Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941

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Construction and Building Materials

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Manufacturing of sustainable clay bricks: Utilization of waste sugarcane

bagasse and rice husk ashes
Syed M.S. Kazmi a, Safeer Abbas a,, Muhammad A. Saleem a, Muhammad J. Munir b, Anwar Khitab b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Mirpur University of Science and Technology, Mirpur, AJK, Pakistan

h i g h l i g h t s

Incorporation of waste materials in manufacturing of clay bricks was investigated.

Mechanical and durability properties of bricks incorporating RHA and SBA was studied.

Addition of RHA and SBA in brick manufacturing can lead towards sustainable and economical construction.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Burnt clay brick is one of the major and widely used building unit in masonry construction around the
Received 1 February 2016 globe. The manufacturing of burnt clay bricks using waste materials can minimize the environmental
Received in revised form 3 May 2016 overburden caused by waste deposition on open landfills and would also improve the brick performance
Accepted 11 May 2016
at low production cost leading to more sustainable construction. This study aims to evaluate the effect of
the waste addition produced from two major crops: sugarcane and rice in clay bricks manufacturing. In
this study, sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and rice husk ash (RHA) were collected locally from a sugar mill
Keywords:
and bulls trench kiln, respectively. Brick specimens were manufactured at an industrial brick kiln plant
Bricks
Sugarcane bagasse ash
using various dosages (5%, 10% and 15% by clay weight) of SBA and RHA. Mechanical and durability prop-
Rice husk ash erties of these bricks were studied. It was observed that clay bricks incorporating SBA and RHA exhibited
Mechanical properties lower compressive strength compared to that of clay bricks without SBA and RHA. However, compressive
Durability strength of bricks with 5% of SBA and RHA satisfied the Pakistan Building Code requirements (i.e. >5 MPa).
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirms the porous microstructure of the brick specimens
incorporating SBA and RHA, which resulted into lesser unit weight leading to lighter and economical
structures. Furthermore, resistance against efflorescence was improved in all the tested bricks incorpo-
rating SBA and RHA. Based on this study, it can be concluded that the brick specimens incorporating
lower dosage of SBA and RHA (i.e. 5% by clay weight) will not only relieve the environmental burden
but also result into a more sustainable and economical construction.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Fired clay bricks are one of the oldest construction material
used in the construction of partition and load carrying walls in
the buildings. The extensive use of natural clay deposits for brick
production has caused an alarming deficit level of this natural
material [13]. This situation has forced the researchers to shift
their focus towards the development of new materials or recycle
waste materials produced from various industries. In the same
context, various wastes including rice husk ash and sugarcane
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: safeerabbas26@gmail.com (S. Abbas).
bagasse ash can be used in the production of bricks. In this study,
the use of these two wastes for brick production has been
attempted.
Rice husk is the outer cover of rice kernel, which have two inter-
locking halves. Approximately, husk is obtained 20% of rice paddy
and Pakistan is capable of producing one million tons of husk every
year [4,5]. Major disposal of rice husk is either in brick industry
where it is used in kilns as a fuel source or in the paper industry.
After combustion of rice husk, ash is produced. Different percent-
age of ash obtained have been reported by various researchers.
Normally, it is obtained 1525% of rice husk [6,7]. The disposal of
this ash is a great challenge. Rice husk ash (RHA) obtained from
brick kilns has great potential to be used for brick manufacturing.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.084
0950-0618/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
30 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941
This can lead to environmental friendly, sustainable and economi-
cal construction.
Moreover, after extraction of juice from sugarcane in the sugar
mills, the bagasse is left as a residue. Approximately, 1 kg of sugar-
cane generates 25% of bagasse and 0.6% of bagasse ash [8]. Sugar
cane is produced around 50 million tons annually in Pakistan
and consumed mostly in sugar production [9,10]. As a result,
bagasse is obtained in a range of 2430% and used as a source of
fuel in the sugar industry [11]. The residue left after burning is
called as sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) having two main con-
stituents: oxides of silicon and aluminum. Approximately, sugar-
cane is consumed 81% in sugar industry [12]. In Pakistan, 0.26
million tons of bagasse ash is produced annually, after combustion
of approximately 11 million tons of bagasse [13], which can be
potentially used in brick production.
2. Literature review
Brick properties depend on the composition of raw materials
and method of production. Furthermore, temperature of burning
significantly influence the brick performance because it plays an
important role in bond development between the clay particles.
High temperature softens the naturally occurring silica (SiO2) in
clay and on cooling it develops bond between adjacent clay parti-
cles. To achieve good bond between particles, generally additives
are used in bricks, which act as flux to lower the melting temper-
ature and help in bond development. Now-a-days, researchers are
focusing on the waste materials that can be used as an additive in
bricks to improve the strength and durability characteristics of
bricks [1,1416]. Glass is one of the waste materials which can
