Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

The use of modified tyre derived fuel for compression ignition engines
T.J. Pilusa
University of Johannesburg, Process Energy and Environmental Technology Station, PO Box 17011, Doornfontein, 2028 Johannesburg, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigated physical and chemical modification of tyre-derived fuel oil (TDFO) obtained from
Received 3 July 2015 pyrolysis of waste tyres and rubber products for application as an alternative fuel for compression igni-
Revised 8 May 2016 tion engines (CIEs). TDFO collected from a local waste tyre treatment facility was refined via a novel
Accepted 13 June 2016
oxidative gas-phase fractional distillation over 13
molecular sieves to recover the light to medium
Available online 24 June 2016
fractions of the TDFO while oxidising and capturing some sulphur compounds in a gas phase. This was
followed by desulphurization and chemical modification to improve cetane number, kinematic viscosity
Keywords:
and fuel stability. The resulting fuel was tested in an ADE407T truck engine to compare its performance
Distillation
Fuel
with petroleum diesel fuel. It was discovered that gas phase oxidative fractional distillation reduces the
Pyrolysis low boiling point sulphur compounds in TDFO such as mercaptans. Using petroleum diesel fuel as a ref-
Solvent erence, it was observed that the produced fuel has a lower cetane number, flash point and viscosity. On
Waste tyres storage the fuel tends to form fibrous microstructures as a result of auto-oxidation of asphaltenes present
in the fuel. Mixtures of alkyl nitrate, vinyl acetate, methacrylic anhydride, methyl-tert butyl ether, n-
hexane and n-heptane were used to chemically modify the fuel in accordance with the minimum fuel
specifications as per SANS 342. The engine performance tests results did not show any sign of engine
ceasing or knocking effect. The power-torque trend was very consistent and compared well with petro-
leum diesel fuelled engine. The levels of total sulphur are still considerably high compared to other clea-
ner fuel alternatives derived from zero sulphur sources.
2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction
An increased fuel demand continues to accelerate depletion of
fossil fuel resources such as crude oil and coal. The use of non-
renewable fossil derived fuels such as petroleum diesel has larger
carbon footprints compared to other cleaner renewable energy
sources such as natural gas and biodiesel (Di et al., 2009; McNeil
et al., 2012). This has put a lot of pressure on emerging countries
to find sustainable alternative fuels and reduce dependency on fos-
sil fuels. One of the solutions is to recover fuel from complex indus-
trial waste material by various processes.
Crude oil obtained from pyrolysis of waste tyres is often
referred to as tyre derived fuel oil (TDFO) or bunker fuel oil. This
oil can be further refined by fractional distillation to produce diesel
equivalent fuel derivative referred to as tyre derived fuel (TDF)
(Murugan et al., 2008). The fuel properties of TDF including calori-
fic values, ultimate analyses, flash point, moisture content, density
and viscosity have been determined by previous researchers. The
results showed that TDF had fuel properties similar to those of a
E-mail address: pilusat@webmail.co.za
light petroleum fuel oil (Lopez et al., 2009; Lah et al., 2013). Chro-
matographic and spectroscopic studies on the liquid obtained from
pyrolysis of waste tyres show that TDFO can be used as liquid fuels
and chemical feedstock, with a calorific value of 43 MJ/kg (Rofiqul
et al., 2008). TDF has generated significant interest as an alterna-
tive option for petroleum diesel. As a result, a number of studies
compared combustion and emission as well as engine performance
of various TDFs with petroleum diesel i.e. Galvagno et al. (2002), Li
et al. (2004), Onay (2007), Olazar et al., 2008, Murugan et al.
(2008).
Waste tyre pyrolysis technology for production of liquid fuel
has been considered as an alternative method for disposal of waste
tyres while producing alternative fuel. Several studies have been
carried out in the production of TDFO obtained from waste tyres
and rubber products by various techniques (Sharma and
Murugan, 2013). Rodrguez et al. (2001) investigated pyrolysis of
waste tyres in a fixed-bed reactor at 500 C and reported that pro-
duct oils consisted of 62 wt% aromatic compounds, 31.6 wt% ali-
phatic compounds, 4 wt% nitrogen-containing compounds, and
18000 ppm sulphur containing compounds. Another study investi-
gated pyrolysis of waste tyres in continuous conical spouted bed
reactor, in the 425600 C range, by feeding two types of tyre

