Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Failure analysis of a Type III hydrogen pressure vessel under impact

loading induced by free fall
Min-Gu Han, Seung-Hwan Chang
School of Mechanical Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 221 Huksuk-Dong, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study aims to assess the structural integrity of a Type III hydrogen pressure vessel under impact
Available online 18 March 2015 loading by using nite element analysis, with a user subroutine for determining the material failure in
each failure mode. The nite element code was veried by comparing simulated results with tensile test
Keywords: results. Using the veried code, a Type III hydrogen pressure vessel, composed of an aluminum liner and
Hydrogen pressure vessel thick composite layers, was analyzed under an impact load. The thick composite laminates of the pres-
Impact loading sure vessel were modeled using the ply-based modeling technique, which provides accurate stress dis-
Failure analysis
tribution in each layer. The impact loading condition (488 J impact energy), including the autofrettage
Filament winding
pressure (107 MPa) and service pressure (70 MPa), was successfully imposed on the nite element model
of the pressure vessel. The material failure in each mode was predicted using the Hashin criteria, and it
was concluded that, even though some layers failed by delamination or matrix failure in the transverse
direction, the overall structure was safe under the service condition even after impact.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Strict international environmental regulations have urged
industries to adopt eco-friendly energy sources, such as solar
energy, but these alternative energies have a critical shortcoming,
namely low economic efciency. Under these circumstances,
hydrogen energy has received more attention recently from
researchers and industries because of its cleanness, high efciency
comparable to existing fossil fuels, and reasonable cost [13].
Various storage methods for the commercial usage of hydrogen
have been investigated [46]. Compressed gas tank and liqueed
gas container are the most notable storage methods, and their
safety has been extensively evaluated [2,7,8]. Furthermore, high-
pressure vessels that can cope with the low energy density of
hydrogen gas have been developed for use in fuel cell vehicles
[9,10]. Commercially available high-pressure vessels for hydrogen
gas are classied from Type III to Type IV which are composed of
carbon bers and a liner fabricated by lament winding; the for-
mer has an aluminum liner and the latter has a liner made of poly-
mer such as high-density polyethylene.
Various methods have been introduced for the design of high-
pressure vessels, taking into account the complex processing vari-
ables of lament winding such as ber concentration at the dome
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 2 820 5354; fax: +82 2 814 9476.
E-mail address: phigs4@cau.ac.kr (S.-H. Chang).
part, ber slippage, and resin-rich area [1116]. For a precise
analysis of the thick composite layers in a hydrogen pressure ves-
sel (70 MPa class), the ply-based modeling technique has been
used, taking into consideration the variations in composite layer
thickness and winding angle at the dome part [15]. The most
appropriate autofrettage pressure for a Type III hydrogen pressure
vessel has also been determined using this modeling technique
[16].
The structural integrity of composite structures under various
loading conditions has been extensively investigated by many
researchers. Hong et al. [17] simulated the temperature dis-
tribution during boost charge in the composite layers of a Type
III hydrogen pressure vessel based on design regulations and
evaluated its structural integrity, taking into account the tempera-
ture-induced material degradation of the composite layers. Kim
et al. [10] investigated the fatigue life of pressure vessels by con-
trolling the specications of defects, such as depth and length, to
analyze the trends of fatigue life against the defects. Gning et al.
[18] carried out impact tests on a composite pipe to study the level
of delamination based on impact energy and found that the gener-
ated delamination induced interlaminar cracks, which reduced the
implosion pressure of the structure.
Finite element analysis has been used by many researchers for
the prediction of material failures in composite structures. Chang
et al. [19] and Lessard et al. [20] investigated the failure modes
in composite specimens under compression, and the test results