be used as an additive. Use of waste glass as an additive produces
bricks with higher compressive strength and lower initial rate of
absorption, pore volume and porosity. However, increase in shrink-
age for brick specimens incorporating glass waste has been
reported in previous studies [17,18].
Sawdust and marble residues have been used in bricks manu-
facturing (ceramic bricks). These additives resulted in an increased
apparent porosity and water absorption; however, decreased
porosity at high temperature (sintering) with higher compressive
strength was also observed [19]. The use of 1520% of marble pow-
der can be considered as an optimum dosage for improved brick
performance. However, the water absorption was higher for civil
construction purposes [20]. Fly ash can also increase the strength
of clay bricks and reduces the water absorption [2123]. Further-
more, fly ash bricks are environment friendly, leading to a greener
building material [24].
Similarly, nano clay can also be used in brick manufacturing. It
can increase the compressive strength up to four times; however,
durability characteristics are still under investigation [25]. Special
techniques are required for obtaining nano clay; therefore, use of
nano clay may not be an economical option.
In the previous researches [26], an increased compressive
strength with small quantity of rice husk ash was observed. How-
ever, increased water absorption [26,27] with decreased shrinkage
and thermal conductivity was reported for clay mixture incorpo-
rating rice husk ash. On the other hand, bricks incorporating sugar-
cane bagasse ash showed lower unit weight leading to lighter
bricks with improved behavior in earthquake prone areas [28].
Use of sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) in bricks is highly encouraging
in terms of waste disposal. However, the use of higher concentra-
tions (i.e. 10%) of SBA in clay bricks tend to decrease the compres-
sive strength [29,30]. Bricks are normally manufactured in
industrial kilns on large scale; whereas, in all the previous
researches [17,20], electrical furnace had been used in the labora-
tory to burn the bricks. Moreover, research on durability properties
(freeze-thaw, efflorescence, sulfate attack and porosity) of clay
bricks incorporating rice husk and sugarcane bagasse ashes is very
scant in the open literature.
In this research program, waste materials (rice husk ash and
sugarcane bagasse ash) have been used for brick manufacturing.
The use of these waste materials not only improves the brick per-
formance but also attractive with respect to environment, sustain-
ability and economy. RHA and SBA were used in three different
replacement ratios (5%, 10%, 15% by weight of clay) in bricks to
investigate their effect on mechanical and durability properties.
Unlike the previous researches, all the bricks were manufactured
in an industrial brick kiln.
3. Research significance and objectives
Engineers and researchers have been compelled to find new
alternative materials for brick manufacturing due to excessive con-
sumption of the natural resources. The natural resources, such as
clay (top soil), is getting depleted due to over utilization in brick
manufacturing, which demands for its conservation. Moreover,
various landfill scarcity and environmental problems are the other
factors owing to the inefficient management of wastes produced
from various industries. This situation demands the construction
industry stakeholders to investigate new alternative materials
and develop novel methodologies for effective use of wastes pro-
duced from industry.
This research investigates two cheaply available waste materi-
als: sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and rice husk ash (RHA) which
were probed for brick manufacturing on large scale. Reuse of such
wastes in brick production can lead to a sustainable construction
material that addresses the environmental pollution issue and
landfilling problem at low cost. The main objective of this study
is to experimentally explore the effect of RHA and SBA on mechan-
ical and durability properties of burnt clay bricks.
Additionally, being an agricultural country, Pakistan produces
huge amount of sugarcane and rice annually. Therefore huge quan-
tity of wastes are also produced by these crops. Scientific applica-
tion of these wastes in different construction projects will not only
help to reduce pressure on the natural resources but will also lead
a way to produce improved construction material with refined
properties.
4. Materials and methodology
4.1. Raw materials
Common clay (soil), dry sugarcane bagasse and rice husk ashes were used as
raw materials for brick manufacturing. Clay was acquired from the kiln located in
Mirpur Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Sugarcane bagasse ash was obtained from Khazana
sugar mill, Peshawar; while, rice husk ash used in this research was acquired from
an industrial brick kiln near Wazirabad, Pakistan. Brick specimens were prepared in
an industrial brick kiln plant (Fig. 1).
4.2. Preparation of brick specimens
Firstly, SBA and RHA were manually mixed in desired proportions with clay in
dry state (Fig. 2 (a)). The proportions of the SBA and RHA used in this study are
listed in Table 1. Afterwards, water was added into the dry mixture (Fig. 2(b)).
The mixture was then left for 23 h allowing the water to fill in the voids for achiev-
ing the maximum homogeneity. Lumps of the mixture required for preparing bricks
(Fig. 2(c)) were then prepared and coated with dry sand to avoid sticking with the
mold. The clay lumps were placed in the brick molds of size 228  114  76 mm. In
contrast to the normal period of 12 days, bricks were dried for 10 days, as they
were casted in covered shed in order to provide rain protection (Fig. 3(a)). After dry-
ing, bricks were transported to brick kiln. A total of 400 bricks were placed in kiln
for 45 days. Brick specimens were fired at approximately 800 C for 36 h. After
45 days, brick specimens were removed from the kiln (Fig. 3(b)).
 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941 31

