y t a k i n g p l a c e i n e a c h e d u c a t i o n

system? S p e c i f i c a l l y , h o w c a n teachers i n c o r p o r a t e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n t o t h e i r

lessons? A l s o , h o w c a n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b e c o m e better u n d e r s t o o d e s p e c i a l l y b y

J a p a n ' s teachers? C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a W e s t e r n e x p r e s s i o n , yet the c o n c e p t is n o t

c o n f i n e d to the W e s t . T h u s , it is necessary to f i n d a c o m p a r a b l e Japanese p h r a s e

to r e p l a c e hihanteki shikou w i t h a n e x p r e s s i o n that w i l l be better u n d e r s t o o d ,

w i t h less e m p h a s i s o n " c r i t i c a l " a n d m o r e e m p h a s i s o n " t h i n k i n g . " W h a t w o u l d

be a m o r e s u i t a b l e Japanese t e r m for c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ? A s u g g e s t i o n w h i c h w a s

w e l l r e c e i v e d b y the Japanese educators i n the s t u d y , is to a d o p t a n e w Japanese

p h r a s e for c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , kangaeru chikarakangaeru, the v e r b "to t h i n k "

a n d chikara m e a n i n g " p o w e r o r a b i l i t y . " P e r h a p s kangaeru chikara better

e n c o m p a s s e s the n a t u r e of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as it is c o n c e i v e d b y B . C . a n d Japan's

teachers.
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CHAPTER 8

S U M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS

British C o l u m b i a and Japan have been undergoing significant educational

r e f o r m s i n efforts to i m p r o v e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f the

e m e r g i n g g l o b a l v i l l a g e . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g as a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of these r e f o r m s has

r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n f r o m e d u c a t o r s , yet it r e m a i n s l a r g e l y u n d e v e l o p e d i n

t r a d i t i o n a l teacher-centered c l a s s r o o m s . W h i l e " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is h i g h l y

v a l u e d b y e d u c a t o r s i n B . C . a n d J a p a n , there m u s t be further research i n t o the

w a y it is u n d e r s t o o d a n d h o w it c a n best be t a u g h t w i t h i n these t w o e d u c a t i o n

systems.

C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s o f the M e t h o d o l o g y

T h e p u r p o s e s of this s t u d y w e r e (1) to o b t a i n a n o v e r a l l sense of w h a t

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l teachers b e l i e v e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g to e n t a i l ; (2) to c o m p a r e a n d

contrast B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ; (3)

to i n v e s t i g a t e the n a t u r e of B . C . a n d Japanese s e c o n d a r y teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w i t h respect to g e n d e r , age, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d subject

taught; a n d (4) to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of B . C .

a n d Japanese t e a c h i n g a n d the c u r r i c u l u m at the s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . I n o r d e r to

a c h i e v e these objectives, 159 teachers f r o m ten h i g h s c h o o l s w e r e selected f r o m a

v a r i e t y o f subject b a c k g r o u n d s , ages a n d experience to c o m p l e t e a c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g c a r d sort a n d q u e s t i o n n a i r e . R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the characteristics of

gender, age, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e , subject area, a n d the teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d a n a l y z e d across the t w o c u l t u r e s .

M e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s i n c l u d e d (1) the l a y o u t o f the q u e s t i o n n a i r e ; (2)

the s e l e c t i o n of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers; (3) the a s s u m p t i o n that 50 definers

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c o u l d a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n c e p t of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ; a n d (4) the

s e l e c t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d s c h o o l s . I n o r d e r to c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y z e the

m e t h o d o l o g y o f this s t u d y , e a c h o f these p o t e n t i a l l i a b i l i t i e s m u s t be c a r e f u l l y

e x a m i n e d a n d s u g g e s t i o n s m a d e for i m p r o v e m e n t s .

A l i m i t a t i o n a n d p o t e n t i a l s h o r t c o m i n g of the i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d i n c l u d e s

the l a y o u t of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e (see A p p e n d i x A , a n d note that the i n s t r u c t i o n s

1-3 for s o r t i n g a n d r a n k i n g w e r e o r i g i n a l l y o n p a g e o n e of a l e g a l - s i z e d p a p e r ) .

