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Chair
A chair is a piece of furniture with a raised surface supported by legs,
commonly used to seat a single person. Chairs are supported most often by
four legs and have a back;[1][2] however, a chair can have three legs or can have
a different shape.[3] Chairs are made of a wide variety of materials, ranging
from wood to metal to synthetic material (e.g. plastic), and they may be padded
or upholstered in various colors and fabrics, either just on the seat (as with
some dining room chairs) or on the entire chair. Chairs are used in a number of
rooms in homes (e.g. in living rooms, dining rooms, and dens), in schools and
offices (with desks), and in various other workplaces.

A chair without a back or arm rests is a stool,[4] or when raised up, a bar
stool.[5] A chair with arms is an armchair;[6] one with upholstery, reclining
action, and a fold-out footrest is a recliner.[7] A permanently fixed chair in a
train or theater is a seat[8] or, in an airplane, airline seat; when riding, it is a
saddle or bicycle saddle; and for an automobile, a car seat or infant car seat.
Chair in use
With wheels it is a wheelchair;[9] or when hung from above, a swing. An
upholstered, padded chair for two people is a 'loveseat', while if it is for more
than two person it is a couch, sofa, or settee;[10] or if is not upholstered, a bench.[11] A separate footrest for a chair, usually
upholstered, is known as an ottoman,[12] hassock,[13] or pouffe.[14]

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Materials
4 Design and ergonomics
4.1 Armrests
5 Seats
6 Standards and specifications
7 Accessories
8 As sculptural and art forms
9 In language
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading

Etymology

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The word chair comes from the early 13th-century English word chaere, which came "from Old French chaiere ("chair,
seat, throne") (12c.; Modern French chaire "pulpit, throne;" the more modest sense having gone since 16c. with variant
form chaise)".[15] The Old French chaiere comes "...from Latin cathedra "seat""[15]

History
The chair has been used since antiquity, although for many centuries it was a
symbolic article of state and dignity rather than an article for ordinary use.
"The chair" is still used as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons
in the United Kingdom[16] and Canada,[17] and in many other settings. In
keeping with this historical connotation of the "chair" as the symbol of
authority, committees, boards of directors, and academic departments all have
a 'chairman' or 'chair'.[18] Endowed professorships are referred to as chairs.[19]

It was not until the 16th century that chairs became common. Until then,
people sat on chests, benches, and stools, which were the ordinary seats of Five three-legged chairs around a
everyday life. The number of chairs which have survived from an earlier date is low-legged table from Sliven 19th
exceedingly limited; most examples are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Century Lifestyle Museum

Chairs were in existence since at least the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. They
were covered with cloth or leather, were made of carved wood, and were much lower
than todays chairs chair seats were sometimes only 25 cm high.[20] In ancient Egypt
chairs appear to have been of great richness and splendor. Fashioned of ebony and
ivory, or of carved and gilded wood, they were covered with costly materials,
magnificent patterns and supported upon representations of the legs of beasts or the
figures of captives. Generally speaking, the higher ranked an individual was, the taller
and more sumptuous was the chair he sat on and the greater the honor. On state
occasions the pharaoh sat on a throne, often with a little footstool in front of it.[21]

The average Egyptian family seldom had chairs, and if they did, it was usually only the
master of the household who sat on a chair. Among the better off, the chairs might be
painted to look like the ornate inlaid and carved chairs of the rich, but the
craftsmanship was usually poor.[20]

The earliest images of chairs in China are from sixth-century Buddhist murals and
stele, but the practice of sitting in chairs at that time was rare. It wasn't until the twelfth Early 20th-century chair
century that chairs became widespread in China. Scholars disagree on the reasons for made in eastern Australia,
with strong heraldic
the adoption of the chair. The most common theories are that the chair was an
embellishment
outgrowth of indigenous Chinese furniture, that it evolved from a camp stool imported
from Central Asia, that it was introduced to China by Christian missionaries in the
seventh century, and that the chair came to China from India as a form of Buddhist monastic furniture. In modern China,
unlike Korea or Japan, it is no longer common to sit at floor level.[22]

