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According to Hasties, But despite the studies, the Two of the four typically can be
Sanders, & Rowland, class size reality is that physical educators done no matter the size of the
has been shown to affect student must figure out the best way to space or number of students. But
achievement. In an experimental work with large classes in a way in a large, crowded, noisy space,
study of fifth and sixth grade to maximize learning and delivering the last three strategies;
students it was found; engagement. organizing groups efficiently,
delivering instructions in 30
significantly more students According to Emmer & seconds or less, having
were off task in large classes Sabornie in the book Handbook of equipment ready can be a difficult
and Classroom Management, there task.
are five key management
skill practice progressively principles for the classroom. They
declined as class size are;
increased and
1. the start and stop signals are
different and used consistently
less time was devoted to (e.g., use a verbal command
academic tasks in larger to start and a sound, perhaps
classes. a bell, to stop
2. use when before what in
This study recommended that it directions (e.g., When I say
was in the best interest of the go, please . . .)
students and teachers to limit 3. organize students into groups
class size to no larger than 25 efficiently
students per P.E. class (Skala, 4. deliver instructions quickly
Springer, Sharma, Hoelscher, & (e.g., 30 seconds or less); and
Kelder, 2012). This 5. have equipment ready
recommendation correlates with
survey results where 78.57% of
respondents said 15-25 was their
preferred class size.
Stations
LEARNING
When working in a small
space with a large
number of students,
stations can be a great
In physical education, our goals way to maximize
are not only to get students engagement. Survey
moving and active, but that they respondents said they
are meeting provincially set design activities to fit the
outcomes, learning new skills, and space and stations allow
understanding the health benefits for independent, open
behind what we do. ended tasks.
Survey respondents were asked
to share strategies they use to We try our best to
increase student learning. whole group - partner skill
break our space into zones or
work - application in game
Popular strategies used to quadrants to keep kids active and
setting - real game
increase student learning engaged.
o lots of repetition
include; o Lots of think pair share,
compare contrast.
Small Groups/Group Work Adjusting to student skill o Effective transitions
level/individualization o focused instruction
This strategy is often used in
o Consider having alternative
traditional classrooms but is also
Differentiation was a cited activities in case you finish
very effective in the gym as well.
strategy for physical education. early or if an activity is not
According to 5 Research-Driven
One strategy was to use a Joes working. ("18 Ideas to Keep
Tactics to Improve Your PE Class,
and Pros strategy for games. This Kids Engaged in a Large PE
it is important to students lifelong
allows students choice and then Class", 2015)
skills for functioning in group
they self-select where they want o Make the agenda for the
situations. Good group
to play based on skill level. This lesson visible. ("Executive
experiences can empower your Functioning Strategies in Physical
makes for better games in ALL
students as they work towards Education", 2014)
sports and games.
team goals. o Display lesson objectives
Other strategies included student using standard(s) and success
Strategies suggested from survey
centered inquiry based projects criteria ("Executive Functioning
respondents included: Strategies in Physical Education",
and celebrating the skills that
2014)
o student leveled groups students have by allowing them to
o large group activities with run drills/games from their sport.
lower structure Motivations & Movement
o Rearrange grouping based on Organization & Instruction
self-assessed understanding The best way to motivate students
Class and lesson organization can
of outcomes. is to create hands on games and
make a big difference in effective
o Peer teaching activities that challenge and
teaching. Many respondents gave
o Class leaders motivate. Another strategy shared
strategies or structuring your
o I teach the skill that we are is to give them learning goals for
lesson and classroom in a way to
working on to the entire group the day.
maximize engagement, these
and then either send them out included: Other
as a large group to work on it
in an activity or in smaller
groups down to pairs. A few other suggestions included
o Quick transitions
Embedding the skill or being enthusiastic and making
o student understanding of
knowledge that we have relationships/connections top
learning outcomes.
looked at in a game type priority early on
o Whole-Part-Whole Strategies.
scenario. Talk or demonstrate to the
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 4
TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS
Assessments
students not only assess themselves
accurately, but will sometimes give
themselves a mark lower than they
deserve. Letting students know that Assessment in physical education skill and go back to it for
you will go over their assessments is an issue with many differing assessment later.
and adjust if needed will increase opinions. Some feel it should be a Use of iPads and Chrome Books
your chance of accurate assessment. participation-based mark, others is a great way to bring technology
believe in marking improvements into your gymnasium for activities
in skills and other body such as Kahoot or Quizlet.