P o s s i b l y , s o m e r e s p o n d e n t s d i d n ' t r e a d the i n s t r u c t i o n s c a r e f u l l y , s k i p p e d the

s o r t i n g a n d chose o n l y ten definers w h i c h t h e y r a n k e d o n the first p a g e o f the

questionnaire. Future studies e m p l o y i n g a sorting of cards a n d questionnaire

s h o u l d c l e a r l y differentiate b e t w e e n the tasks of s o r t i n g a n d r a n k i n g . O n e

s u g g e s t i o n is to p l a c e the i n s t r u c t i o n s for the s o r t i n g o n the first p a g e a n d the

r a n k i n g o n the f o l l o w i n g p a g e (as s h o w n i n A p p e n d i x A ) . T h u s , r e s p o n d e n t s

w o u l d be m o r e i n c l i n e d to d o the s o r t i n g before t u r n i n g the p a g e to b e g i n the

ranking procedure.

A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e l a t i n g to i m p r o v e m e n t s i n i n s t r u m e n t d e s i g n is

the s e l e c t i o n o f the definers to be w r i t t e n o n the i n d e x cards. M o s t of the definers

came f r o m W e s t e r n literature o n c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . T h i s b i a s c o u l d affect the

results. I n the future, l i t e r a t u r e f r o m b o t h c u l t u r e s s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d a n d

carefully e x a m i n e d before a p i l o t s t u d y is d o n e . I n o r d e r to a v o i d c u l t u r a l b i a s ,

s o m e definers s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i z e d for p o t e n t i a l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s

a n d r e m o v e d o r r e p l a c e d i f necessary. A case i n p o i n t , u p o n c o m p l e t i o n o f the

factor a n a l y s i s , the five factors h a d to be n a m e d . T o r e d u c e the 50 definers to o n l y

five s u c c i n c t a n d m e a n i n g f u l factors w a s a difficult task. T h e c h o i c e o f w o r d s w a s

at t i m e s a c o m p r o m i s e . W h e n the five factors w e r e d o u b l e t r a n s l a t e d for

a c c u r a c y , F a c t o r 4, Relevance w a s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d b y the Japanese g r a d u a t e

 93
s t u d e n t a s k e d to assist i n this matter (a different i n d i v i d u a l t h a n the g r a d u a t e

s t u d e n t u s e d i n the o r i g i n a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f the 50 definers). H e i n d i c a t e d that this

factor n e e d e d a different n a m e i n Japanese. H e p r e f e r r e d to use " C l a r i t y " w h i c h

w a s a n o t h e r d e f i n e r that c h a r a c t e r i z e d F a c t o r 4. F i n a l l y , i f there w e r e t r a n s l a t i o n

i n a c c u r a c i e s o r a m b i v a l e n t t r a n s l a t i o n s this c o u l d h a v e affected the d a t a to s o m e

extent. W h i l e care w a s t a k e n to h a v e the c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g d e f i n e r s d o u b l e -

t r a n s l a t e d b y f l u e n t l y b i l i n g u a l e d u c a t o r s , further p r o c e d u r e s m u s t to p u t i n t o

practice i n o r d e r to ensure v a l i d i t y a n d c u l t u r a l s u i t a b i l i t y . P e r h a p s c o n s u l t i n g

more than t w o i n d i v i d u a l s from each region w o u l d help solve this p r o b l e m .

R e l a t e d to this l a n g u a g e issue is a c r i t i c i s m h e a r d at a p r e s e n t a t i o n g i v e n at

the C o m p a r a t i v e a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n S o c i e t y C o n f e r e n c e h e l d i n S a n

A n t o n i o , T e x a s i n M a r c h 2000. A Japanese c o l l e a g u e c o m m e n t e d that

i n d i v i d u a l s w o u l d h a v e different c o n c e p t i o n s of e a c h of the 50 definers as w e l l as

" c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , " i r r e s p e c t i v e of their c u l t u r e . B u t i f this p e r s p e c t i v e is t a k e n

too l i t e r a l l y , h o w are c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t o r s to c o n t i n u e i n t e r n a t i o n a l cross-

c u l t u r a l research? N a t u r a l l y , l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e are e m b e d d e d i n a n y

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y . H o w else c a n a c o n c e p t be i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d

c o m p a r e d across t w o or m o r e c u l t u r e s ?

