Radiographic Interpretation

1. Principles of X- and gamma-radiography

Penetrating radiation
Atomic Structure
Isotope and radioisotopes
Artificial and natural radioisotopes
Electromagnetic spectrum
Particulate and electromagnetic radiation
X rays and gamma rays
Wavelength and energy
X ray and gamma ray spectra
KVp, KVc, KeV, MeV
Inverse square Law for distance/intensity
General properties of propagation of penetrating radiation
Units related to penetrating radiation
Principles of radioactive decay
Definition of radioactivity
Unit of radioactivity (Curie and Becquerel)
Specific activity
Decay equation
Half-life
Interaction of radiation with matter
Photoelectric effect, Compton effect, pair production
Absorption coefficient, half value layer (HVL), tenth value layer
Ion and ionization
2. Equipment

X ray equipment
Generation of x-ray (source of electron, acceleration of free electrons and target
material)
Stationary and mobile units
X ray generators and tubes (glass and metal ceramic), target material and
characteristics, configuration, focus, heat dissipation
Design of tubes (standard tube; rod anode tube; short anode tube)..
X-ray tube head, power source
X-ray control panel (tube voltage, tube current, exposure time)
Cooling (gas, water, oil)
X-ray quality and quantity
Accessories
Gamma ray sources
Gamma ray spectrum
Common radiography sources (source size, half-life, energy, activities)
Radiography source assembly
Types of gamma projector, shielding, collimators
 Handling of radiography projector
3. Safety
Radiation quantity and units
Exposure
Absorbed dose
Equivalent dose
Dose limit for workers and publics
Dangers of excessive Biological effects of exposure to X rays and gamma rays
Source of radiation exposure to human being (natural, manmade and accidental)
Acute and chronic exposure
Somatic and genetic effects
Stochastic and no stochastic effect
Wearing of monitoring Film badges
Reading of pocket dosimeters and recording its daily readings
Thermoluminiscent dosimeter (TLD)
Method of controlling external exposure
Time
Distance
Shielding
4. Selection of films and screens
Photographic recording (film for X ray and gamma ray radiography)
Film construction (base layer, emulsion layer and protective layer)
Radiography image formation
Film characteristics (film density, film speed, film contrast, film definition)
Characteristic curves, radiographic quality
Film Screen-Lead screens (intensifying effect; filtering effect; film to screen contact)
Fluorescent screen
Non-photographic recording
Fundamental of digital image processing
Description of the fluoroscopic test
5. Exposure
Parameters and work conditions
Geometric principles of image formation, umbra and penumbra
Relation between geometrical unsharpness with focal spot size, source to film
distance, source to object distance, object to film distance
Image density, factors affecting it
Image quality, sensitivity, and radiography contrast and radiography definition
Scattered radiation, types, causes, and control
Use of screens, masks, filters
Image quality indicators (IQI) according to various standards, characteristics, types
and placement
Radiography exposure and factors governing it
Exposure charts for X-rays and gamma rays exposure calculations
6. Processing;
Care in the handling and conservation of film
Film handling
Storage of processed and unprocessed films
Loading and unloading film
Darkroom layout, equipment, and chemicals,
Processing of film
Unsatisfactory radiographs and misleading images

7. Choice of technique
Influence of properties of the material
Exposure techniques according to the geometry of the object
Single wall/single image
Double wall/single image
Double wall/double image
Panoramic and directional exposure
Thickness compensation
Masks

8. Relevant standards
Codes, standards, specifications and procedures
General knowledge of codes and standards as applied to radiographic testing
General knowledge of specifications and procedures for radiographic testing
Examples of codes and standards related to industrial radiography inspection
9. Radiographic Interpretation
Welding Defects
Basic relationship between image and object
Radiographic indication of defects
Viewing of radiographs
Eye Adaptation
Viewing requirement
Viewing room lighting requirement
Viewing accessories, viewer, densitometer, light-meter
Evaluation of radiograph quality
Presence of artifacts
Density measurement
Location marker
Film identification marker
Image quality indicators (types, designation, placement, visible wire/hole)
Digital Industrial Radiology
 Radiographic Interpretation
1. Principles of X- and gamma-radiography
2. Equipment
3. Safety
4. Selection of films and screens
5. Exposure
6. Processing;
7. Choice of technique
8. Relevant standards
9. Radiographic Interpretation