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.020
0956-053X/ 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
452 T.J. Pilusa / Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459
materials with different contents of natural and synthetic rubber. It
was observed that main differences between the continuous and
batch processes are in the yield of aromatics content, which is
higher in the continuous process, and in that of the heavy liquid
fraction, which is higher in the batch process (Olazar et al., 2008).
Pyrolysis of waste vehicle tyres with the purpose of fuel produc-
tion for the usage as a fuel in internal combustion engines may be
an alternative disposal solution pending its environmental and
economic viability. One of the experimental studies reported in lit-
erature has revealed that utilization of TDF as a fuel in diesel
engine resulted in normal engine operation without modification
when it is blended with commercial diesel fuel up to 70% of TDF-
diesel blends. Thermal efficiencies were lower compared to pure
diesel operation. Higher smoke, sulphur oxides and un-burnt
hydrocarbon emissions were reported (Murugan et al., 2008).
Another work was been carried out to evaluate the performance,
emission, and combustion characteristics of a single cylinder direct
injection diesel engine fuelled with up to 50% of TDF blended with
diesel fuel. It was concluded that it is possible to use TDFO in diesel
engines as an alternate fuel in the future (Martinez et al., 2013).
While TDFO has high energy content, it requires some process-
ing to assure efficient use in internal combustion engines. Some of
these oils have already been evaluated as alternative for diesel and
gasoline fuels. Compression ignition (CI) engines stand out as being
potential power plants for the use of TDFO without requiring major
engine modifications. In fact distillation properties of TDFO are
very similar to conventional diesel fuel as presented in Table 1.
However the results reported by Hariharan et al. (2013) indicate
that because of its low cetane number, TDFO must be blended with
diesel fuel or complemented by a cetane improver, such as diethyl
ether, for application in diesel engines. Consequently, many studies
using TDFO blended with diesel fuel or methyl esters are found in
the literature. Thus only limited number of studies is performed in
commercial multi-cylinder turbocharged engines Martinez et al.
(2014), Koc and Abdullah (2014), but none of them with pure
TDFO.
Certain properties of TDF such as cetane number, viscosity, and
total sulphur contribute to engine performance and emission char-
acteristics. Refined TDFO often contains around 1800 ppm total
sulphur, with kinematic viscosity of 1.6 cSt, flash point of 26 C
and gross calorific value of 43 MJ/kg (Pilusa et al., 2014). In addi-
tion, the use of TDF in internal combustion engines results in
Table 1
Test operating points for the ECE R49 13-mode test (UNECE, 1993).
Mode % Load Engine speed
1 0 Idle
2 10 Intermediate
3 25 Intermediate
4 50 Intermediate
5 75 Intermediate
6 100 Intermediate
7 0 Idle
8 100 Rated
9 75 Rated
10 50 Rated
11 25 Rated
12 10 Rated
13 10 Idle
Rated speed: The speed at which the engine achieves maximum power with full
rack setting on the fuel pump. Intermediate speed: The speed corresponding to the
maximum torque value if such a speed is within the range of 6075% of rated speed.
In other cases it means a speed equal to 60% of rated speed. % Load: The fraction of
maximum available torque at a given engine speed. Factor: The regulation 49
procedure derives a cumulative result from steady state operation at 13 operating
points at a range of speeds and percentages of full load. The quantity of emissions
measured at each operating point or mode is given a weighting factor.
reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, particulate matter and car-
bon monoxide (Koc and Abdullah, 2014). In contrary, internal com-
bustion of TDF results in an increased sulphur dioxide emissions,
due to the presence of high sulphur levels in the fuel (Martnez
et al., 2013; Frigo et al., 2014; Argawal, 2014). Previous research
has also shown that TDF properties partially satisfy SANS 342,
and the use of this fuel should be comparable with petroleum die-
sel (Hseyin and Cumali, 2015).
This research investigates possible chemical modification of
TDF such that its viscosity, flash point, cetane number, calorific
value and lubricity are within EN 590 and SANS 342 specification
for internal combustion application.
2. Material and experimental procedures
2.1. Material
A sample of TDFO was obtained from a continuous waste tyre
pyrolysis owned by International Rubber Recycling (Pty) Ltd in
South Africa. A specific focus for this research was to investigate
modification of low aromatic TDFO obtained from a continuous
pyrolysis system similar to the one shown in Fig. 1 as opposed to
high aromatic TDFO obtained from batch processes. Vinyl acetate,
n-heptane, n-hexane, methacrylic anhydride, n-butanote and amyl
alcohol and nitric acid were used as reagents to chemically modify
some properties of the refined TDFO. All these reagents were pur-
chased from Sigma Adrich South Africa.
2.2. Experimental procedures