F i n a l l y , a n a d d i t i o n a l c r i t i c i s m is that e x t e r n a l v a l i d i t y c o u l d h a v e b e e n

c o m p r o m i s e d i n the s e l e c t i o n of s c h o o l s . S c h o o l s w e r e selected w i t h the h e l p of

p e r s o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s . E a c h of the B . C . s c h o o l s w e r e i n the s c h o o l d i s t r i c t of the

researcher. A l l the s c h o o l s selected i n J a p a n h a d ties to a researcher at T s u k u b a

University.
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Critical Analysis of the Results

T h e r e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n B . C . a n d Japanese teachers for

27 of the 50 c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g definers. T h e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s s u c c e s s f u l l y

classified 96.9 p e r c e n t of teachers as either B . C . o r Japanese. T h e results of scale

s c o r i n g the factor a n a l y s i s s h o w e d that B . C . teachers v i e w e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

m o r e as Cognitive Strategizing a n d Relevance w h i l e J a p a n e s e teachers f a v o u r e d

Conscientious Judgements a n d Intellectual Engagement.

T h e r e w e r e n o s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n the teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s of

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b a s e d o n t h e i r g e n d e r o r age. Y e t , l a n g u a g e arts teachers, s o c i a l

s t u d i e s teachers a n d teachers w i t h less e x p e r i e n c e t e n d e d to s u p p o r t Cognitive

Strategizing m o r e t h a n t h e i r o t h e r c o l l e a g u e s . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w o u l d a p p e a r to

be a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of B . C . a n d Japanese t e a c h i n g a n d the c u r r i c u l u m at the

s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . H o w e v e r , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n its p r e s e n t c o n t e x t seems m o r e

p e r v a s i v e i n B . C . ' s c l a s s r o o m s . " C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " is m o r e p o p u l a r i n B . C . b u t is

m i s u n d e r s t o o d b y teachers o n b o t h sides of the Pacific. Is " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g " a

s k i l l or is it a n abstract concept?

A c c o r d i n g to the teachers s u r v e y e d , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a p r o c e s s i n w h i c h

a n i n d i v i d u a l is a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d i n a n a l y z i n g , r e a s o n i n g , q u e s t i o n i n g , a n d

c r e a t i v e l y s e a r c h i n g for alternatives i n a n effort to s o l v e a p r o b l e m o r to m a k e a

d e c i s i o n o r j u d g e m e n t . C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c a n ' t be l e a r n e d i n i s o l a t i o n . It can't be

t a u g h t e x p l i c i t l y b u t rather m u s t be i n t e g r a t e d i n a l l subject areas a n d r e l a t e d to

the ideas s t u d e n t s a l r e a d y h a v e .

Levels of Critical T h i n k i n g

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a n abstract c o n c e p t u s e d i n at least three major contexts

or l e v e l s of d i s c o u r s e : (1) the m e d i a a n d g e n e r a l p u b l i c , (2) teacher p e d a g o g y , a n d

 95
(3) academic discourse. It is essential that critical thinking be better understood by

individuals within all three levels, for "critical thinking" is on the verge of

becoming diluted in meaning much like "internationalization" or

"globalization." "Critical thinking" is not well understood. It may have become

merely another "buzzword" in education and may have been used without

much thought to its true meaning by many educators, politicians and the general

public. Developing "critical thinking skills" is seen by some as a panacea to the

ills of our education system. While some teachers were able to adequately

describe their conception of critical thinking, others were unsure of the meaning.

Finally, the word "critical" has a negative connotation and in the translation can

be misconceived and therefore the new Japanese term kangaeru chikara should

be used to describe the concept of critical thinking.

Comparative Education Perspective

During the pre-conference seminar of The Second Asia-Pacific

International Symposium of Teacher Education held at Waseda University,

Tokyo in March 2000, a debate ensued over "critical" comparative education. It

was suggested that "critical" comparative education methodologies are necessary

in order to apply the wealth of knowledge available through international

comparative research. It was posited that "critical" comparative education had

two dimensions: scientific and value-based judgements. Yet, to compare without

judgements or without drawing any conclusions is not "critical" comparative

education. Another individual characterized comparative education as

necessarily prescriptive as well as descriptive. "Critical pedagogy" was used to

describe the nature of "critical" comparative education. Phrases such as "logical-

abstract thinking," "child-centred learning through problem solving," "learning

 96
b y d o i n g / ' "the a b i l i t y to i d e n t i f y p r o b l e m s a n d to l e a r n for oneself" w e r e u s e d to

describe " c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . " T h e Japanese e d u c a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n o f Hansei or the

c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n o n m o r a l issues w a s c i t e d as a n o t e w o r t h y e x a m p l e . T h e i d e a l

teacher w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as s o m e o n e w h o fostered c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n students.