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.03.027
0263-8223/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297 289

were compared with results simulated using a users subroutine
based on the Hashin criteria [21]. Tita et al. [22] improved
Changs model [19] to analyze the failure of a composite disc under
low-speed impact, and the accuracy of the users subroutine was
veried by experimental tests. Kim et al. [23] tried to predict the
material failure of a composite laminate under quasi-static inden-
tation by using nite element analysis with a failure criterion and
veried the accuracy of the nite element code against appropriate
test results.
In this study, the structural integrity of a Type III hydrogen pres-
sure vessel (70 MPa class), under the service condition, at an
impact load (level of 488 J) due to free fall was investigated using
nite element analysis, with a users subroutine based on the
Hashin failure criteria. To verify the users subroutine, a tensile test
was performed, and the test results were compared with the values
estimated by the nite element code. Non-linear behavior of the
aluminum liner and ply-based modeling technique of the thick
composite layers were included for accurate analysis. The gener-
ated stresses in each direction were closely investigated, and the
possible material failure and its mode were identied.
2. Prediction of material failure in composite structures based
on Hashin criteria
To estimate the material failure in composite laminates, a users
subroutine was coded, and its accuracy was veried by comparing

Fig. 1. Tensile specimens: (a) shape and dimension of the specimen, (b) nite element model of the specimen.

Table 1
Material property of a carbon/epoxy composite.

Youngs modulus Shear modulus Poissons ratio Strength

Carbon/epoxy (MCU200ns) E1 = 161.74 GPa G12 = G13 = 4.57 GPa m12 = m13 = 0.33 Xt = 2579.39 MPa
Yt = 24.8 MPa
E2 = E3 = 9.5 GPa G23 = 3.1 GPa m23 = 0.43 S12 = S13 = 73.13 MPa
290 M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297

Table 2
Failure criteria.

Failure criteria
Equation Failure type Equation Failure type
 2  2  2  2 Matrix tension  2  2  2 Delamination
G23 c23
G13S13c13 G12S12c12 f m r22 > 0
2 r3 2
E22 e22
YT S23 ZC rS13
13
rS23
23
f dela
 2   2  2  2  2 jcij j
G c G c G c Matrix compression f Sij i; j 1; 2; 3 Shear damage
 1 E222Sje2322 j 23S2323 13S1313 12S1212 f m
E22 e22 YC 2
YC 2S23 r22 < 0 cm
ij
fsij, fm, fdela = 1

Fig. 2. Iterative calculation procedure for the prediction of material failures.

Fig. 3. Tensile test of the composite specimen: (a) experimental setup, (b) failure mode.
 M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297
the results from experimental tests and nite element analyses
with this users subroutine. A tensile test specimen made of car-
bon/epoxy composite was chosen, and the composite lay-up func-
tion in Abaqus 6.10-1 was used to model it. The specications of
the specimen were in accordance with the international standard
(ASTM D3039 [24]); the length and width of the specimen were
200 mm and 25 mm, respectively, but only the gauge length of
150 mm was modeled (see Fig. 1). For accurate analysis at the cen-
ter of the specimen, where a strain gauge is attached in tensile
tests, the element size in the model was made smaller in this area.
The nite element C3D8R (quadratic, reduced-integration element)
was used to model the specimen. The stacking sequence ([25]7T)
of the tensile specimen was determined by considering one of
the helical windings in the target pressure vessel. The nite ele-
ment model was divided into four partitions in the thickness direc-
tion, which were further divided into three, four, four, and three
plies, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1(b). The material properties
(see Table 1) of T800/epoxy (MCU 200ns, Hankuk Carbon, Korea)
were used in the analysis. One end of the specimen was xed,
and the other end was pulled at a speed of 2 mm/min using the
velocity boundary condition provided in Abaqus (see Fig. 1(b)).
To consider the partial failure and corresponding material
property variation of the specimen during tensile analysis, the
Hashin criteria [21], which determine ber breakage, matrix fail-
ure, and other failure modes (see Table 2), were used in the
Fig. 4. Comparison of the test and analysis results: (a) stressstrain curves of the specimens, (b) failure mode.
291
coding of the users subroutine. Fig. 2 shows the failure analysis
procedure, which considers the variation in material properties
due to partial failure. In each iterative step, the failure indices
(see Table 2) dened by the Hashin criteria were checked against
the threshold of each failure mode. If a certain failure index did
not exceed the corresponding threshold, the related material
property was maintained for the next calculation step.
However, if the failure index exceeded the corresponding thresh-
old, the material properties of the ply related to the failure mode
(ber breakage, matrix cracking, shear failure, or delamination)
were set to zero, so that the ply did not transmit any loads in
that failure mode in the next iterative step. For instance, in
the case of matrix cracking, some of the mechanical properties
of the corresponding ply, such as E22, m12, and m13, were elimi-
nated, but the other properties (E11 and E33), which were not
related to the failure mode, were maintained [22].
To verify the simulation results, composite tensile specimens
were fabricated by autoclave degassing molding with the recom-
mended cure cycle. The tensile test was carried out in a universal
testing machine (MTS 810, USA) following the international stan-
dard (ASTM D3039 [24]). To measure the true strain of the speci-
men, a strain gauge (Kyowa, Japan) was attached at its center, as
shown in Fig. 3(a). Three identical specimens were tested, and they
all failed in the same mode of AGM (Angled Gauge Middle), as
shown in Fig. 3(b).
292 M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297