2.2.1. Fuel preparation
A schematic block diagram of the extraction system used in this
study is presented in Fig. 2. The process consists of various stages
whereby TDFO is converted into modified tyre derived fuel (TDF).
A sample of TDFO was characterized as an alternative fuel for com-
pression ignition engines as per test results presented in Table 1. A
distillation curve of TDFO was generated in comparison with its
derivatives and standard diesel fuel.
A bench scale distillation set-up consisting of 1000 ml round
bottom flask, heating mantle, glass water cooled condenser and a
collecting flask as shown in Fig. 3 which was used for flash distil-
lation of the TDFO. The glass condenser was fitted with 16 g of steel
wool which will act as catalyst when oxidised into ferric oxide. The
temperature of the feed TDFO was monitored and initially main-
tained at 100 C to allow for evaporation and recovery of water,
low boiling point mercaptans, sulphides and disiphides in the
Factor TDFO. The condenser bulb was filled with 26 g of 13
molecular
0.083 sieves supported over oxidised steel wool. This will ensure oxida-
0.08 tion of high boiling point sulphur compound and adsorption over
0.08
the active layer of micro-porous sieves in a gas phase prior to con-
0.08
0.08
densation. The function of 13
molecular sieve pellets is to
0.25 enhance adsorption of low boiling points sulphur compounds as
0.0833 well as water removal from the fuel.
0.1 The distillation temperature of the TDFO was raised to 350 C
0.02
for extraction of light and heavy fuel fractions while oxidising
0.02
0.02 and capturing the sulphur compounds over the active layer of
0.02 molecular sieves in the condenser bulb as shown in Fig. 3. The sys-
0.0833 tem was properly sealed at each connection point to ensure that all
vapours passes through the ferric oxide and molecular sieves
before they are condensed into light fraction fuel. The condensed
TDFO was desulphurized using Ca (OH) and H2SO4 as per treatment
method reported Hseyin and Cumali (2015). This was followed by
filtration through a series of activated carbon and micro-molecular
filtration system presented in Fig. 3 for the removal of suspended
and dissolved contaminants. This TDF was characterized as an
 T.J. Pilusa / Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459
Fig. 1. Continuous waste tyre pyrolysis plant.
Chemically modified tyrederived fuel (TDF*)
Tyre derived fuel (TDF)
Liquid phase adsorption and micro filtration
Mid fraction chemical desulphurization in Ca (OH2) and H2SO4
Gas phase oxidative desulphurization
Tyre derived fuel oil (TDFO)
Fig. 2. Block diagram for TDF oil processing.
alternative fuel for diesel engine compared to petroleum diesel.
The TDF was further modified using selected chemical reagents
after reviewing its physical properties.
2.2.2. Chemical modification
Alkyl Nitrate was synthesised via etherification process which
involves reaction of boiling concentrated nitric acid with a mono-
hydric aliphatic amyl alcohol; to produce between 30 and 60%
amyl nitrates. To prevent vigorous auto-oxidation and possible
explosion between the reactions, urea is added in the mixture to
facilitate decomposition of the intermediate nitrous acid as repre-
sented by Eq. (1). This is followed by formation of oxonium deriva-
tive which was eventually converted to alkyl nitrate and water as
final products as shown by Eqs. (2) and (3). Alkyl nitrate is highly
volatile and semi-explosive in its pure state. However, it becomes
relatively stable once in solution with the other fuel ingredients
(Fritsch et al., 1942).
453
CONH2 2 2HNO2 ! CO2 2N2 3H2 O 1
C5 H11 OH HONO2 ! C5 H11 OH NHO3  HONO2 2
C5 H11 OH NHO3  HONO2 ! C5 H11 ONO2 H2 O 3
The product was isolated with formed water by fractional distil-
lation. The resulting alkyl nitrate (C5H11ONO2) formed was used as
ignition cetane number booster for TDF. Five samples of TDF were
dosed with alkyl nitrate at concentrations ranging from 200 to
1600 ppm as per IARC guideline for liquid fuel additives (IARC,
1989). An optimum dosing concentration was selected to increase
the cetane index of TDF to a value above 50 in accordance to SANS
342 specifications.
The same procedure was followed using vinyl acetate as viscos-
ity modifier and methacrylic anhydryde as fuel stabilizer with con-
centrations ranging between 500 and 2000 ppm and 0.4 wt%,
respectively. A mixture of n-heptane, n-hexane and methyl tert-
butyl ether was added to the TDF at 5 vol% to homogenise it with
the reagents. After characterization of modified TDF, a distillation
curve was generated as per ASTM D86 to evaluate its initial boiling
point, respective boiling temperatures for 10, 50, 90% volumetric
recovery as well as final boiling temperature.
2.2.3. Engine tests
A six-cylinder, turbo-charged diesel engine equipped with
engine performance and emission instrumentation was used to
investigate the effect of pure TDF on engines performance and
exhaust emissions using petroleum diesel as reference fuel. The
performance of the engine is presented in terms of engine
power-torque relationship, brake specific fuel consumption and
454 T.J. Pilusa / Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459