A l s o , it w a s s u g g e s t e d c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w o u l d h a v e the effect o f m a k i n g s t u d e n t s

m o r e h u m a n i s t i c . T h e m e a n i n g of the w o r d " c r i t i c a l " w a s s o m e t h i n g that

o c c u p i e d o v e r 20 m i n u t e s of d i s c u s s i o n f r o m s o m e o f the w o r l d ' s l e a d i n g

researchers i n c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n a n d yet n o c o n s e n s u s o n the m e a n i n g o f

"critical" was reached.

M a n y p h e n o m e n a can't be d e s c r i b e d b y l a n g u a g e alone. L a n g u a g e s h a v e

e v o l v e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s . E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s a l w a y s h a v e the

i n d i v i d u a l c e n t r e d i n the d i a l o g u e w h i l e Japanese l a n g u a g e is b a s e d o n space

rather t h a n f o r m . F o r e x a m p l e , the sentence, "I a m c o l d . " is just samui

(adjective, m e a n i n g " c o l d " ) . " I " is r a r e l y a r t i c u l a t e d i n Japanese as it is

u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n the context o f the s i t u a t i o n . I n a n y l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n there are

subtle n u a n c e s that are often n o t c o n v e y e d o r the m e a n i n g c a n be a l t e r e d . A n

i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t that w a s often c o n f u s e d w i t h c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , Ikiru chikara

or " l i f e - l o n g l e a r n i n g " is c e n t r a l to B . C . a n d J a p a n ' s e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s as

kangaeru chikara o r c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is essential to s o l v i n g the p r o b l e m s f a c i n g

o u r w o r l d . T o e m b r a c e these n e w p a r a d i g m s i n l e a r n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t r e f o r m s

m u s t take p l a c e i n the f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n of s c h o o l s as w e l l as the n a t u r e o f the

c u r r i c u l u m . S c h o o l m u s t be a p l a c e w h e r e s t u d e n t s c a n e x p l o r e o p t i o n s a n d

m a k e choices. T h e teacher m u s t act as a facilitator rather t h a n a d i s s e m i n a t o r o f

factual k n o w l e d g e .
 97
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a n d I m p l i c a t i o n s for F u t u r e S t u d i e s

B o t h B . C . a n d Japanese e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s s h o u l d foster c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

w h i l e s u p p o r t i n g m e n t o r s h i p , c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d peer c o n s u l t a t i o n a m o n g

teachers. S p e c i f i c a l l y , w h a t B . C . n e e d s is a p r o p o s a l that w i l l i m p r o v e s t u d e n t

l e a r n i n g as w e l l as the p r e - s e r v i c e a n d i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g o f teachers. P a r t of the

s o l u t i o n lies i n J a p a n ' s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p m o d e l of teacher e d u c a t i o n a n d the

p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s c h o o l ( P D S ) as p r o p o s e d b y the H o l m e s G r o u p o f

research u n i v e r s i t i e s i n the U . S . , d e d i c a t e d to the r e f o r m o f t e a c h i n g a n d teacher

e d u c a t i o n . T h e P D S e m b o d i e s m u c h of the s p i r i t of c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d

m e n t o r s h i p o f the Japanese m o d e l w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a l i n k b e t w e e n the research

of u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d the p r a c t i c e of t e a c h i n g i n s c h o o l s . T h e p o t e n t i a l o f the P D S

has r e c e n t l y e m e r g e d as one of the m o s t e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s for s y s t e m a t i c

e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m (Petrie, 1995; L e v i n e , 1992). T h e goals of the P D S s c h o o l c o u l d

be r e a l i z e d , w i t h the f o l l o w i n g changes m a d e to B . C . ' s p r e s e n t s c h o o l s y s t e m :

1) R e d e f i n e the r o l e of the teacher as facilitator a n d co-learner.

2) C h a n g e the s t r u c t u r e of the t i m e t a b l e to i n c o r p o r a t e t i m e for r e f l e c t i o n ,
sharing and continued professional development.
3) A d o p t 6 / 8 b l o c k s as F . T . E . for S e c o n d a r y a n d 4 / 5 d a y s for E l e m e n t a r y .
4) H i r e m o r e " n e w " teachers (student teachers) at 0.50 F . T . E . (3 o r 4 b l o c k s ) as
l e a r n i n g p r a c t i t i o n e r s for 1 y e a r terms.
5) P a y s t u d e n t teachers at 50 percent of C a t e g o r y 5
( P r o f e s s i o n a l Certificate, 0 years experience).
6) Offer a one y e a r sabbatical for teachers e v e r y 5 years for p r o f e s s i o n a l
development.
7) Support education decision-making b y a professional association or
c o l l e g e o f teachers.