In Europe, it was owing in great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be a privilege of state and became a
standard item of furniture for anyone who could afford to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came
into general use. Almost at once the chair began to change every few years to reflect the fashions of the day.[23]

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In the 1880s, chairs became more common in American households and

usually there was a chair provided for every family member to sit down to
dinner. By the 1830s, factory-manufactured fancy chairs like those by Sears.
Roebuck, and Co. allowed families to purchase machined sets. With the
Industrial Revolution, chairs became much more available.[24]

The 20th century saw an increasing use of technology in chair construction

with such things as all-metal folding chairs, metal-legged chairs, the Slumber
Chair, moulded plastic chairs and ergonomic chairs.[25] The recliner became a
popular form, at least in part due to radio and television. Chair

The modern movement of the 1960s produced new forms of chairs: the
butterfly chair (originally called the Hardoy chair), bean bags, and the egg-shaped pod chair that turns. It also introduced
the first mass-produced plastic chairs such as the Bofinger chair in 1966.[26] Technological advances led to molded
plywood and wood laminate chairs, as well as chairs made of leather or polymers. Mechanical technology incorporated
into the chair enabled adjustable chairs, especially for office use. Motors embedded in the chair resulted in massage
chairs.[27]

Materials
Chairs can be made from wood, metal, or other strong materials, like stone or
acrylic. In some cases, multiple materials are used to construct a chair; for
example, the legs and frame may be made from metal and the seat and back
may be made from plastic. Chairs may have hard surfaces of wood, metal,
plastic, or other materials, or some or all of these hard surfaces may be covered
with upholstery or padding. The design may be made of porous materials, or be
drilled with holes for decoration; a low back or gaps can provide ventilation.
The back may extend above the height of the occupant's head, which can
optionally contain a headrest. Chairs can also be made from more creative Metal chairs in the Tuileries Garden,
Paris, France
materials, such as recycled materials like cutlery and wooden play bricks,
pencils, plumbing tubes, rope, corrugated cardboard, and PVC pipe.[28]

In rare cases, chairs are made out of unusual materials, especially as a form of art or experimentation. Raimonds Cirulis, a
Latvian interior designer, created a volcanic hanging chair that is a handmade out of volcanic rock.[29][30] Peter Brenner, a
Dutch-born German designer, has created a chair made from lollipop sugar 60 pounds of confectioners' sugar.[31]

Design and ergonomics

Chair design considers intended usage, ergonomics (how comfortable it is for the occupant),[32] as well as non-ergonomic
functional requirements such as size, stacking ability, folding ability, weight, durability, stain resistance, and artistic
design. Intended usage determines the desired seating position. "Task chairs", or any chair intended for people to work at
a desk or table, including dining chairs, can only recline very slightly; otherwise the occupant is too far away from the desk
or table. Dental chairs are necessarily reclined. Easy chairs for watching television or movies are somewhere in between
depending on the height of the screen.

Ergonomic design distributes the weight of the occupant to various parts of the body. A seat that is higher results in
dangling feet and increased pressure on the underside of the knees ("popliteal fold"). It may also result in no weight on the
feet which means more weight elsewhere. A lower seat may shift too much weight to the "seat bones" ("ischial

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tuberosities").

A reclining seat and back will shift weight to the occupant's back. This may be more
comfortable for some in reducing weight on the seat area, but may be problematic for
others who have bad backs. In general, if the occupant is supposed to sit for a long time,
weight needs to be taken off the seat area and thus "easy" chairs intended for long
periods of sitting are generally at least slightly reclined. However, reclining may not be
suitable for chairs intended for work or eating at table.

The back of the chair will support some of the weight of the occupant, reducing the
weight on other parts of the body. In general, backrests come in three heights: Lower
back backrests support only the lumbar region. Shoulder height backrests support the S Chair, designed by
Verner Panton
entire back and shoulders. Headrests support the head as well and are important in
vehicles for preventing "whiplash" neck injuries in rear-end collisions where the head is
jerked back suddenly. Reclining chairs typically have at least shoulder-height
backrests to shift weight to the shoulders instead of just the lower back.