Fig. 3. Experimental setup for TDF oil processing.

exhaust emissions. Exhaust emission were measured using Testo Table 2

350 emissions analyzer equipped with built-in electrochemical Engine technical specifications.

cells with auto dilution system capable of measuring gaseous Engine type ADE 407T stationary truck engine
emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and Aspiration Turbocharged
unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). The analyzer probe was positioned Operation 4 stroke diesel
Dynamometer 668 mm torque arm froude hydraulic
at the exhaust line to automatically sample the gasses and measure Max torque (N m) and power (kW) 1170 N m @ 1200 rpm and 206 kW @
the emissions. The tests results were stored into the analyzer 2220 rpm
memory and exported into Microsoft excel spreadsheet for Wet mass (kg) 815
analysis. Bore/stroke (mm) 125/155 mm
Volume displacement (ml) 11,416
Fig. 4 shows a 407T 4-stroke 6-cylinder diesel engine and
the specification of the engine is given in Table 2. A tertiary inline
filter was connected between the conventional filters and
high-pressure lift pump to ensure clean fuel delivery to the
injection system. The technical specifications of the engine are pre-
sented in Table 3.
The engine was started with diesel fuel (DF) and warmed up for
30 min. After this period the fuel was switched to 100% TDF. The
transition from DF to TDF was performed at highest load. After
stable combustion was achieved, the load was reduced to the next
consecutive point. In each test mode, the engine was run for 6 min
before measurements of engine performance and exhaust emis-
sions were taken. The employed test procedure is in accordance
to regulation 49 stipulated in the United Nations Agreement as
indicated in Table 1 (UNECE, 1993).