Teacher Observation was the movements. Whatever your
second most cited strategy for assessment philosophy, a large
assessments. I primarily use class can make that more
observation and anecdotal notes and challenging as there is less time Other Suggested Tools:
then compare them to rubrics that I've for one on one with each student.
exit slips
created. Survey respondents were asked
what style of assessment they daily 5
prefer to use in their classrooms. skill tests
unit marks
written test
standardized testing
Assessment Tools weekly teacher
conferences
In physical education, we have an
Observation Checklists
increasing number of new tools or
assessment.
Rubrics are a tried and true way
Peer Assessment/Feedback was to summatively assess. Many
another strategy many respondents respondents have rubrics that
listed as an assessment. they review with their class and
use to assess each student.
These provide clear guidelines for
Use of all three types is the best students, teachers, and any
approach to assessing a large PE parents who may question their
class. One respondent said they use childs assessment.
a combination of those strategies.
Some might be formative (peer or Technology is making its way
self), while others might be used as into the gymnasium to aid with
summative (video, teacher evaluation assessment. Particularly,
based on a rubric). videotaping which is a great way
to capture a student performing a
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Rachel Richards
Teachers Choice
WE ASKED: Pre-making the teams
What are successful ahead of times as the
instructor is a good way
strategies you have to to create fair teams if
make teams for games you have a pre-
quickly and efficiently? knowledge of your kids
skill levels.
THEY SAID:
Students Have Input
Randomly
The most popular answers were How you choose teams is based Choosing teams is a skill that the
younger set need to be able to
to choose your teams at random. on your students. One way to
figure out for themselves. It is OK
There are a number of ways to do allow them to have input includes to sacrifice time at the beginning of
so, but remember that in doing so splitting themselves into the year and in Gr. 1 and 2 in order
you may have teams split up a competitive and non-competitive for them to learn how to do it in a
little unfairly. Be sure to adjust lines. You can either play two relatively efficient manner. I seldom
teams as necessary to make them games (a Pros and Joes) or you choose teams for the students but
fair when fate stacks one team can use these lines to mix the two let one of them come up with teams
over the others. for equal teams. that will be equitable in terms of
skill or numbers.
Numbering off
Team shake app
Birthdays Another popular strategy is to get
students into partners, but there Other Great Ideas:
Popsicle sticks
are different ways of approaching
Draw names Using Class dojo
this.
Colour of shirt Monthly teams
Tallest to Shortest o Assign both to a team (helpful
Gender with students who are shy
Hand out pinnies as they without a buddy on the team)
come in before class starts o Split them up
o Have them play Rock paper
scissors and winners go on
one team, losers on the other
o Make it more random, ie. Find
a partner with the same colour
shoes as you.
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 8
Addressing Misbehaviour You get the class going on an Strategies such as placing
activity then provide individual equipment on the floor
No matter how well you plan, how feedback to those certain whenever I instruct, take a
many relationships you build, or individuals. If a student has knee during feedback or
how much you move around the behavior's when in a team instruction (is a cue), bring
gym, youre bound to have activity, prep that student in them in to receive instruction (I
misbehaviours in class that may advance on what the activity is try to take less than 30
need addressing. going to be. seconds to give feedback
Quick corrections with no time before sending them back to a
Splitting up students who are task), etc.
for the student to try to
misbehaving
negotiate or disagree with me
Pick and choose what is most important because there isn't enough time to address
every behaviour and keep the class rolling.
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 10
CONCLUSION Planning and organization is But through all this research and
crucial to ensuring that the personal experience, the most
activities, transitions, and important way to manage a large
The most common theme instructions are well executed and classroom is to approach it with a
found throughout research and engage students. Plan for your positive attitude. Yes, it takes
survey answers was that it is weakest students, plan your more work to plan activities, yes it
crucial to establish expectations at transitions (including the time), can be frustrating to not have
the beginning of the year and to and have back up activities in enough equipment to do what you
follow them through. Every case something isnt working. would like, and classroom
teacher has their own preferred When planning games that management can be difficult- but
methods and they may change students have to sit off and take approaching these challenges
based on the needs of individual turns, ensure they dont sit or too with a positive attitude and a lot of
classrooms but letting students long or give them a task to energy will not only save stress in
know from the beginning perform on the sidelines. the long run but will also inspire
classroom procedures will help your students.
make managing that class a little
easier. Happy teaching!