Some chairs have foot rests. A stool or other simple chair may have a simple
straight or curved bar near the bottom for the sitter to place his or her feet on.

Some chairs have two curved bands of wood (also known as rockers) attached
to the bottom of the legs. They are called rocking chairs.

A kneeling chair adds an additional body part, the knees, to support the weight
of the body. A sit-stand chair distributes most of the weight of the occupant to
the feet. Many chairs are padded or have cushions. Padding can be on the seat
of the chair only, on the seat and back, or also on any arm rests or foot rest the
The difference between Leg Room
chair may have. Padding will not shift the weight to different parts of the body and Seat Pitch
(unless the chair is so soft that the shape is altered). However, padding does
distribute the weight by increasing the area of contact between the chair and
the body. A hard wood chair feels hard because the contact point between the
occupant and the chair is small. The same body weight over a smaller area
means greater pressure on that area. Spreading the area reduces the pressure
at any given point. In lieu of padding, flexible materials, such as wicker, may be
used instead with similar effects of distributing the weight. Since most of the
body weight is supported in the back of the seat, padding there should be
firmer than the front of the seat which only has the weight of the legs to
support. Chairs that have padding that is the same density front and back will
feel soft in the back area and hard to the underside of the knees. The type of chair popular in western
Hubei, China: with a fairly low seat
There may be cases where padding is not desirable. For example, in chairs that and the back inclined at about 45
are intended primarily for outdoor use. Where padding is not desirable, degrees from the vertical
contouring may be used instead. A contoured seat pan attempts to distribute
weight without padding. By matching the shape of the occupant's buttocks,
weight is distributed and maximum pressure is reduced.

Actual chair dimensions are determined by measurements of the human body or anthropometric measurements. The two
most relevant anthropometric measurement for chair design is the popliteal height and buttock popliteal length.

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For someone seated, the popliteal height is the distance from the underside of
the foot to the underside of the thigh at the knees. It is sometimes called the
"stool height". The term "sitting height" is reserved for the height to the top of
the head when seated. For American men, the median popliteal height is 16.3
inches (410 mm) and for American women it is 15.0 inches (380 mm).[33] The
popliteal height, after adjusting for heels, clothing and other issues, is used to
determine the height of the chair seat. Mass-produced chairs are typically 17
inches (430 mm) high.

For someone seated, the buttock popliteal length is the horizontal distance
from the back most part of the buttocks to the back of the lower leg. This Churchchairs
anthropometric measurement is used to determine the seat depth. Mass-
produced chairs are typically 1517 inches deep.

Additional anthropometric measurements may be relevant to designing a chair. Hip breadth is used for chair width and
armrest width. Elbow rest height is used to determine the height of the armrests. The buttock-knee length is used to
determine "leg room" between rows of chairs. "Seat pitch" is the distance between rows of seats. In some airplanes and
stadiums the leg room (the seat pitch less the thickness of the seat at thigh level) is so small that it is sometimes
insufficient for the average person.

For adjustable chairs, such as an office chair, the aforementioned principles are applied in adjusting the chair to the
individual occupant. Caster wheels are attached to the feet of chairs to give more mobility. Gas springs are attached to the
body of the chair in order to give height adjustment and more comfort to the user.

Armrests
A chair may or may not have armrests; chairs with armrests are termed "armchairs". In
French, a distinction is made between fauteuil and chaise, the terms for chairs with and
without armrests, respectively. In Germany, an armchair was once called a
Krankensessel, or sick-chair, because it was intended for people who were too ill to
stand or sit without extra support.[34]

If present, armrests will support part of the body weight through the arms if the arms
Eames Lounge chair and
are resting on the armrests. Armrests further have the function of making entry and
ottoman
exit from the chair easier (but from the side it becomes more difficult). Armrests should
support the forearm and not the sensitive elbow area. Hence in some chair designs, the
armrest is not continuous to the chair back, but is missing in the elbow area.