3. Results and discussions

Based on the test results presented in Table 3, it was evident

that the method employed to convert TDFO into TDF for applica-
tion in diesel engines has some positive outcomes in terms of fuel
Fig. 4. ADE 407T engine. specifications. There were few parameters not complying with
 T.J. Pilusa / Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459 455

Table 3
Physical properties of TDFO, TDF, TDF and DF.

Parameter Test method TDFO TDF TDF DF SANS 342

Kinematic viscosity, 40 C (cSt) ASTM D445 9.23 1.88 3.41 2.25 2.25.3
Density 20 C (kg/m3) ASTM D4052 942 804 848 828 800950
Cloud point (C) ASTM D2500 0 2 1
Cold filter plugging point (C) IP309 6 4 8
Flash point (C) ASTM D93 96 36 42 67 >50
Cetane index ASTM D4737 22.3 44.8 51.8 53.9
Calorific value (MJ/kg) ASTM D3338 39.9 41.7 43.8 45.9
Total sulphur (mg/kg) ASTM 4294 11,450 1300 1100 443 <500
Aromatics (wt%) 43.5 35.2 27.2 26.1
Lubricity (lm WS1.4) CEC-F06-A-96 939 430 471 489 >460
Oxidation stability (g/m3) ASTM D2274 15 43 17 20 23
Total contamination (mg/kg) IP440 589 20 14 12 <24
Water content (mg/kg) ASTM 6304 33,540 85 98 160 <400

TDFO = crude tyre derived oil as received from IRR processing plant, TDF = tyre derived fuel, TDF = chemically modified tyre derived fuel, DF = standard diesel fuel.

SANS 342 specifications for use in internal compression ignition
engines use. These included cetane index, viscosity, oxidation
stability and lubricity. The flash point was also lower than the
specified minimum limit for safe handling. Lower flash point in die-
sel engines of often associated with elevated fuel consumption and
potential risks of auto ignition during handling and storage. Fig. 5
shows distillation curves generated from ASTM D86 data sets to
evaluate the fuels initial boiling point, respective boiling tempera-
tures for 10, 50, 90% volumetric recovery as well as final boiling
temperature. The data presented in Fig. 5 was used to obtain
parameters for the prediction of physical properties defined by
Eqs. (4)(9).
TDF is distillable at temperature range of 193359 C, up to 10,
50 and 90 vol% of this TDF can be recovered at distillation temper-
atures of 218, 289 and 335 C, respectively as shown in Fig. 5. At
this temperature range sulphur is more easily removed because,
lower boiling oil fractions primarily contain sulphurous com-
pounds that are in the form of mercaptans, sulphides, di-
sulphides or lower member ring compounds, which are relatively
easier to desulphurize (Williams, 2005). Typical sulphur com-
pounds such as mercaptans, sulphides and disulphides boils below
193 C and can be easily evaporated for effective gas phase
desulphurization over an active surface layer of adsorbent
such as molecular sieves or activated carbon (Rodriguez et al.,
2001).
3.1. TDFs ignition properties
Table 3 presents the characteristics of TDFO, TDF, TDF and DF.
TDFO contains significantly large amount of contaminants, water
and total sulphur, which makes it unsuitable for use as a combus-
tion fuel without refining. Ignition properties of TDFO are typically
poor as represented by a low cetane index of 22.3. This is associ-
ated with the presence high concentrations of non-flammable
components such water and total contaminants of 3.54 vol% and
586 mg/kg, respectively. Nonetheless, the cetane number
improved to 44.8 as the TDFO was converted to TDF by gas phase
oxidative fractional distillation process described in Figs. 2 and 3.
This number was further improved by addition of chemical modi-
fier. Alkyl nitrate is commonly used as ignition improver due to its
affinity for hydrocarbon chain clouding in oils and hydrocarbon
liquid fuels (Zajac, 2001). It was observed that addition of
800 mg/L of Alkyl nitrate into TDF can effectively increase the
cetane index of the fuel by 1216%. Cetane number was estimated
to be 50.3 using the four variable equation as per ASTM D4737 as
defined by Eq. (4). (Karonis et al., 2009).