Table 1
Mixture proportions of raw materials for brick manufacturing.

Brick series Clay (%) RHA (%) SBA (%)

C 100
RHA5 95 5
RHA10 90 10
RHA15 85 15
SBA5 95 5
SBA10 90 10
SBA15 85 15

Fig. 1. Industrial kiln for brick manufacturing.
from water and weighed after wiping off the excess water from the surface. For ini-
tial rate of absorption, specimens after drying were immersed in water up to 5 mm
depth for one minute. Brick specimens were removed and weighted in accordance
with ASTM C67 [34].
The apparent porosity of brick specimens was estimated according to ASTM C20
(Standard test methods for apparent porosity, water absorption, apparent specific
gravity, and bulk density of burned refractory brick and shapes by boiling water)
[35]. Specimens were placed in the water and boiled for 2 h (Fig. 5). After boiling,
specimens were left to cool in water for 12 h. Brick specimens were then weighed
while suspended in water. After determining the suspended weight, saturated
weight was determined after cleaning the surface water from the brick specimens.
Apparent porosity was determined using Eq. (1).

4.3. Test methodology
To study the properties of raw materials; chemical analysis, particle size distri-
bution, scanning electron microscopy, specific gravity and atterberg limits tests
were conducted. Chemical composition was determined using X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). Scanning electron microscopy was per-
formed to examine the microstructure of raw materials. ASTM D422 (Standard test
method for particle-size analysis of soils) [31] and ASTM D854 (Standard test meth-
ods for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer) [32] were used to deter-
mine the particle size distribution and specific gravity respectively, of clay, rice
husk ash (RHA) and sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA). Atterberg limits of clay were
determined according to ASTM D4318 (Standard test method for liquid limit, plastic
limit, and plasticity index of soils) [33]. Different proportions (i.e. 5%, 10% and 15%
by clay weight) of RHA and SBA were investigated in order to evaluate the perfor-
mance of brick specimens.
Before testing, all brick specimens were oven dried at 110 C for 24 h. After oven
drying, specimens were cooled at room temperature and weighed. The results were
then divided over the average area to get the unit weight.
Compressive strength and modulus of rupture were determined according to
ASTM C67 (Standard test methods for sampling and testing brick and structural clay
tile) [34]. For compressive strength, brick specimens were capped on opposite sides
using gypsum and left for drying for 24 h. The specimens were then tested at a load-
ing rate of 1.25 mm/min. in the direction of depth of brick. For modulus of rupture,
brick specimens were placed flat such that span between the supports was 40 mm
less than the actual length. Load was applied in the direction of depth of specimen
at its mid span. The frog was kept on the compression side. A steel plate of 6 mm
thickness and 40 mm width was used at the top to apply load.
To study the durability properties, water absorption, initial rate of absorption,
apparent porosity, efflorescence, freeze-thaw resistance and sulfate attack resis-
tance tests were performed. To measure water absorption according to ASTM C67
[34], brick specimens were first dried and then completely submerged in clean
water at room temperature for 24 h (Fig. 4). Afterwards, specimens were removed
W  D
P  100 1
W  S
where, P is the apparent porosity, W is the saturated weight, D is the dry weight and
S is the suspended weight of the specimen.
To measure the efflorescence, specimens were partially immersed on one end in
distilled water in a constant depth of 25 mm for 45 days. After 45 days, brick spec-
imens were examined after drying in an oven for 24 h.
To check the resistance of brick specimens against freeze and thaw, specimens
were placed in the freezing and thawing condition according to ASTM C67 [34].
Samples were kept in freezing and thawing conditions for 50 cycles: each cycle hav-
ing 20 h of freezing up to 10 C and 4 h of thawing in water at room temperature.
After every 5 cycles of freezing and thawing, specimens were air and oven dried for
24 and 20 h, respectively. The dried specimens were visually examined for cracks or
other damages (if any). Furthermore, specimens were weighed in order to measure
the weight loss.
Durability of bricks was studied by fully immersing the specimens in sodium
sulfate solution (Fig. 6). Solution of 50 g of sodium sulfate per liter of water was pre-
pared as per ASTM C1012 (Standard test method for length change of hydraulic-
cement mortars exposed to a sulfate solution) [36]. After 30 days of immersion,
bricks were dried at 110 C, weighed and tested for compressive strength.
Furthermore, flaws in brick specimens were estimated using ultrasonic pulse
velocity test. Brick specimens were tested by placing transducers in opposite direc-
tions of the brick specimens along the width (Fig. 7). ASTM C597 (Standard test
method for pulse velocity through concrete) [37] was followed to perform this test.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity was determined using Eq. (2).
L
V 2
T
where, V is the ultrasonic pulse velocity, L is distance between transducers and T is
the transit time.

(a) Ash mixed with soil/clay (b) wet mixing (c) Lump
Fig. 2. Mixing of raw materials.
32 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941

(a) Brick placed for sun drying in rain (b) Brick after burning in kiln
protected shed

Fig. 3. Brick manufacturing process.

Fig. 4. Brick specimens during water absorption test. Fig. 6. Bricks immersed in sulfate solution.

Fig. 5. Set up for brick specimens for apparent porosity test.

Fig. 7. Brick specimen during ultrasonic pulse velocity test.

5. Results and discussion oxides of aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium and potassium.
Clay used in brick factories normally contains the percentages of
5.1. Properties of raw materials SiO2 in the range of 5060% [15]. Clay used in this study has SiO2
within the specified ranges. Clay has CaO more than 6% and K2O,
5.1.1. Chemical composition CaO, MgO, Fe2O3 and TiO2 concentration higher than 9%; therefore,
The chemical composition of raw materials is shown in Table 2. this clay can be referred as calcareous with low refractory proper-
It was observed that clay/soil had large fraction of silica along with ties [38,39].
 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941 33

Table 2
Chemical and physical properties of the constituents of brick specimens.

Components Clay RHA SBA

SiO2 (%) 57.05 77.21 87.97
Al2O3 (%) 11.91 6.87 1.84
Fe2O3 (%) 4.96 4.69 2.65
CaO (%) 8.98 3.65 2.65
MgO (%) 2.52 1.45 0.72
TiO2 (%) 0.68
P2O5 (%) 0.14
SO3 (%) 0.37 0.15
MnO (%) 0.08
Na2O (%) 1.86 1.24 0.28
K2O (%) 2.21 2.59 0.32 Fig. 10. XRD pattern of RHA.
LOI (%) 9.59 4.71 10.45
pH 8.55
Unit weight (kg/m3) 1120 550.54 258.6
Specific gravity 2.24 2.11 1.96
100
RHA
90
SBA
RHA was also very rich in silica content along with oxides of 80