REFERENCES
18 Ideas to Keep Kids Engaged in a Large PE Class. (2015, November 5). Retrieved November 01, 2017, from
http://www.sparkpe.org/blog/18-ideas-to-keep-kids-engaged-in-a-large-pe-class
5 Research-Driven Tactics to Improve Your PE Class. (2017, October 5). Retrieved October 20, 2017, from
http://www.sparkpe.org/blog/5-research-driven-tactics-to-improve-your-pe-class/
Emmer, E. T., & Sabornie, E. J. (2015). Handbook of classroom management (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge, Taylor &
Francis Group.
Hastie, P. A., Sanders, S. W., & Rowland, R. S. (1999). Where Good Intentions Meet Harsh Realities: Teaching Large
Classes in Physical Education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 18(3), 277-289. doi:10.1123/jtpe.18.3.277
Shawley, J. (2016). Large Class Sizes? 4 Strategies to Keep Students Moving & Learning. Retrieved November 01, 2017,
from https://www.gophersport.com/blogentry/large-class-sizes-4-strategies-to-keep-students-moving-learning
Skala, K. A., Springer, A. E., Sharma, S. V., Hoelscher, D. M., & Kelder, S. H. (2012). Environmental Characteristics and
Student Physical Activity in PE Class: Findings From Two Large Urban Areas of Texas. Journal of Physical Activity and
Health,9, 481-491. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3245768/.
Executive Functioning Strategies in Physical Education. (2014, July 29). Retrieved November 01, 2017, from
https://mrmetcalfpe.wordpress.com/2013/09/30/executive-functioning-strategies-in-physical-education/
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 14
Q4 In an environment where you cannot control noise levels (ie. a shared gym), how do you instruct
your students?
I've never shared a gym with more than my class
I don't have that unfortunate scenario in any of my classes. There are "quiet" games that we can play, but with 45
seven years olds in a room, you are going to have more noise than you'd like.
plan visible for students on white board, clear and concise instructions, efficient set up & take down,
communication with other teacher for opportunities to team teach
be proactive in setting guidelines and expectations for students to follow. Have a vision of how you would like the
class to look, act, noise levels, etc. Communicate that vision and be firm with expectations
Use proximity and visuals
signs, routines, etc.
PowerPoint, cues, showing.
Middle curtain goes down; meet as far away from noise-once the visual is gone I find kids can focus better on me
even if it is still noisy
bring in the group more and be sure your instructions are clear
Just loud enough my students hear me, but not so loud I disrupt the other teacher
call them closer, into a far corner
Whistle - voice. Just work with the other teacher before hand.
Whiteboard, and quick instruction at beginning
I make my students sit down for instructions, especially at the beginning of class or when introducing a new skill.
This is the quietest setting for me.
Through visual examples and pre-established learner outcomes
close proximity for instructions, use of whiteboard, use of demonstrations
Bring them in close for instruction
Hand signals to quiet them down.
I control the environment. There is no excuse to not have control of a class when you are instructing
Routine, clear and consume expectations, hand signals for things like coming back into the group
hand signals
Non verbal cueing
I have learnt to get to know the teacher that I am opposite of. That way I am paying attention to when they blow
their whistle, how long instruction takes, and what their typical classroom noise levels are.
routine and signals certainly help. First few weeks I reinforce routine extensively.
Quickly - before the other side of the gym gets too noisy.
emphasize attentiveness with students, ask for them to repeat instructions to clarify understanding, student
demonstrations, recognize success and have students demonstrate what that looks like
Bring them closer, move to a quiet space, go over instructions before hand in a quiet space
Re-write question
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 17
Q5 What style of assessment do you use for a large classroom? Ex. Self, Peer, Video taping, etc.
Q6 What are some key strategies to quick and effective transitions between activities?