Fig. 5. Distillation range of TDF, DF and TDF.

456 T.J. Pilusa / Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459
Cn 45:2 0:0892T 10  215 0:131 0:901BT 50  260
 
0:0523 0:42BT 90  310 0:00049: T 10  2152

 T 90  3102 107B 60B2 4 API Gravity
Aniline F
where
Cn Cetane number
  10
B e3:5D0:85  1
1
D Density kg  l
T10;50;90 Distillation range temperature  Cvolume recovery
3.2. Kinematic viscosity
TDFO was obtained with relatively high viscosity of 9.23 cSt,
however the viscosity dropped to 1.88 cSt after distillation.
Although viscosity of liquid fuels decreases temporality as its tem-
perature is increased, the specifications for internal compression
ignition engines requires the kinematic viscosity of the fuel to
range between 2.2 and 5.3 cSt for normal fuel flow and operation
of the engine. The test results presented in Table 3 show that the
kinematic viscosity of TDF was found to be 1.88 cSt. Additives such
as vinyl acetate can reduce the thinning effect of the fuel caused by
operation at high temperatures (Heider et al., 1998). This viscosity
improver has long chains and high molecular weights. Its function
is to increase the relative viscosity of the fuel more at high temper-
atures than at low temperatures. It coils at low temperatures and
uncoils as the temperature increases. Uncoiling makes the mole-
cules larger, which increases internal resistance within the thin-
ning, oil (Gadvi and Pandya, 2013). It was found that volumetric
dose of 800 mg/L of vinyl acetate solution into TDF can increase
the fuels viscosity by up to 81%. Karonis et al. (2009) derived an
empirical correlation for estimation of selected diesel properties
including kinematic viscosity, aniline point and aromatic content.
Very good predictions were obtained for kinematic viscosity at
40 C, aniline point and aromatic content using Eqs. (5)(9). These
equations were used to estimate the physical parameters of TDF
were also used for prediction of these parameters on TDF. Compar-
ison between the values obtained experimentally and the ones from
prediction indicated less than 5% difference, this could imply that
TDF has similar properties to standard diesel with 95% confidence.
V40 124:080D  69:740D2 18:222
105 T 210
 
5
38:6010
102 T 1
10 6:260
10 T 250
152:261
103 T 2 5 2
50 2:580
10 T 90
10:611
102 T 1
90  91:250
Where,
V40 Viscosity at 40  C
1
D Density kg  l
T10;50;90 Distillation range temperature  Cvolume recovery % the sulphur level in diesel fuel is reduced, the inherent lubricity
 
reduction in lubricity from 939 lm in TDFO to 430 lm in TDF
An 12:248
102 D  207:47 e3:5D0:85  1
0:38215T 10  215  0:0024T 10  2152
0:121T 50  260 0:05573T 90  310
 
87:537
105 T 90  3102 3:4537S2
Where,
An = Aniline point (C)
D = Density (kgl1)
S = Sulphur content (wt%)
T10,50,90 = Distillation range temperature (C)volume recovery %
 