Percentage finer (%)

aluminum, iron, calcium and potassium in smaller quantity. Clay
70
Whereas, SBA was composed essentially of SiO2. Loss on ignition
60
(LOI) for clay, SBA and RHA at 1000 C was 9.59%, 10.45% and
4.71%, respectively. LOI was more for clay and SBA in comparison 50
with RHA. This can mainly attributed to the presence of organic 40
matter in the clay and SBA. On the other hand, it should be noted
30
that the organic matter in certain amount can be desirable, as it
improves the plasticity of the mixture [40]. 20
The X-ray diffraction (XRD) scans of clay, SBA and RHA were 10
recorded as shown in Figs. 810. The XRD pattern of the clay indi- 0
cates the presence of following crystalline phases: quartz (SiO2), 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001
cinnabar (Cr2O3), halite (NaCl), alumina (Al2O3), calcite (CaCO3), Particle size (mm)
fluorite (CaF2) and hematite (Fe2O3) with highest proportion of
Fig. 11. Particle size distribution for RHA, SBA and clay.
quartz. Whereas, SBA comprised of the quartz (SiO2) in excess with
discrete presence of calcite (CaCO3) and corundum (Al2O3) and
traces of hematite (Fe2O3), fluorite (CaF2), halite (NaCl) and bornite discrete presence of hematite (Fe2O3) and traces of calcite (CaCO3)
(Cu5FeS4). In RHA, an intense presence of quartz (SiO2) with and fluorite (CaF2) were observed. Similar results for XRD patterns
were reported in previous studies [29,41].

5.1.2. Particle size distribution/microscopic study

Fig. 8. XRD pattern of soil/clay.
Particle size distribution curves are shown in Fig. 11. Results
depicted that all samples (clay, RHA and SBA) comprised of wide
range of particle sizes. According to ASTM D422 [31], major per-
centages of particles for clay/soil were approximately 58% of sand
size and 40% of silt size; RHA consisted of 73% of sand size and 25%
of silt size particles; whereas, SBA comprised of 25% of sand size
and 73% of silt size particles (Table 3). The particle size distribution
of clay/soil is important for strength development during firing
which afterwards effects the durability of burnt clay bricks [42].
For clay and RHA, coefficient of uniformity value was higher than
4 whereas; for SBA, it was less than 4. Higher value of coefficient
of uniformity indicates that the clay/soil mass consists of different
ranges of soil particles [43]. The gradation of used raw materials is
very important, as it effects the overall porosity of the brick spec-
imens [44].
Fig. 12 shows the scanning electron microscopic images of raw
materials. It was observed that clay had spherical shaped particles;

Table 3
Particle size distribution analysis of raw materials used.

Particle Content Raw materials

Soil (%) RHA (%) SBA (%)
Gravel 0 0 0
Sand 58.29 73.38 25.47
Silt 40.46 25.12 73.03
Clay 1.25 1.50 1.50
Fig. 9. XRD pattern of SBA.
34 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941

[45]. Fig. 13 shows the atterberg limits of the raw clayey material
after addition of SBA and RHA content. Results indicated that plas-
tic limit values increased with higher content of RHA. This increase
in plastic limit may be due to the reduction in the quantity of silt
and clay fraction which require more water. A decreasing trend
in liquid limit and plasticity index was also observed (Fig. 13). Sim-
ilar trend in atterberg limits was reported in previous researches
[4648]. In case of SBA mixture, a decrease in plasticity index along
with decrease in plastic and liquid limit was observed with the
increase in SBA content. This may be due to cation exchange reac-
tion and flocculation of particles, which is in agreement with pre-
vious study [47]. Generally, SBA and RHA are considered non-
plastic and non-cohesive materials, which confirms the decreasing
trend of mixtures plasticity index [29,49].
(a) Clay
5.2. Mechanical properties of brick specimens

5.2.1. Weight per unit area

Fig. 14 shows the results of weight per unit area for brick spec-
imens incorporating sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) and rice husk ash
(RHA). It was observed that with the increase in SBA and RHA con-
tents, the weight per unit area of the brick specimens decreased
leading to lighter bricks (Table 4). For example, with 15% replace-
ment of clay with SBA and RHA, approximately 15% and 4% lighter
bricks can be produced, respectively. The reduction in weight was
higher in bricks incorporating SBA due to its lesser unit weight

Liquid Limit Plastic Limit

Plasticity Index Clay Plastic Limit
(b) SBA Clay Liquid Limit Clay Plasticity Index
35

30
Atterberg Limits (%)

25

20

15

10

0
RHA5 RHA10 RHA15 SBA5 SBA10 SBA15

Fig. 13. Effect of RHA and SBA on atterberg limits.

(c) RHA
Fig. 12. SEM images of RHA, SBA and clay.
100

whereas, SBA showed the presence of long cylindrical plates. Smal-

Weight per unit area (kg/m)

ler particles with irregular shapes were observed in RHA speci- 95 RHA
mens. Moreover, all the images showed a wide variety of particle SBA
sizes present in the raw materials in agreement with particle size Clay
90
distribution.

5.1.3. Specific gravity 85

It was observed that the specific gravity of RHA and SBA was
lower as compared to clay. The RHA and SBA had specific gravity
of 2.11 and 1.96, respectively; whereas, clay had a value of 2.24. 80
Therefore, lighter bricks can be produced using RHA and SBA.

5.1.4. Atterberg limits 75

5% 10% 15%
Atterberg limits are the description of relationship between clay Percentage replacement
particles in the presence of water. Plastic and liquid limits are gov-
erned by the mineralogical composition and clay content of soil Fig. 14. Weight per unit area incorporating RHA and SBA.
 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941 35

Table 4 60
Weight per unit area of bricks incorporating RHA and SBA.
y = -1.50x + 50.12
Mixtures Weight per unit area (kg/m2) 50 R = 0.77

Apparent porosity (%)

C 97.13
RHA5 96.93
40
RHA10 95.10
RHA15 93.68
SBA5 90.73 30 y = -1.04x + 44.65
SBA10 86.30 R = 0.98
SBA15 82.83
20
3 3 SBA Bricks
(258.6 kg/m ) compared to that of the clay (1120 kg/m ) and RHA
10
(550.54 kg/m3). Moreover, increase in porosity with waste addition RHA Bricks
also plays an important role in reducing the weight of the speci-
mens. Similar observation was reported in previous study [27]. 0
4 5 6 7 8 9
Lighter weight reduces the transportation and labor cost while,
at the same time reduction in structural load and flexibility in Compressive strength (MPa)
architectural design can be achieved. It also resulted into easier Fig. 16. Relationship between compressive strength and apparent porosity of SBA
handling and storing. and RHA waste bricks.

