CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The earthquake engineering is the scientific field concerned with protective society,

the natural environment and the environment from earthquake by the seismic risk. The

purpose of the seismic engineering is to, minimize the damage and disturbance to

residents in moderate and minor earthquake, maintain the key function of the infrastructure

/building are Protect the lives of those outside the building & to Protect other

property and the environment. For brittle buildings, there is a clear threshold below

which little damage occurs, above which collapse is likely. Sudden brittle failures such as

shear failures are the main cause of collapse and should be avoided. For a building to be

earthquake resistant it must be, Configured well, detailed well, constructed well. Some

recommendations for the structure for improving seismic resistance are, Building must

resist horizontal loads from any direction, horizontal force must be transferred to the

ground, configure building to resist loads, ensure building elements are tied together

and avoid structural weakness in the building configuration the column with excellent

ductile behaviour should be capable of absorbing and dissipating seismic energy. Figure

1.1 shows coloumn damage Reinforced concrete circular columns show almost the same

behaviour in every direction.

Fig 1.1. Column damage

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 In order to establish FRP as strengthening or retrofitting material for masonry

structures in India, more experimental research work is to be carried out. More experimental

work in this context will also be useful to form IS codes or guidelines for application of FRP

for strengthening or retrofitting material for masonry structures. The mathematical model for

FRP strengthened masonry columns has been developed for Indian conditions. Development

of mathematical model for FRP retrofitted masonry walls subjected to in-plane lateral load

considering the available experimental results can be done. A complete testing setup,

including testing frame can be developed which will be instrumental in increasing

experimental studies on FRP strengthened masonry elements. The advanced composite fiber

wrap system can be applied in the field for strengthening of masonry columns. More than

60% of area of India falls under seismic zone III and above, hence FRP retrofitting can be

adopted for increasing in- plane lateral capacity of masonry walls.

1.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING SEISMIC RESISTANCE

1.1.1 Ductility

The fiber composites are linear elastic material without any defined yield

point. Ductility can be defined as the capability of a structure to deform, while carrying

the load even when the maximum load bearing capacity is exceeded. The ductility is

divided into material ductility and structural ductility. The steel bars in the structural

members are often considered to have a very ductile behaviour. A structure in brittle

failure in the shear may be strengthened, so that the failure mode changes to more ductile

1.1.2 Energy dissipation capacity

The energy is transformed from some initial form to final form, the capacity of the

final form to do mechanical work is less than that of the initial form. A reinforced concrete

member dissipates energy by experiencing inelastic behaviour during cyclic loading.

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1.1.3 Deformability

Plastic hinge length and ultimate curvature are the crucial parameters that enable

inelastic deformability. High rates of loading and high axial compression and high shear

stress reversals reduce deformability and confinement of the core concrete increase

deformability.

1.1.4 Flexural Strength

It is defined as the materials ability to undergo deformation under loading. It is also

known as modulus of rupture, bend strength or transverse rupture strength.

1.2 METHODS FOR IMPROVING SEISMIC RESISTANCE

The earthquake resistant structures designed to withstand earthquake. While no

structure can have entire immune to damage from earthquake. The goal of the earthquake

resistant construction is to erect structures, that for better during seismic activity than their

conventional counterparts. Some of the methods for seismic resistance be,

1.2.1 Base Isolation Method

Base isolation introduces flexibility to the structures. Building will be rested on

flexible pads (Base isolators), when the earthquake strikes the building, the building does not

move, it will be suitable for hard soil only. The type of the base isolators be Lead rubber

bearing & spherical sliding isolation.

1.2.2 Use energy dissipation device (seismic dampers)

Seismic dampers are used in place of structural elements diagonal braces. It acts

like hydraulic absorbers in car. When seismic energy transmitted through them, dampers

absorb part of it and thus damp the motion of the building. The introductions of the

transverse confinement can significantly improve the strength, ductility and energy

dissipation capacity of reinforced concrete columns and enhance the seismic resistance.The

3
increased transverse confinement can also improve the deformability and flexural strength of

concrete columns.The required transverse confinement should be enhanced with the increase

of axial load level to satisfy seismic design criterion.