The experimental and simulated results are compared in
Fig. 4(a). The average strength of the test specimens was
734 MPa, and the estimated strength from nite element analysis
was 731 MPa. There was a 67% error in the elastic regime, and
the maximum error between the measured and simulated tensile
strengths was 1.78%. Moreover, the simulation predicted the
non-linear behavior and the failure mode of the specimen quite
well, as shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b), validating the accuracy of the
users subroutine.
3. Failure analysis of a Type III hydrogen pressure vessel under
impact loading
3.1. Finite element modeling
A Type III hydrogen pressure vessel composed of an aluminum
liner and lament-wound layers was modeled with detailed
dimensions, as shown in Fig. 5(a). The aluminum liner was wound
by 132 layers of wet carbon bers with various winding angles

Fig. 5. Modeling details of a Type III hydrogen pressure vessel: (a) geometry of the pressure vessel, (b) winding angle variation in the dome part, (c) variable local coordinate
and thickness variation according to the angular position.
 M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297 293

which were composed of the hoop winding (90), helical windings pressure vessel and resists most of the internal pressure. And the
(13, 15, 18, 21, 23, 25, 30) and high helical windings (65, high helical windings strengthen the junction of the dome and
75, 80). Hoop winding covers only the cylinder part of the the cylinder parts. To accurately consider the various and complex

Table 3
Material properties of the Type III hydrogen pressure vessel used in the simulation.

Materials Youngs modulus Shear modulus Poissons ratio Strength

Carbon/epoxy (MR60H-24K) E1 = 165 GPa G12 = G13 = 4.39 GPa m12 = m13 = 0.326 Xt = 3190 MPa
Yc = Zc = 142 MPa
E2 = E3 = 8.56 GPa G23 = 2.7 GPa m23 = 0.43 S12 = S13 = 141 MPa
S23 = 84.3 MPa
Aluminum liner (Al6061-T6) 68.26 GPa 26.0 GPa 0.33 ryield 276 MPa
rultimate 333:8 MPa

Fig. 6. Loading and boundary conditions: (a) boundary condition, (b) loading history, (c) illustration of the free-fall impact.
294 M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297

Fig. 7. Failure indices of the composite laminate under service condition (70 MPa): (a) failure indices in the transverse direction before and after impact, (b) failure indices in
the thickness direction before and after impact, (c) failure indices of the in-plane shear after impact, (d) failure indices in the ber direction.