5.2.2. Compressive strength

The compressive strength of all the tested brick specimens is
presented in Fig. 15. The values reported in Fig. 15 were the aver-
age of five brick specimens with coefficient of variation (COV) less
than 9%. Test results showed that the control specimen without
SBA and RHA addition had higher compressive strength. Compres-
sive strength decreased with the increase in RHA and SBA replace-
ment (Fig. 15). For instance, for brick specimen having 5% of SBA by
clay weight, approximately 14% decrease in compressive strength
was observed compared to that of specimen without SBA. This
compressive strength decreased to approximately 50% for both
10% and 15% replacement of clay with SBA. Similar reduction in
compressive strength was observed with RHA replacement. Gener-
ally, it is considered that compressive strength of brick specimens
mainly depend on their density, porosity and pore size distribu-
tions [5052]. A linear relationship between compressive strength
and apparent porosity was observed as shown in Fig. 16. Similar
observations were reported in previous studies [5355].
Furthermore, decomposition of organic matter and high amount
of silica can lead to higher porosity and may induce flaws within
the burnt specimens [29]. Pressure concentration due to open
pores may cause the loss of structural compactness and decrease
the compressive strength of bricks [56]. The amount of silica pre-
sent in ash is related to soil types where sugarcane grows, along
with the soil management and fertilization method. Generally,
silica is preferred within the range of 5060% in clay. Higher
amount of silica (>60%) is undesirable in bricks [57]. Therefore,
addition of SBA and RHA having higher amount of silica is greatly
affecting the compressive strength of brick specimens. Faria et al.
[29] studied the behavior of burnt clay bricks incorporating SBA.
Results showed that the water absorption of the brick specimens
increased with the addition of SBA due to increased porosity. It
was also observed that both compressive strength and density
decreased for brick specimens incorporating SBA compared to
that of the control bricks [29]. Similar trend was observed during
this study.
For brick specimens incorporating 5% of SBA and RHA showed
compressive strength of 7.18 and 6.62 MPa, respectively. According
to Building Code of Pakistan [58], minimum compressive strength
for building brick should be 5 MPa. Therefore, it can be concluded
that 5% of SBA and RHA can be effectively replaced with clay for
sustainable brick manufacturing leading to economical production.
5.2.3. Flexural strength/modulus of rupture
Fig. 17 shows the flexural strength results for brick specimens
incorporating RHA and SBA. All modulus of rupture results
reported were represented the mean value of five brick specimens
with COV less than 10%. Results showed that the control brick
specimen had higher flexural strength compared to the specimens
incorporating SBA. Minimum flexural strength value was observed
for SBA15 (i.e. 0.67 MPa). However, in case of RHA, trend is

9
1.6
8
RHA
Compressive strength (MPa)

1.4 RHA
Modulus of rupture (MPa)

7
SBA
1.2 SBA
6 Clay
Clay
5 1.0

4 0.8

3 0.6

2 0.4

1 0.2

0 0.0
5% 10% 15% 5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement Percentage replacement