141:5
API Gravity  131:5 7
D
Cetane Index 8
100
   
Ar 83:02D2 1:9985
104 T 210 70:080
102 T 1
   
5
 11:009
10 T 1
3
50 32:528
10 D2
   
 19:695
105 T 1 4
An 2
90  71:388
10
%
105:743 9
Where,
Ar aromatic content wt%
An Anilne point  C
D Density kg  l
1
T10;50;90 Distillation range temperature  Cvolume recovery %
3.3. Sulphur in TDFO
The test results presented in Table 3 show a 90.3% overall
reduction in total sulphur from TDFO to TDF. This was achieved
by multiple processing methods as described in Fig. 2. Previous
research has revealed that, sulphur reduction in TDFO can be
achieved by chemical treatment followed by blending it with low
sulphur commercial diesel fuel (Murugan et al., 2009; Williams,
2013; Islam et al., 2015). William (2013) reported that sulphur in
crude oils and asphaltenes exists primarily in the organic forms,
thiophene, mercaptans and sulphides. In accordance with the
European diesel fuel specifications, higher values of sulphur have
negative environmental impact. Martinez et al. (2014) discovered
that higher sulphur in internal combustion fuel contributes to
higher sulphur oxides emissions and corrosion to the internal com-
ponents of the engine. Pilusa et al. (2014) presented that most mer-
captans boils at below 100 C, explaining why they could be
removed from the crude oil via gas-phase desulphurization distil-
lation over an adsorbent with a pore size large enough to capture
all molecular size ranges.
It was also stated that some sulphides and di-sulphides
appeared to have larger molecular weights, size and higher boiling
points compared to mercaptans. Asphaltenes are formed when
some sulphur compounds in crude oil oxidises. They are a dark
brown to black solids components of the crude oil oxidative prod-
ucts. They are characterized by hydrogen to carbon ratio of approx-
imately 1.1, the hydrogen atoms are contained in saturated groups
5 whereas the carbon atoms are contained in aromatic structures
(Ringer et al., 2006). They provide low cracking yields and are of
low economic value, they are relatively high in undesired heteroa-
toms and other heavy metals.
Desulphurization is a key driver in the push for cleaner fuels. As
characteristics of the fuel are also reduced. This is also seen by
due to reduction of sulphur compounds. Sulphur level of the diesel
fuel is reduced by the application of hydro-treating processes
which remove sulphur and nitrogen containing compounds and
these compounds have good natural lubricity (Rodrguez-Cabo
6 et al., 2014). The process of producing low sulphur diesel fuel also
leads to a reduction in aromatic compounds and these compounds
are known to have better lubricity than aliphatic compounds (Van
de Beld et al., 2013). Internal combustion engine fuels with poor
lubricity characteristics can lead to injector pump wear and even-
tually failure, so the lubrication properties of the fuel have become
a key parameter of diesel fuel specifications. A lubricity improver
 T.J. Pilusa / Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459 457

Fig. 6. Power-torque relationship on ADE 407T engine.

such as 0.03 wt% phosphate ester amide restore the natural lubric-
ity properties of the fuel (Afton, 2011). There was no need to add
any lubricity modifier as the test value for TDF was found to be
within the acceptable limits after the fuel was treated with other
chemicals.