A couch, bench, or other arrangement of seats next to each other may have armrest at the sides or arm rests in between.
The latter may be provided for comfort, but also for privacy (e.g., in public transport and other public places), and in some
park benches, to prevent homeless people from lying down or sleeping on the bench. Arm rests reduce both desired and
undesired proximity between people seated side by side. A loveseat in particular, has no armrest in between two seating
positions.

See also seats in movie theaters, and pictures of benches with and without arm rests.

Seats
Chair seats vary widely in construction and may or may not match construction of the chair's back (backrest).
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Some systems include:

Center seats where a solid material forms the chair seat

Solid wood, may or may not be shaped to human contours

Wood slats, often seen on outdoor chairs
Padded leather, generally a flat wood base covered in padding and contained
in soft leather
Stuffed fabric, similar to padded leather
Metal seats of solid or open design
Molded plastic
Stone, often marble
Open center seats where a soft material is attached to the tops of chair legs or
between stretchers to form the seat

Wicker, woven to provide a surface with give to it

Leather, may be tooled with a design
Fabric, simple covering without support
Tape, wide fabric tape woven into seat, seen in lawn chairs and some old
chairs
Caning,
Rush, wrapped from rush, heavy paper, strong grasses, or hand twisted while
wrapped with cattails to form the seat, usually in a pattern of four trapezoids
meeting in the center, and on rare occasions, in elaborate patterns
Reed,
Rawhide
Splint, ash, oak or hickory strips are woven
Art deco club chair
Metal, Metal mesh or wire woven to form seat

Standards and specifications

Design considerations for chairs have been codified into standards. ISO 9241,
"Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs) -- Part 5:
Workstation layout and postural requirements", is the most common one for modern
chair design.

There are multiple specific standards for different types of chairs. Dental chairs are
specified by ISO 6875. Bean bag chairs are specified by ANSI standard ASTM F1912-
98.[35] ISO 7174 specifies stability of rocking and tilting chairs. ASTM F1858-98
Italian design chair
specifies plastic lawn chairs. ASTM E1822-02b defines the combustibility of chairs
"Stile'900", by Arnaldo
when they are stacked.
dell'Ira, 1938
The Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturer's Association (BIFMA)[36]
defines ANSI/BIFMA X5.1 (titled: General-Purpose Office Chairs Tests) for testing of
commercial-grade chairs. It specifies things like:

chair back strength of 150 pounds (68 kg)

chair stability if weight is transferred completely to the front or back legs
leg strength of 75 pounds (34 kg) applied one inch (25 mm) from the bottom of the leg
seat strength of 225 pounds (102 kg) dropped from six inches (150 mm) above the seat
seat cycle strength of 100,000 repetitions of 125 pounds (57 kg) dropped from 2 inches (50 mm) above the seat

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The specification further defines heavier "proof" loads that chairs must withstand.
Under these higher loads, the chair may be damaged, but it must not fail
catastrophically.

Large institutions that make bulk purchases will reference these standards within their
own even more detailed criteria for purchase.[37] Governments will often issue
standards for purchases by government agencies (e.g. Canada's Canadian General
Standards Board CAN/CGSB 44.15M[38] on "Straight Stacking Chair, Steel" or
CAN/CGSB 44.232-2002 on "Task Chairs for Office Work with Visual Display
Terminal").

Chairs may be rated by the length of time that they may be used comfortably an 8-
hour chair, a 24-hour chair, and so on. Such chairs are specified for tasks which require
extended periods of sitting, such as for receptionists or supervisors of a control panel.
Polypropylene (molded
plastic) seats and stainless
Accessories steel legs in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. This type of material
In place of a built-in footrest, some chairs come with a matching ottoman. An ottoman is very useful in seaside
is a short stool that is intended to be used as a footrest but can sometimes be used as a areas.
stool. If matched to a glider chair, the ottoman may be mounted on swing arms so that
the ottoman rocks back and forth with the main glider.