Fig. 15. Effect of RHA and SBA wastes on compressive strength of bricks. Fig. 17. Modulus of rupture for brick specimens incorporating RHA and SBA.
36 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941
different. No significant change in flexural strength was observed
for 10% incorporation of RHA in comparison with control
specimens. However, 38% reduction in flexural strength was
observed for RHA15. This trend in flexural strength for RHA was
in agreement with previous study [59]. Flexural strength of brick
specimens is normally related to the microstructure of the
specimens [60]. Porous structures as a result of RHA and SBA
incorporation in burnt clay bricks reduced the flexural strength.
According to ASTM C 67 guidelines, the minimum permissible
limit for modulus of rupture is 0.65 MPa [22,34]. All the tested
brick specimens exhibited modulus of rupture values in the range
of 0.671.49 MPa. Therefore, it can be concluded that bricks
incorporating SBA and RHA can be efficiently produced on massive
scale leading to economical and sustainable construction.
5.3. Durability properties of brick specimens
5.3.1. Apparent porosity
Porosity is one of the important characteristic of clay bricks. The
rate of transport of moisture is ten times faster in bricks as com-
pared to other materials because of capillary effect [61]. During
daytime, moisture is released from the pores and during night, it
is re-absorbed. It helps to control the temperature and humidity
of atmosphere inside the structure. On the other hand, porosity
makes vulnerable to weathering affects (polluted air and rain)
and chemical attack [44]. Therefore, porosity of construction mate-
rial has a lot of importance with regards to the performance and
applications.
Fig. 18 shows porosity results for brick specimens incorporating
RHA and SBA. It was observed that control specimens have the
least porosity (i.e. 36%) whereas, SBA15 specimens have highest
porosity value (i.e. 44%). Porosity increased with increase in the
percentage of SBA and RHA, similar to the previous studies
[3,27]. For instance, 5% increase in porosity was observed, when
dosage of SBA in the mixture increased from 5% to 15% by weight,
while an increase of 4% was observed, when dosage of RHA in the
mixture increased from 5% to 15% by weight. Porosity is related to
the water evaporation dehydroxylation reactions, carbonates
decomposition, and biomass residual combustion [52]. Generally,
small pores in bricks are generated as a result of organic matter
decomposition [62].
Fluxing agents (Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, CaO and Na2O) play a key role
in generating or reducing the porosity. Higher amount of fluxing
agents increases the liquid phase by generating molten materials
during firing process of bricks to compress the interspaces
50
RHA
45 SBA
Clay
40
Apparent porosity (%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 0
5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement
Fig. 18. Apparent Porosity results for bricks incorporating RHA and SBA.
[63,64]. Higher amount of fluxing agents in clay (20.53%) was
observed compared to that of the SBA (6.62%) and RHA (13.62%).
Therefore, increased porosity was observed for brick specimens
incorporating SBA and RHA leading to decrease the mechanical
strength properties compared to that of the control bricks. SBA also
has calcite in considerable amount. The gaseous generation
through decomposition of carbonate also generated porosity in
burnt clay bricks incorporating SBA. Moreover, it was observed
that LOI of SBA was higher compared to that of the clay which con-
firms the combustion of organic matter leading to higher porosity.
Moreover, increase in porosity could be due to the change in
amount and size of pores after incorporating RHA and SBA [65].
It may be concluded that the increase in percentage of RHA and
SBA increases the porosity inside the bricks leading to higher water
absorption capacity. On the other hand, bricks with high porosity
are usually lighter than low porosity bricks and have good insula-
tion properties [28,66]. Furthermore, previous research has shown
that the resistance to heat transfer is increased for high porosity
bricks [67]. Therefore, bricks incorporating SBA and RHA can be
utilized where improved insulation and heat transfer resistance
is required.
5.3.2. Water absorption
Water absorption is a major factor affecting the durability of
bricks [68]. Fig. 19 shows the water absorption for brick specimens
incorporating SBA and RHA. It was observed that the water absorp-
tion increased with higher percentage replacement of SBA and
RHA. For instance, mixture incorporating 10% of SBA showed water
absorption of around 24%; while, 17% for brick specimens without
SBA. This can be attributed to increased porosity with higher per-
centage of SBA and RHA. A linear relationship between water
absorption and apparent porosity was observed as shown in
Fig. 20. Similar observations were reported in previous studies
[26,29]. Brick specimens incorporating RHA showed lesser water
absorption compared to that of the specimens with SBA. For exam-
ple, brick specimen incorporating RHA showed water absorption
less than 21%. However, mixture incorporating SBA exhibited
water absorption up to 26% for 15% replacement of clay with
SBA. This may be due to porous nature of SBA [69,70]. This trend
of water absorption was in consistent with the porosity values.
According to ASTM C62 (Standard specification for building
brick solid masonry units made from clay or shale) [71], water
absorption in bricks should not be more than 17% for severe
weathering resistance and 22% for moderate weathering resis-
tance. Furthermore, various researchers have mentioned maxi-
mum water absorption limits for brick specimens ranging from
30
RHA
25 SBA
Clay
Water absorption (%)
20
15
10
5
5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement
Fig. 19. Effect of RHA and SBA on water absorption of brick specimens.
 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941 37

60 example, mixture incorporating 15% by clay weight of SBA showed

initial rate of absorption around 0.78 g/cm2/min; while, 0.46 g/
y = 1.02x + 18.35
50 R = 0.96 cm2/min for brick specimen without SBA. This can be attributed
to increased porosity with higher percentage of SBA and RHA
Apparent porosity (%)

[72]. Incorporating SBA and RHA into the burnt clay bricks gener-
40
ated micro-pores because of less amount of liquid phase and
organic waste content [73]. Quality of burnt brick and its durability
30 y = 0.93x + 20.14
is significantly affected by water suction properties. The limit for
R = 0.82
initial rate of absorption normally lies between 0.025 g/cm2/min
20 and 0.15 g/cm2/min [2,71]. For all the tested specimens, the initial
rate of absorption was higher than the limits with minimum value
10 SBA Bricks of 0.46 g/cm2/min for control specimen and maximum value of
RHA Bricks 0.81 g/cm2/min for RHA15. Therefore, it can concluded that bricks
0 should be wetted before laying for efficient bond between brick
16 19 22 25 28 and mortar.
Water absorption (%)

Fig. 20. Relationship between water absorption and apparent porosity of SBA and 5.3.4. Efflorescence
RHA waste bricks. Efflorescence is considered as an aesthetic problem due to
which a thin foggy white colored salt deposit on the surface of
the brick specimens [74]. Slight efflorescence (5% of the surface
20% to 30% [20,26,68]. Water absorption was approximately 21% area) was observed on the control specimens after 7 days. How-
and 18% for brick specimens incorporating 5% of SBA and RHA ever, no efflorescence was observed on brick specimens incorpo-
respectively (Fig. 19), so these can be used in moderate weather rating SBA and RHA. To check the efflorescence for a longer
regions effectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that the bricks period, specimens were also examined after 45 days (Fig. 22). After
incorporating lower contents of RHA and SBA (i.e. 5%) were within 45 days, minor efflorescence (10% of the surface area) was
the specified limits of water absorption leading to cost effective observed on the control specimens; however, no efflorescence
and durable construction. was observed on SBA and RHA brick specimens. Generally, calcium
oxide (CaO) plays a vital role in causing efflorescence [38]. Clay had
5.3.3. Initial rate of absorption approximately 9% of CaO; whereas, in RHA and SBA, it was only
Initial absorption rate can be defined as the absorbed water 3.65% and 2.65%, respectively. After replacing clay with RHA and
over the brick bed area of 30 square inches during one minute SBA, the quantity of CaO reduced, leading to improved efflores-
[34]. Brick and mortar bond is largely influenced by the water cence behavior. Furthermore, ferric oxide (Fe2O3) can also cause
absorption capacity of brick and water retaining power of mortar. efflorescence and less than 10% of Fe2O3 is normally recommended
If the brick absorbs excessive amount of water, the mortar faces [15]. In the clay, 5% Fe2O3 was present and therefore, slight efflo-
deficiency of its hydration water and hardens so fast that brick rescence was observed in control specimens. In RHA and SBA spec-
mortar bond in the next course cannot be developed properly. imens, the quantity of Fe2O3 was reduced further (i.e. 4.69% and
However, if initial absorption rate is too low (i.e. brick absorbs very 2.65% of Fe2O3 in RHA and SBA, respectively). Therefore, no efflo-
small amount of water), then mortar bed will tend to float the next rescence was observed in bricks incorporating RHA and SBA. Sim-
brick course. In both cases, poor bond will be achieved between ilar results were reported in previous studies [28,41]. Thus, bricks
bricks and mortar [24]. Therefore, to achieve good bond between incorporating RHA and SBA can lead to improved esthetic behavior
bricks and mortar, bricks with higher initial absorption should be of masonry construction.
wetted before laying.
Fig. 21 shows the initial rate of absorption for brick specimens
5.3.5. Freeze and thaw resistance
incorporating SBA and RHA. It was observed that the initial rate
Interaction between material and climatic factors plays a key
of absorption for brick specimens incorporating RHA and SBA
role in freeze-thaw durability of bricks [75]. During freeze and
was higher compared to that of bricks without RHA and SBA. For