T h e m o n e y s a v e d f r o m h i r i n g b e g i n n i n g teachers as a p p r e n t i c e s w o u l d m o r e

t h a n c o m p e n s a t e for the r e d u c e d a s s i g n m e n t s a n d s u b s e q u e n t s a l a r y shortfalls of

e x p e r i e n c e d teachers. A l s o , m o r e t i m e w o u l d be a v a i l a b l e for r e f l e c t i o n a n d

c o l l a b o r a t i o n m u c h l i k e Japanese s c h o o l s .
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I n contrast, J a p a n ' s e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m c o u l d be r e f o r m e d i n the f o l l o w i n g

ways:

1) R e d e f i n e the r o l e of the teacher as facilitator a n d co-learner.

2) Decrease class sizes (see #4 b e l o w ) .
3) Implement a more comprehensive extended teaching practicum.
4) H i r e m o r e " n e w " teachers to r e d u c e the i n c r e a s i n g stress o f teachers.
5) C o n t i n u e i n c r e a s i n g the electives offered i n h i g h s c h o o l .
6) C h a n g e the e x a m i n a t i o n s y s t e m to r e d u c e the stress o n s t u d e n t s .
7) Offer a s a b b a t i c a l for teachers e v e r y 5 years for p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t .
8) S u p p o r t e d u c a t i o n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g b y a p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n or
c o l l e g e of teachers.

I n o r d e r to facilitate these r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for changes to B . C a n d Japanese

e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s , resources m a y n e e d to be r e d i r e c t e d to e n h a n c e teacher

training, professional development and teaching conditions.

Teachers are i n the b u s i n e s s of e d u c a t i n g s t u d e n t s b u t there is a r o l e for

e v e r y o n e to p l a y . Teachers, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , parents, b u s i n e s s p e o p l e ,

g o v e r n m e n t s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s m u s t w o r k together, c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y i n o r d e r to

e v o k e e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e . F i r s t a n d foremost, teachers m u s t l e a r n h o w to t h i n k

c r i t i c a l l y for t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s is a necessary f o u n d a t i o n for c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g

e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m . A d m i n i s t r a t o r s c a n e n s u r e that there is l o n g - t e r m i n s e r v i c e

for teachers i n l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . P a r e n t s c a n p r o v i d e a

h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h the i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c i p l i n e of t h e i r c h i l d r e n is

f o s t e r e d w h e r e d e c i s i o n s are q u e s t i o n e d a n d p r o b l e m s are reflected o n together.

B u s i n e s s p e o p l e c a n h e l p b y p u s h i n g g o v e r n m e n t s for e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m . Since

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is e s s e n t i a l to effective g r o u p p r o b l e m s o l v i n g , p r o g r e s s i v e

b u s i n e s s p e o p l e s h o u l d n e t w o r k w i t h e d u c a t o r s a n d c i v i c leaders i n o r d e r to

create a p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s of the i m p o r t a n c e of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . T h e M i n i s t r y of

E d u c a t i o n o r M o n b u s h o s h o u l d f u n d further research i n t o h o w to foster c r i t i c a l

 99
t h i n k i n g e s p e c i a l l y i n h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d teachers i n t r a i n i n g .

Professors s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n their classes b y r o u t i n e l y

f o s t e r i n g r e a s o n i n g a n d e n s u r i n g that their s t u d e n t s r e g u l a r l y assess their o w n

w o r k u s i n g intellectual standards.

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is n o t l i k e l y to b e c o m e v a l u e d i n e d u c a t i o n u n l e s s it is

v a l u e d b y s o c i e t y at large. T h e r e is m u c h a p a t h y to o v e r c o m e . M o r e o v e r , s o m e

societies m a y n o t v a l u e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g d u e to c u l t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . J a p a n has

just b e g u n to e m b r a c e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g yet other n a t i o n s m a y n o t yet be r e a d y .