A chair cover is a temporary fabric cover for a side chair. They are typically
rented for formal events such as wedding receptions to increase the
attractiveness of the chairs and decor. The chair covers may come with
decorative chair ties, a ribbon to be tied as a bow behind the chair. Covers for
sofas and couches are also available for homes with small children and pets. In
the second half of the 20th century, some people used custom clear plastic
covers for expensive sofas and chairs to protect them.
Highly decorated carved-back chairs
Chair pads are cushions for chairs. They contain cotton or foam for padding.
in Mexico
Some are decorative. In cars, they may be used to increase the height of the
driver. Orthopedic backrests provide support for the back. Some
manufacturers have patents on their designs and are recognized by medical
associations as beneficial.[39][40][41] Car seats sometimes have built-in and
adjustable lumbar supports. These can also be used on kitchen chairs.

Chair mats are mats meant to cover different types of flooring. They are
usually made from plastic. This allows chairs on wheels to roll easily over the
carpet and protects the carpet or floor. They come in various shapes, some
specifically sized to fit partially under a desk.
Set of chairs in a museum hall
Remote control bags can be draped over the arm of easy chairs or sofas and
used to hold remote controls for home cinemas. They are counter-weighted so
as to not slide off the arms under the weight of the remote controls.

Chair glides are attached to the feet of chairs to prevent them from scratching or snagging on the floor.

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As sculptural and art forms

The Broken Chair is a monumental sculpture in wood, constructed of 5.5 tons of wood,
12 metres (39 ft) high standing across the street from the Palace of Nations in Geneva.
It has broken leg symbolizing opposition to land mines and cluster bombs. In 2001,
Steve Mann exhibited a chair sculpture at San Francisco Art Institute. The chair had
spikes that retracted when a credit card was inserted to download a seating license.
Later other museums and galleries were equipped with the "Pay to Sit" chair, with a
global central seating license server located in Toronto. The first sitting session was
free, with a database of persons who had already used their free session.

In a performance piece at the 2012 Republican Political Convention, Clint Eastwood

addressed an empty chair, as if it represented President Barack Obama (meant to be
construed as MIA or ineffectual). The address was controversial, whether it was AISI 304 stainless steel
poignant or bizarre.[42] Japanese designer Tokujin Yoshioka has created several chairs laboratory chair with gas
as art forms such as "Honey-pop": honey-comb paper chair (2001), "Pane chair": springs and caster wheels,
natural fiber chair (2006), "Venus": natural crystal chair (2007). a specific type of chair for a
work environment

In language
A film or a story is said to "keep one on the edge of one's seat", if it is suspenseful
or engaging.[43]
If someone "nearly fell off their chair" after being informed about something, it was
because they were very shocked or surprised.[44]
An orchestra awards the best player in a particular section a "chair" or "principal
seat" based on ability. The first chair of the section plays the solos, and in string
sections, determines the bowings. In professional orchestras, the first chair player
receives higher pay. It is also common for this position to be known as "first stand",
a reference to the portable lectern on which the musicians put their sheet music.
However, the person who is first chair in the first violin section is usually referred to
as the concertmaster in the US or leader in the UK.
In academia, an endowed chair is a prestigious appointment for a professor, paid
for by a dedicated funding source.
A chair is the highest officer of an organized group, such as the chair of the board,
the head of the Board of Directors in a company or non-profit organization.
"Musical chairs" is a common party game, and a colloquial expression to describe Chair sculpture by Steve
people shuffling from seat to seat, around different locations, or from one job title to Mann, exhibited at San
another. Francisco Art Institute,
In American slang, to say someone will "get the chair" is to say that they will be 2001, comprises spikes that
executed by an electric chair.[45] Alternatively, it can be a metaphor for other harsh retract when a credit card is
punishment.[45] inserted to download a
seating license.

See also
List of chairs for an extended list types, such as the lift chair, papasan chair, swivel chair.
Riding-like sitting
Seating assignment
Splat (furniture), the central vertical element of a wooden chair back

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Further reading
The dictionary definition of chair at Wiktionary
"Chair". Encyclopdia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). 1911.
de Dampierre, F. (2006). Chairs: A History. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-5484-2
Fiell, C. (2005). 1000 Chairs. (25th ed.). Taschen. ISBN 3-8228-4103-X
Miller, J. (2009). Chairs. Conran. ISBN 1-84091-523-4

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