0.9
Initial rate of absorption (g/min/cm)

RHA
0.8 SBA
0.7 Clay

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
5% 10% 15%
Percentage replacement

Fig. 21. Initial rate of absorption for tested brick specimens. Fig. 22. Efflorescence results on brick specimens after 45 days.
38 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941

thaw cycles, water inside the pores freezes and expands. During specimens incorporating SBA, high porosity and water absorption
change from liquid to solid state, water expands by approximately was observed and consequently showed less resistance to freeze-
9% [76]. Because of the expansion, unfilled pores can be filled with thaw behavior.
the unfrozen liquid. Damage occurs/initiates if the pore volume is
less than the volume of water expanding [17]. 5.3.6. Sulfate resistance
Fig. 23 shows the weight loss due to freeze-thaw cycles for brick In bricks, different salts are present like sodium chloride and
specimens incorporating RHA and SBA. It was observed that the calcium sulfate [78]. However, all the salts do not cause damage
brick specimens without RHA and SBA showed weight loss less except sodium sulfate and sodium chloride [79]. Sodium sulfate
than 8.5%. Bricks incorporating 5% by clay weight of RHA showed is the most destructive and frequently present salt [80].
results similar to the control specimens. However, at higher Generally, it was observed that the compressive strength of
replacement level (i.e.10% and 15%), more weight loss was bricks decreased in the sulfate environment (Fig. 25). For instance,
observed. In case of bricks incorporating SBA, weight loss up to strength reduction in the control specimen without SBA and RHA
19% was observed after 50 cycles (Fig. 23). was approximately 24%; whereas, it ranged from 18 to 34% and
According to ASTM C67 [34], specimen can be considered as 19 to 35% for SBA and RHA brick specimens respectively, depend-
unacceptable, if it cracks during freeze-thaw cycles or weight loss ing on the percentage replacement of clay with SBA and RHA
increases by 3%. No cracks were observed in brick specimens after (Table 5). This reduction in compressive strength can be attributed
50 freeze-thaw cycles. All the tested brick specimens showed to the pressure generated by the crystallization of sulfate salts
weight loss less than 3% after 30 cycles of freezing and thawing inside the micro-pores leading to internal micro-cracking. Further-
(Fig. 24). However, weight loss greater than 3% was observed after more, it was observed that the brick specimens incorporating 5% of
50 freeze-thaw cycles. RHA and SBA were more sulfate resistant as compared to control
Generally, the resistance against freeze-thaw is governed by bricks because of their lesser reduction in compressive strength
porosity in the specimen [77]. Water penetrates during the thaw- after sulfate immersion.
ing period and produces expansion while freezing. Higher stresses Results also showed that weight gain in the control specimen
due to freeze and thaw were observed in high pore volume speci- was around 17%, whereas, it ranged from 15 to 34% and 11 to
mens leading to decrease the durability properties [38]. In brick 30% for SBA and RHA brick specimens, respectively. The weight
gain may be due to the partial filling of sulfate crystals within
the pores. Similar results regarding compressive strength reduc-
25 tion and weight gain were also reported in previous study [81].
Based on results, it can be concluded that replacement of clay in
Weight loss due to freeze and thaw (%)

RHA
bricks with SBA and RHA up to 5% improves the resistance against
SBA sulfate attack.
20
Clay

15
Reduction in Strength (%) Weight Gain (%)
40
10
35

30
5
25

0 20
5% 10% 15%
15
Percentage replacement
10
Fig. 23. Weight loss due to freeze-thaw after 50 cycles.
5

0
20 C RHA5 RHA10 RHA15 SBA5 SBA10 SBA15
C
RHA5 Fig. 25. Strength reduction and weight loss results due to sulfate attack in brick
RHA10 specimens.
15
RHA15
Mass loss (%)

SBA5
SBA10 Table 5
10 Durability properties of bricks incorporating RHA and SBA.
SBA15
Mixtures Sulfate test Freeze and thaw
Strength reduction Weight gain Weight loss
5 % % %
C 24.78 17.07 8.324
RHA5 19.32 30.02 8.631
RHA10 25.89 16.32 11.621
0 RHA15 35.05 11.48 12.788
0 10 20 30 40 50
SBA5 23.48 18.62 13.245
Freeze and thaw cycles SBA10 17.68 34.19 14.227
SBA15 34.40 15.50 19.737
Fig. 24. Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on weight loss of bricks.
 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941 39