F o r teachers to foster c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g t h e y m u s t first b e c o m e c o m m i t t e d to

t h i n k i n g c r i t i c a l l y a n d r e f l e c t i v e l y a b o u t t h e i r o w n l i v e s a n d the l i v e s of those

a r o u n d t h e m . Teachers m u s t r e g u l a r l y m o d e l for s t u d e n t s w h a t it is to

r e f l e c t i v e l y e x a m i n e , c r i t i c a l l y assess, a n d effectively i m p r o v e life.

T h i n k i n g is p r e - e m i n e n t l y a n art; k n o w l e d g e a n d p r o p o s i t i o n s
w h i c h are the p r o d u c t s of t h i n k i n g , are w o r k s of art, as m u c h so as
s t a t u a r y a n d s y m p h o n i e s . E v e r y successive stage o f t h i n k i n g is a
c o n c l u s i o n i n w h i c h the m e a n i n g of w h a t has p r o d u c e d it is
c o n d e n s e d ; a n d it is n o s o o n e r stated t h a n it is a l i g h t r a d i a t i n g to
other t h i n g s - u n l e s s it be a f o g w h i c h obscures t h e m ( D e w e y ,
1929/1958, p . 378).

W h i l e o v e r h a l f the teachers s u r v e y e d i n d i c a t e d t h e y t a u g h t c r i t i c a l

t h i n k i n g , m a n y h a d s o m e d i f f i c u l t y e x p r e s s i n g e x a c t l y h o w to t e a c h it effectively.

I n o r d e r to foster c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b y s t u d e n t s , teachers m u s t first c r i t i q u e p r e s e n t

e d u c a t i o n a l practices a n d the beliefs u n d e r l y i n g t h e m . T o u n d e r s t a n d the n a t u r e

of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , e d u c a t o r s m u s t be a s k e d f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t the

n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e , l e a r n i n g a n d the process of t h i n k i n g . T h r o u g h further

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s , e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s c a n b e i m p r o v e d . Teachers

m u s t be g i v e n o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n f r o m o n e a n o t h e r a n d to benefit f r o m the

a c c u m u l a t e d w i s d o m o f generations of s k i l l e d p r a c t i t i o n e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , teachers
 100
m u s t be g i v e n a d e q u a t e t i m e for c o l l a b o r a t i o n , p l a n n i n g a n d r e f l e c t i o n . T h e

reforms o f e d u c a t i o n i n b o t h B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d J a p a n r e q u i r e a r e t h i n k i n g of

the p r o f e s s i o n o f t e a c h i n g , for a n y effort to r e f o r m the s t r u c t u r e o r o r g a n i z a t i o n

of e d u c a t i o n u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d s o n the effectiveness of the teacher.

W h i l e this s t u d y a n a l y z e d teachers' c o n c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , s o m e

q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n to be a n s w e r e d . If c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is to b e i m p l e m e n t e d across

the c u r r i c u l u m i n B . C a n d Japan's h i g h s c h o o l s , h o w c a n it best be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o

the r e f o r m s c u r r e n t l y t a k i n g p l a c e i n e a c h e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m ? S p e c i f i c a l l y , h o w

can teachers i n c o r p o r a t e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g i n t o their lessons? A l s o , h o w c a n

c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b e c o m e better u n d e r s t o o d e s p e c i a l l y b y J a p a n ' s teachers?

C r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g is a f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t i n e d u c a t i o n that r e q u i r e s m o r e s t u d y .

F u r t h e r c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n research is necessary o n m e t h o d o l o g i e s , t e a c h i n g

strategies, c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g a n d the r o l e of the teacher. T h i s w i l l h e l p to i m p r o v e

student learning a n d w i l l p r o v i d e a cross-cultural a n d international

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n of l e a r n i n g necessary for " l i f e - s k i l l s " i n the 21st

c e n t u r y m u c h l i k e l i t e r a c y a n d n u m e r a c y for the 20th c e n t u r y .

 101
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3. Choose the ten most significant cards and rank them 1-10. Write them in the
space below:
1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.

Part 2 Questionnaire

1. What is your gender? [ ] Man IlWoman

2. What is your age? years

3. What is your main subject area (please check one box only):

] Language Arts [ ] Business Education

] Math [ ] Computer Science
] Science [ ] Foreign Languages
] Social Studies [ ] Industrial Education
] Fine Art (Art, Music & Drama)
] Other (please specify)

4. How many years teaching experience do you have? years

5. Identify the 5 most significant learning outcomes attained by your

students:

6. Upon successful completion of high school students should be able to:

7. What 5 words best describe an outstanding student?

8. What is the meaning of "critical thinking"?

9. Is critical thinking part of the prescribed curriculum for your subject?

[ 1 Yes I 1 No [ ] Unsure

10. Is critical thinking taught in your classroom?

[ 1 Yes [ 1 No [ ] Unsure

If you answered "Yes" to question 10, then please answer question 11.