winding patterns the ply-based modeling technique [15] using the
composite lay-up function was adopted for the carbon/epoxy thick
layers (132 plies). The winding angle, layer thickness, and anisotro-
pic material properties of MR60H-24K (Mitsubishi Rayon, Japan,
see Table 3) were applied to the nite elements in the cylinder
part. To simulate plastic deformation during the autofrettage pro-
cess, a non-linear stress-strain relationship [25] for the aluminum
liner (Al6061-T6, Table 3) was used in the analysis. Because the
dome parts have an aspheric shape, the thickness and winding
angle change according to the angular position (U in Fig. 5(b)), so
a sophisticated modeling technique was needed for accurate analy-
sis. As part of our previous work [15], the following equations were
formulated to calculate the actual ber angle (a) from the winding
angle (W) and the meridian:
0
r f r  f r
i i i
a tan1 q q 1 Fig. 5(b) and (c). To simulate this thickness variation in the nite
0 2
1 ff r i g r 2i cot2 W  ff ri g
f r i
tan U
ri
Fig. 8. Impact stress distribution: (a) comparison of the stress distribution before and after impact, (b) damage zone variation with time after impact.
M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297 295
where ri is the radial position, and f(ri) is the dome curve function,
as shown in Fig. 5(b).
Imposing orthotropic material properties on the aspheric
dome parts is essential for accurate stress analysis, and there-
fore the local spherical coordinate was introduced at the cross
points between the axial axis and the normal vector of each ele-
ment, as shown in Fig. 5(c). The orthotropic material properties
of each layer were assigned correctly based on the calculated
ber angle (a).
No-slip condition of the wet laments during the winding pro-
cess was assumed. Only helical winding was applied to the dome
parts, so the area covered by the laments only depended on the
winding angle, and the thickness varied according to the angular
position (U), as shown in Fig. 5(b) and (c). Because the lament
density increased continuously with the angular position (U), the
boss part had the thickest composite layers, as shown in
2
element model, additional plies with symmetric stacking were
applied. This was a reasonable representation because, for helical
windings, the winding is symmetrically carried out in the pattern
2 of the balanced laminate.
296 M.-G. Han, S.-H. Chang / Composite Structures 127 (2015) 288297
3.2. Boundary and loading conditions
To reduce the computation time, only one quarter of the pres-
sure vessel was modeled, as shown in Fig. 6(a), because of the geo-
metric symmetry, and the plane symmetry condition was imposed
on the cut surfaces. Moreover, it was assumed that there was rela-
tive motion between the aluminum liner and the composite layers
due to the autofrettage process during fabrication and the repeti-
tive pressurization process under the service condition, so a fric-
tion coefcient of 0.4 was assumed between these surfaces.
Therefore, lament tension is the only force holding the liner and
the composite layers together.
For the loading condition, free-fall impact was chosen, based
on the European Integrated Hydrogen Project Phase II (EIHP2)
[26] and ISO 15869 [27]. A rigid plate was placed at the bottom
just before impact, and the friction coefcient between the plate
and the pressure vessel was assumed to be 0.28 [28]. The load-
ing history is shown in Fig. 6(b). First, the pressure vessel experi-
enced an autofrettage process to enhance the fatigue
characteristics (STEP I). As determined in a previous study [16],
the autofrettage pressure of 107 MPa was imposed on the inner
surface of the liner. Next, the depressurization process followed
(STEP II), after which the service pressure of 70 MPa was
imposed on the inner surface of the liner (STEP III). Finally,
under the service condition, an impact was imposed on the
dome part of the pressure vessel (STEP IV). The involved impact
energy at 45 free-fall condition was over 488 J, in accordance
with ISO 15869 and EIHP2 for pressure vessel design, as shown
in Fig. 6(c).
3.3. Analysis result
The developed users subroutine based on the Hashin criteria,
for estimating the material failure in composite laminates, was
used in the stress analysis of the Type III hydrogen pressure ves-
sel. To estimate the possible failure of the composite layers after
impact, all stresses in the ber direction, in-plane transverse
direction, and thickness direction were calculated for the impact
loading under a simple service condition (max. 70 MPa). When