3.4. Engine tests

The engine performance test did not indicate any sign of abnor-
mality when it was operated with pure TDF; in fact it attained 87%
of its rated torque and 94% of its rated power. The overall perfor-
mance in terms of maximum torque and power was 5% less effi-
cient compared to when the engine was operated with standard
diesel fuel. The difference in performance indicated in Fig. 6 is
associated with some physical properties presented in Table 2.
TDF has slightly lower calorific value compared to diesel fuel,
which means that the average heat release rate for diesel fuel is Fig. 7. BSFC of DF and TDF at various engine speeds.
much higher and maintains better efficiency when the engine is
operating under load. This is also seen by the engine achieving
higher torque and lower power when running with diesel and
speeds of 11001300 rpm. In contrast, TDF delivers more power
and less torque under the same conditions, due to its fast energy
release as a result of addition of high calorific value solvents in
the fuel as additives. The lower cetane index of TDF indicates a
possibility for longer ignition delay when compared with diesel
fuel. Ignition delay is often recognized by engines knocking effect;
in this case knocking effect was not noticeable. A lower flash point
could possibly balance out the ignition delay, however it will pose
a possible hazard of auto-ignition.
Brake specific fuel consumption is defined as a ratio of the
actual fuel consumed and power delivered. The consumed fuel is
transferred into useful work when the engine operates at its peak
torque, hence a reduction in BSFC between 700 and 1100 rpm as
presented in Fig. 7. At high engine speeds, the engines torque is
compromised to deliver more power and this effect is proportional Fig. 8. Selected exhaust emissions from engine fuelled with DF and TDF.
to actual fuel consumption. TDF shows reduced BSFC at engine
speeds above 1800 rpm as it delivered slightly less power to the
engine due to lower calorific value. flame cools down near to combustion chamber walls. However,
CO, UHC and SO2 emissions obtained from the tests of DF and the formed CO molecules are oxidised if there is enough oxygen
TDF are seen in Fig. 8. CO and UHC emissions are products of in the combustion environment. Diesel engines generally operate
incomplete combustion and formed in oxygen deficiency in the with excess air. Therefore, CO and HC emissions of diesel engines
combustion environment during premixed combustion and flame are generally lower. However because, the engine was run under
propagation when the hydrocarbon molecules are not contacted fully loaded conditions, HC emission are considerably higher for
with oxygen molecules. Also UHC emissions are formed if the DF when compared to TDF.
458 T.J. Pilusa / Waste Management 60 (2017) 451459
This may be as a result of high volume fuel being introduced to
the injector nozzles containing large quantity of micro particles
that eventually interferes with the normal fuel sprays resulting
in poor fuel atomization (Dori et al., 2009). Larger fuel droplets
are introduced into the combustion chamber. These droplets are
not fully oxidised due to their larger surface area, and the exhaust
gas product tends to contain high un-burnt hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide and high peak temperatures promoting nitrogen oxides
formation. Under these conditions, more fuel is used due to
inefficient fuel oxidation (Murugan et al., 2008). Cleaner and
well-atomized fuel at the correct air-to-fuel ratio tends to combust
efficiently resulting in more carbon dioxide, less un-burnt hydro-
carbons and carbon monoxide (Alkama et al., 2006). Most impor-
tantly, the higher final distillation temperatures of the DF may be
the main reason for higher HC emissions. In addition, the use of
TDF in internal combustion engines results in reduction of
unburned hydrocarbons, particulate matter and carbon monoxide
(Koc and Abdullah, 2014).
Elevated SO2 emissions in TDF is a result of high total sulphur
content in the fuel, as the fuel is oxidised during combustion, the
sulphur compounds in the fuel are also oxidised at high tempera-
tures in excess air to for sulphur dioxide, hence high concentra-
tions of SO2 is reporter in Fig. 8 for engine exhaust emissions
operated with TDF.
4. Conclusions
TDFO derived from continuous tyre pyrolysis plant has been
refined by gas-phase oxidative fractional distillation including
desulphurization, adsorption, filtration and chemical modification
of certain physical properties in accordance to SANS 342 for igni-
tion compression engines. Modified tyre derived fuel (TDF) was
produced as a test fuel to be compared with standard diesel fuel
in a heavy duty 6 cylinder, 4 stroke diesel engine. It was concluded
that TDFO could be refined into TDF exhibiting similar properties
to standard diesel fuel. Vinyl acetate, alkyl nitrate and some com-
bination of organic polar solvents can effectively adjust the fuels
viscosity, cetane index as well as lubricity and calorific value. Addi-
tion of methacrylic anhydride resulted in a noticeable fuel oxida-
tion stability. Mathematical empirical correlations for predicting
some properties of standard diesel fuel are in agreement with
the tested properties of TDF. Engine performance tests using pure
TDF show a normal trend, however a slight reduction 5% in
torque-power is noticed when the engine is operated with pure
TDF. BSFC trend is also normal at torque rated engine speeds,
and reduced power is observed when the engine runs at high speed
above 1800 rpm. The power reduction is associated with fuels
lower calorific value. TDF use resulted in reduced UHC and CO
emission however SO2 was significantly higher compared to DF.
The levels of total sulphur in TDF are still higher than the recom-
mended limits.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Faculty of Engineering and the
Built Environment at the University of Johannesburg. The author
would also like to the Process, Energy and Environmental Technol-
ogy Station for their assistance.
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