6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test

For a long time, the quality of concrete has been evaluated suc-
cessfully using ultrasonic pulse velocity method [82]. Ultrasonic
pulse velocity test (UPV) is appropriate to detect flaws in addition
to predicting compressive strength [83]. For suitable selection of
the brick, the evaluation of its quality is very important. For eval-
uating the mechanical and durability properties of brick, ASTM
standard procedures involve destructive testing and are time con-
suming [83]. Therefore, non-destructive testing like ultrasonic
pulse velocity test can be used in order to reduce the time and cost
of evaluation. In this study, bricks were also evaluated using UPV.
Fig. 26 shows the results of UPV for brick specimens incorporating
RHA and SBA. It was found that UPV decreased for brick specimens
incorporating SBA and RHA. For instance, UPV values reduced from
(a) Clay brick specimen
1643 m/s to 1131 m/s and 1643 m/s to 1098 m/s for 10% SBA and
15% RHA brick specimens, respectively. Generally, pulse velocity
increases with an increase in compressive strength [84]. In all
the tested bricks, UPV results were in consistent with the compres-
sive strength values. According to previous studies [83], bricks may
be considered durable if UPV is greater than 3500 m/s and non-
durable for UPV less than 1000 m/s. For the value of UPV between
1000 and 3500 m/s, it was recommended to evaluate the durability
of bricks using UPV testing along with ASTM standard procedures
[83]. In this study, the UPV values for all the tested brick specimens
ranged from 1000 to 2000 m/s. Therefore, ASTM C67 standard pro-
cedures was adopted for evaluating the performance of bricks.

7. Microstructure and color

(b) SBA15 brick specimen
Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images of clay brick,
SBA15 and RHA15 specimens are shown in Fig. 27. Microstructure
of all the brick specimens incorporating SBA and RHA was porous
in nature, which is the main reason of their lesser unit weight than
the conventional bricks. Bricks incorporating SBA showed higher
porosity than clay bricks with RHA.
Control brick specimens showed homogenous and dense struc-
ture under microscopic observations. However, RHA and SBA brick
specimens showed comparatively less binding and densification
along with open pores, which were irregular shaped and intercon-
nected. Presence of micro pores in all the specimens might be
related to the crystallization process [62]. SEM images are also con-
sistent with porosity and water absorption results. Increase in
porosity after incorporation of SBA and RHA reduced the compres-
sive strength of clay bricks.
(c) RHA15 brick specimen

1800 Fig. 27. Microstructure/SEM images of Clay, SBA15 and RHA15.

1600
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (m/s)

RHA Brick Color is an important parameter for aesthetics. Normally,

1400 SBA iron oxide is considered responsible for color [62]. Waste (SBA and
1200 Clay RHA) addition in burnt clay bricks did not affect the color of the
specimens. All the tested bricks were of red color because the ratio
1000
of Fe2O3/Al2O3 was greater than 0.33 in all the raw materials [64].
800 Moreover, surface and black core defects were not observed in any
specimen.
600

400
8. Summary and conclusions
200
In this study, the properties of clay bricks incorporating rice
0
5% 10% 15% husk ash (RHA) and sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) were investi-
Percentage replacement gated. Utilization of RHA and SBA wastes as a raw material in man-
ufacturing of clay bricks can be an important way of recycling for
Fig. 26. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test for bricks incorporating RHA and SBA. final disposal of these abundant wastes, leading to conservation
40 S.M.S. Kazmi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 120 (2016) 2941
of fertile soil. The RHA and SBA used in this study were low-cost
waste materials, having high percentage of crystalline silica
(SiO2), which may behave as a filler material.
RHA and SBA can be potentially used in the production of
lighter clay bricks. It was observed that 15% replacement of clay
with SBA and RHA wastes result in approximately 15% and 4%
lighter bricks respectively, compared to that bricks without RHA
and SBA. This decrease in the weight of bricks can reduce the over-
all dead load and consequently economical structures can be
constructed.
Although, the compressive and flexural strengths decreased
with increased proportions of RHA and SBA. However, brick speci-
mens incorporating 5% by clay weight of RHA and SBA showed
compressive strength of 6.62 MPa and 7.18 MPa respectively,
which satisfies the requirement of compressive strength specified
by the Building Code of Pakistan for masonry construction. Simi-
larly, all the tested bricks incorporating RHA and SBA satisfies
the minimum modulus of rupture criteria specified by ASTM C67
(i.e. >0.65 MPa).
Furthermore, it was observed that the porosity increased with
increasing amount of RHA and SBA leading to increase in water
absorption. Bricks incorporating 5% of RHA and SBA showed water
absorption less than approximately 18% and 21% respectively;
therefore, can be used as moderate weather resistive bricks. On
the other hand, these bricks with high porosity usually have good
insulation properties. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) also
showed the porous microstructure of the brick specimens after
incorporating SBA and RHA. All the tested bricks showed initial
rate of absorption higher than 0.15 g/min/cm2; therefore, they
should be submerged in water before their use in masonry
construction.
Resistance against sulfate attack was improved by incorporat-
ing 5% of RHA and SBA, which shows that these bricks may be used
in sulfate environment for better performance. Moreover, it was
observed that the resistance against efflorescence has been signif-
icantly improved by incorporating SBA and RHA. Moreover, no
brick specimens showed cracking during freeze-thaw cycles. How-
ever, bricks showed weight loss greater than 3% after 50 cycles of
freezing and thawing. It was found that UPV reduces as the quan-
tity of SBA and RHA increases. UPV for all the tested bricks lies
between 1000 and 2000 m/s.
Based on limited results and observations, it can be concluded
that the incorporation of RHA and SBA up to 5% in burnt clay bricks
can be effectively used for massive scale brick production leading
to economical and sustainable construction.
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