Give everyone a job so they know what they are doing
If you haven't thought about the progressions and the linking between them before hand, there are no effective
transitions. One should lead to another in an ever more complex pattern.
Have a cue and be consistent with it throughout the year (i.e. when whistle goes in basketball, all kids put ball on
floor. This is non-negotiable
Have it listed on the white board before the class begins and encourage students to look at the layout of the class
before the class begins
visual, audio (paired) instructions.
Door bells, step by step instructions on the board, hand signals, turning it into a game by using timers.
Quick instructions
don't talk to much, counting, expectations
Controlling whats happening. Loud whistles.
out line your class activities, keep instruction quick, encourage them to hurry to where they need to be.
Whistle - stop - speak - listen - questiosn and repeat - then change activity
Having teams up on whiteboard, lesson plan on whiteboard
Count down 10,9, 8... to bring group in, lots of encouragement to quickly get to next activity. Also sometimes I will
use the score clock to time activities - when students know how much time (i.e. 2 minutes) you can get the
intensity you need. If students don't know how long a drill will last on the other hand, they may save themselves.
Classroom management strategies include: students know where the boundaries are, when they are released,
teacher expectations, noise ques
management of equipment, have teams already made or pinnies already handed out. Countdowns
Keep the instructional space as small as possible
Clear instructions, time limits, timer,
Planning, organization and knowledge of material/facilities/students
Count down. Clear expectations before activity
Checklist of big ideas, performance task review, KWL chart, prior knowledge checklist
Be prepared
blow the whistle and bring them in quickly. While they are doing their warm up activities, I'll set up my pylons or
equipment for my next activity.
count-down. hand signal.
Practice coming in, listening quickly, then going and doing. Spend a whole class just getting that down. Count
down... students run like crazy if they're being timed.
assertive tone of voice, clear and concise instructions, consistent expectations and constant feedback on how
students are meeting or failing to meet those expectations
Set routine (1whistle=stop/look, 2whistles=come in), wasted time = exercises
Have students know clean up and equipment storage procedures
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 19
Q7 What are successful strategies you have to make teams for games quickly and efficiently?
Apps, table groups become teams. Pick a partner and combine partnerships
Choosing teams is a skill that the younger set need to be able to figure out for themselves. It is OK to sacrifice time
at the beginning of the year and in Gr. 1 and 2 in order for them to learn how to do it in a relatively efficient
manner. I seldom choose teams for the students but let one of them come up with teams that will be equitable in
terms of skill or numbers.
A varied approach once again. Sometimes I allow students to choose a partner and I'll assign them to a team, other
times I count 1,2, ..., while sometimes I simply split a larger group into smaller groups, assign rows of kids to teams,
etc. What I never do is let captains choose teams. It's detrimental to the healthy climate of a class
Teamshake (ipad app)
draw names
Using Class dojo, monthly teams.
Tallest to shortest; colour of shirts
numbering, clothing colours, pinnies before class starts, birthdays
Numbering or I pre make teams
count off, team shake app, get with a friend play rock paper scissors winners and losers
Joes and Pros. I often have students DIVIDE teams evenly for leadership skill development. I DO NOT ALLOW
"picking of teams".
Split by Gender, Birthdays, competitive and non competitive, team shake app
Draw them up beforehand. This is good if you know skill level but at beginning of unit you may not. I organize my
classes in four attendance rows that I expect my students to quickly get into when I enter the gym and sometimes
for quickness sake I will use these as teams to begin with.
Partnered warm up then followed by a rock/paper/scissor type game. Winners on one team, losers on the other.
Pre-made teams/tournament draws/pools. Never let the students pick by using captains.
numbering off, make the teams ahead of time and read names off the list
Rows, partners that rock paper scissors (then are on opposite teams),
Popsicle sticks. Random then quickly adjust
Partner stay with partner/ Partner play against partner/numbers/ping pong balls/randomize apps/squads
Preknowledge of who the kids are and skill level. Make partners and then split
popsicle sticks, random# generator, random groups.