material failure occurred in a certain composite layer due to
impact, the material properties related to that failure mode were
set to zero, causing stress redistribution in the other intact
layers.
From the analysis results, it was found that the eight outer-
most layers in the dome part failed in the transverse failure
mode under impact loading. As a result, the stresses in the
other intact layers increased to 1.52.0 times higher than those
in the service condition (70 MPa), as shown in Fig. 7(a).
Moreover, in the 29 outermost layers, delamination occurred,
causing stress redistribution in the remaining inner layers. For
detecting delamination in the laminate, the compressive
strength in the thickness direction (Zc) was assumed to be the
same as that in the in-plane transverse direction (Yc), based
on Shokriehs study [29], and the interlaminar shear strength
(S13) was assumed to be the same as the in-plane shear
strength (S12). When delamination occurred, the magnitude of
stresses in the thickness direction in the remaining intact layers
decreased at the impact site, as shown in Fig. 7(b), which was
validated by Kim et al. [23]. The failure index of the generated
in-plane shear stress reached only 0.43 (see Fig. 7(c)), implying
that no layers failed under the in-plane shear stress condition.
In compression, the maximum generated stress along the ber
was 737 MPa (failure index is 0.51), which is much lower than
the compressive strength of the material (1440 MPa), as shown
in Fig. 7(d).
4. Conclusions and discussion
In this study, the impact analysis of a pressure vessel under the
service condition (70 MPa) was carried out in order to aid further
development of the Type III hydrogen pressure vessel. To estimate
the structural integrity with the gradual failure of the composite
laminates, a users subroutine was prepared using the Hashin fail-
ure criteria. To verify the accuracy of the program, composite ten-
sile specimens were simulated by including their non-linear
behavior, and the results were compared with those from experi-
mental tests. Using this validated subroutine program, the stress
distribution (failure index distribution) and level of damage in a
Type III hydrogen pressure vessel were analyzed.
A previously developed modeling technique [15] was used to
model the exact geometric shape of the dome part, and the ortho-
tropic material properties of the composite layers were success-
fully included in the nite element model. At each iterative
calculation step, all the generated stresses were checked to see if
they exceeded the threshold in a certain mode, and the material
properties were reassigned based on the local material failure of
the structure. The impact condition imposed was a free-fall oblique
impact, and the impact energy was controlled to be higher than
488 J, based on international regulations. The stress distributions
in the composite layers before and after the impact were investi-
gated under the service condition. At the impact area, the eight
outermost layers failed by in-plane transverse fracture, and the
damage areas were 480p mm2 for layers 15 and 128p mm2 for
layers 68. Moreover, delamination was estimated to occur in
the 29 outermost layers of the dome part, where large damage
areas were observed. The 19 outermost layers had the largest
damage area of 540p mm2, and this decreased with the depth of
the composite layers as 256p mm2 for layers 1016, 184p mm2
for layers 1724, and 108p mm2 for layers 2529, as shown in
Fig. 8(a). During the early stages of the impact, the delamination
occurs at the outskirts of the impact site, and this propagated to
the impact site as time elapsed (see Fig. 8(b)). This phenomenon
corresponds to the central healthy zone observed in Gnings
experimental work [18], indirectly verifying the accuracy of the
users subroutine used in this study for estimating the composite
failure due to impact.
From the impact analysis, it was predicted that the major mate-
rial failures occur in the form of delamination and matrix failure in
the transverse direction and that in-plane shear failure and ber
breakage do not occur under this level of impact (488 J impact
energy). Because the bers, which play a major part in load trans-
fer, remained intact, the pressure vessel can be used even after the
impact (level of 488 J), but repetitive pressurization may cause
crack propagation inducing fatigue failure of the composite layers.
Therefore, appropriate measures for absorbing the impact, perhaps
using additional outermost composite layers with glass bers,
need to be developed.
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