11. How do you teach critical thinking? (use a separate page if necessary)
 in

1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.
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1 [ ] [ ] A
2
3
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] Kmm&
]
] (i ]

4
5

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[ ] li^ [ ] uux. [ ] to#e>ftu
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 112
APPENDIX C
Critical T h i n k i n g Definers Spreadsheet
English Word Japanese Word
Accuracy IE**
Active participation
Adequacy
Analysis
Analytical skills
Clarifying ideas
Clarity
Completeness
Consistency
Constructive skepticism mmttotxmmm
Convergent thinking
Cooperative learning
Creative thinking
Decision making
Deductive reasoning
Depth as*
Disciplined
Discovery learning
Divergent thinking
Drawing conclusions
Drawing inferences iist*5i#ai-i+*
Evaluating assumptions
Evaluation
Fairness
Higher order thinking
Hypothesize
Identifying/removing bias
Independent thinking
Inductive reasoning
Intellectual challenges
Investigate
Logical
Metacognitive skills
Objective
Open-minded
Precision
Problem solving
Rational thinking
Reasoning
Relevance
Responsible
Self-directed
Significance
Socratic questioning
Specificity
Student-centred
Subjective
Synthesis
Taking ownership (*) LT<tb*.-5
Thoughtful judgements
 113
APPENDIX D
Rotated Component Matrix of 50 Critical T h i n k i n g Definers

Critical Thinking Factor Loadings

Critical Thinking Definers 1 2 3 4 5
drawing inferences .68 .16 .11 .05 .14
hypothesize .65 .29 .14 .15 .15
convergent thinking .59 .13 .05 .16 .03
inductive reasoning .59 .30 .02 .06 .02
creative thinking .50 .10 .01 -.19 .47
problem solving .46 .09 -.15 .37 .09
drawing conclusions .46 .19 .03 .44 .05
analysis .40 .24 .22 .11 .04
divergent thinking .39 .37 -.38 .18 .16
reasoning .38 .16 .12 .34 .08
analytical skills .36 .31 .04 .23 .05
clarifying ideas .34 .21 .24 .20 .18
metacognitive skills .03 .70 -.20 .18 .13
constructive skepticism .14 .64 .08 -.06 .12
socratic questioning .19 .61 -.02 .18 .08
identifying/removing bias .15 .59 .06 .29 .04
rational thinking .19 .55 .28 .05 .08
higher order thinking .23 .54 -.06 .02 .14
evaluating assumptions .27 .46 -.10 .26 .10
deductive reasoning .41 .44 .00 .23 -.20
open-minded .05 .40 .40 .00 .05
accuracy .06 -.08 .68 .31 -.08
consistency .02 .08 .61 -.01 .04
objective .13 -.03 .60 -.17 .12
adequacy .06 -.10 .57 .19 .27
specificity .20 -.03 .54 .31 .15
precision .12 .04 .54 .34 .08
fairness -.22 .00 .51 .07 .31
logical .31 .06 .49 .12 -.10
responsible -.23 .13 .45 .17 .33
depth .04 .35 .35 .19 .25
clarity .12 .08 .35 .61 -.06
relevance .22 .12 .09 .53 .07
decision making .19 .25 -.24 .52 .16
significance .16 .13 .17 .51 .11
completeness -.12 -.13 .26 .51 .30
synthesis .32 .30 .16 .41 -.11
investigate .30 .24 .05 .32 .19
disciplined -.02 .05 .12 .31 .15
evaluation .10 .15 .12 .29 .18
active participation .03 -.04 .04 .21 .62
taking ownership -.23 .12 .21 .08 .56
discovery learning .34 .07 .08 -.06 .56
student-centred .13 -.01 -.04 .21 .54
intellectual challenges .19 .22 .05 -.09 .54
self-directed -.11 .07 .23 .05 .45
subjective .08 .01 .08 .25 .44
independent thinking .18 .16 .00 .14 .43
cooperative learning -.02 .16 -.05 .42 .43
thoughtful judgements .18 .33 .24 -.09 .39
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Equamax with Kaiser Normalization.
Rotation converged in 14 iterations.