Kids line up silently in birth month order
Sit them feet to feet with a partner. If I need groups of three or four, I will ask them to touch feet - ie: play a warm
up game where they need to find feet to touch - 4 feet. When I get to the desired number I sit them down and tell
them those are their teams.
partner up, then allow to keep or sometimes split. I don't tell them which method Im going to use. I've also made
groups for the week ahead of time to ensure its balanced and achieves high motivation.
Popsicle sticks, pick a partner then I put the two of you on a team, find a partner with the same colour shoes as
you, etc.
number kids off, split them by pairs, allow students to self-form their groups, use already existing groups ie. squads
Group of 4 - number off 1-4 and each person goes to that team
Have students make groups of 2,3,4 depending on needed # of teams.
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 20
Q8 With a large class in a small space, what are some strategies youve used to maximize engagement
levels?
I "get" to do dance in a small space during Christmas time as the gym is being used for concert practice. While
dance can be a boring part of the curriculum, it is only so if you don't have fun with it. If you can find the fun, it
doesn't matter what activity you do, most of the students will be engaged in their own way. I'd love to say that all
students are engaged all the time, but that would be a bald-faced lie.
exit slips, peer & self evaluations, 5-scale daily mark, formative assessment (ie. thumbs up or down), checklists
Stations, group work, alternative units (go outside, off-campus, etc.)
Ensure activities allow for maximum participation
adapted games
Farming students out to different areas within the school, rotating space with fast pace games.
Peers working together
Be in control at all times
not an issue
Quick 4 minute shifts for games, smaller groups with more touches
High activity drills - you don't want big lines. Takes purposeful planning.
Pick an appropriate activity
choose games where everyone can play at the same time. If you need subs, do quick shifts and you control the
subs (who's off and who's on)
Short game times, larger groups, games that transition quickly
Random questions, videos
Variety and movement level appropriate activities and diversity
Circuits. Rotate. Peer teaching. Planned pairing
Open ended questions, research driven, lots of peer to peer sharing and evaluation, parallel tasks, layered
questions
Meetings in the round
quick transitions/game play - 1 min or 2 min intervals - 1 goal switches.....
interesting relays. Relays that challenge and incorporate activity specific movements or skills.
Quick shifts - you participate hard... no breaks for 3 or 4 minutes, then the next group is on. You get to rest and get
a drink / bathroom when you are off.
quick rotations of students who are playing, modifications to the game that minimize downtime, specific rules to
encourage equal participation
Group/partner motivation, quick rotations with small teams, smaller modified games to get more touches
Mini games and group stations
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 21
Q9 How do you balance instruction with managing classroom behaviour/needs? Could you provide
some examples?
After having kids from K to Gr. 4, there is an understanding of what is going to be OK and what isn't. In elementary
school, kids want to be active and participate. Time to Think works well with my students. Which of the rules of
gym was it that you weren't following? What could happen? How can you show me that you understand what
needs to be done. Then they can rejoin the activity. This is all done verbally between the student and I.
if instructions are clear and concise and the teacher has built a strong relationship and rapport with students then
there truly should not be behaviour concerns. However, if there is, I always try to have "up my sleeve" tasks for
students who disrupt or are injured. Examples include: bulletin board design & research, equipment organization
and cleaning, or a file with easy grab alternate assignments.
Have a vision of how you want the class to look and act prior to letting them loose, and hold firm to that. Strategies
such as placing equipment on the floor whenever I instruct, take a knee during feedback or instruction (is a cue),
bring them in to receive instruction (I try to take less than 30 seconds to give feedback before sending them back
to a task), etc.
Ensure the activity is engaging and behavior issues dont occur.
use people as resources - classroom assistant, classroom T.A. (work experience student) Have students move to a
quiet space, wear headphones, etc.
Plan for my weakest students, spend time putting classroom management practices in place, giving instruction
with a lot of energy, timers so students know how long instruction is going to be.
Quick corrections with no time for the student to try to negotiate or disagree with me
relationship building is key, this helps with this stuff before it becomes an issue. kids who respect you and what you
are trying to accomplish will generally not waist your time or others in class.
We have shorter classes so instruction is short and management is extremely important
create rules and stick to them. ex. swearing is 5 push ups.
You need to be in charge and vigilant at ALL TIMES
Splitting up the behaviors surrounding them with athletes, having alternative activities ready just in case.
I believe class expectations right off the bat is crucial. For example, I tell my students what a typical day in PE looks
like: Warm-up, skill development, games. Students always want to play the game so I have found that telling the
students the harder they work on the skill component phase of class, the more time for game play.
You get the class going on an activity then provide individual feedback to those certain individuals. If a student has
behavior's when in a team activity, prep that student in advance on what the activity is going to be.
Set up your rules at the beginning of the semester. create a whistle system, one whistle means STOP, two means
find me and get there within 10 secs. Do not speak if someone else is talking. Set up your expectations early and
students will follow. Think about your instruction formations as well.
Keep instruction as short as possible. Have kids who are more prepared start the activity sooner
Move around the room, eye contact, special seating for behaviour issues
proximity, direction, organization,
Relationships are key. Clear expectations. Fitness. Various student leaders.
small chunks of direct instruction, keep them engaged/challenged
Project based classroom so kids are all working at their own pace.
If the behaviour is a typical student arguing or wanting 'their' way, I'll sit them off and deal with them when I have a
moment. If the child is a hazard to themself or classmates, I deal with them right away and let the activity continue
(yes, limiting my supervision but allowing me to direct it to the immediate threat).
instructions in stages. Teach stage 1 and then work with needs and behaviors, then move on to stage 2...
Get involved. Play with the students. They see you playing a certain way and they will copy it. Make games fun. Set
clear goals - we're going to get everyone sweating vs. you need to win
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 22
take care of the management first, once students are used to a routine they will be more attentive during
instruction. focus on building a positive space for students to learn in, calm and controlled so they understand
instructions and are able to complete the task without having to be redirected.
Pick and choose what is most important because there isn't enough time to address every behaviour and keep the
class rolling
Stress management in the beginning to establish routines so there is less behaviour needs throughout the year.
Q10 What strategies have worked for you to get students attention during class?
I work with whistling. Not a Fox 40, but my lips and fingers (if it is really loud). Holding my hands up and can be
effective while the whistle occurs, too.
Count downs, having students take a knee for instruction, wait time, speaking quietly so that students have to
meet your volume in order to hear instructions. GET INVOLVED with the activities & students as much as possible.
Timed activities followed by quick water/high 5 & chat breaks.
a whistle, yelling "freeze" are my two "go-to's". I keep it consistent so when they hear it, they know what the cue
means and what to do
Ensure they understand the structure from the beginning. Squads for attendance, lining up on a line for
instruction, standing in a circle, etc. Be consistent.
I ring a bell.
Class selected chants, clapping, Simon says
Keep a level voice at all times.
counting, yelling, whistles,
I whistle very loudly
whistle, good gym voice to get students to stop and "freeze"
Whistle. Have different tunes that have different meanings. All of the PE students at my school know what my
whistle tune is for: I need your attention and the end of class. LOL! Train them like dogs and your job is way
easier!!!
Whistle, key words like "freeze", use of the scoreboard
Whistles, loud voice "freeze", waiting silently until everyone notices that you are waiting - then comment with
something like: "Man it really takes a long time to get your attention - the longer it takes on this the less time we
have to play".
Look at my watch. Stay quiet. They know what will happen if I don't get their attention in 20 seconds :-) Or I use
my voice to command attention. I don't use a whistle. I find it offensive.
Countdown, Whistle mostly, turn music off.
Whistles, count downs
Excuse me with my hand up
whistle, voice, buzzer
Count down and then count up ever number you get to while counting up is x number of x
be silent and raise my hand. works 99.8% of the time.
Turn off the electricity to all machines
Whistle. Firm Voice. Loud stern voice. countdown.
stop time. Wait. Hand signals.
Be quiet. Students will quiet down in order to hear you. Don't talk over the students. Wait for quiet, and then
speak... tougher to do in a divided space. Explain that I want them to get sweaty - we can do it the fun way by
playing some games, or the not as fun non-stop jogging way. They decide based on their listening which one they
choose.
verbal cues... saying the students name, asking for attention and quiet. non verbal cues... stand near the students
who are talking/disruptive. Eye contact with distracted students... wait time.
Whistle, wait time, verbal or non verbal cues, set expectations of respect and listening skills
LARGE CLASS, SMALL SPACE 23