1.2.3 Use FRP confinement

Basically FRP is composed of fibers and matrix. The fibers will provide strength and

stiffness e.g. carbon, glass, aramid. Matrix protects and transfers load between the fibers e.g.

Polyester, Epoxy, Vinyl, Ester Urethane.

1.2.4 Properties of FRP

FRP is anisotropic and have high strength in the direction of the fibers. The

anisotropic behaviour affects the shear strength, dowel action and bond performance. FRP

does not exhibit yielding. Material is linear elastic under failure. Design should account for

the lack of ductility. Member does have substantial deformability. The Composite features of

the FRP are, It is Impervious to chloride ion and other chemical attack. The Tensile strength

of the FRP is greater than steel. It weighs only th weight of the steel transparent to

magnetic fields and radar frequency. It is electrically and thermally non conductive

FRP Rebar

The fiber reinforced beam can be used at, Any concrete susceptible to corrosion

by chloride ions or chemicals, Any concrete member requiring Non- Ferrous reinforcement

due to Electromagnetic consideration. It can be used as an alternative to Epoxy, galvanized

or stainless steel. Its Applications are requiring thermal conductivity, Where machinery will

consume the reinforced member i.e, mining & tunnelling.

FRP composites

It is a composite material made of polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibers

are usually glass, carbon aramid or basalt. FRP composite profiles are FRP reinforcing bars,

FRP frame connections, Externally bonded FRP, Mechanically fastened FRP & strengthening

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strips & FRP column wraps. The material type of the FRP composite . Are Carbon fiber

reinforced polymer (CFRP)Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) and Basalt fiber

reinforced polymer (BFRP). Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced

plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP or often simply

carbon fiber, carbon composite or even carbon), is an extremely strong and light fiber-

reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers.GFRP has a very high strength to weight

ratio. GFRP has low weights of 2 to 4 lbs. per square foot means faster installation, less

structural framing, and lower shipping costs.

GFRP has resists against salt water, chemicals, and the environment - unaffected by

acid rain, salts, and most chemicals. Research shows that GFRP has no loss of laminate

properties after 30 years.

Basalt fiber is a material made from extremely fine fibers of basalt, which is

composed of the minerals plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine. It is similar to fiberglass,

having better physic-mechanical properties than fiberglass, but being significantly cheaper

than carbon fiber. It has been used as a building retrofitting material for structural elements

failed because of seismic loads.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

FRP stay in place formwork with high strength concrete There are different methods

of application of FRP composites on column. First one is the use of FRP stay in place

formwork with high strength concrete. The study about the FRP stay in place formwork with

high strength concrete was done by Togay Ozbakkaloglu and Murat saasciogluu in 2007.

The use of FRP stay in place form work will be an alternative to conventional reinforcement.

Large scale HSC columns encased in FRP casings were tested under simulated seismic

loading. The casings were manufactured from carbon FRP and epoxy resin. The corner

radius is the test parameter. The presence of internally placed cross ties integrally built with

column casings, to improve the effectiveness of concrete reinforcement. Result indicates

that the confinement effectiveness of column is significantly affected by corner radius and the

deformation capacity of HSC columns can be improved significantly can be using FRP

casings. In 2012 Pedram Zohrevand, Amir Mirmiran said that the unique features of ultra-

high-performance concrete (UHPC) is in damage tolerance, energy absorption, and

deformability were combined with the superior performance of concrete-filled fiber-

reinforced polymer (FRP) tubes(CFFTs) to develop an ovelhybrid system of FRP tube and

UHPC, and the cyclic behaviour of this system evaluated Carbon FRP stay in place form

work can develop ductile behaviour. Theuse of FRP formwork substantially increases

deformability of square columns. Flexural capacity of columns with stay in-place form work

can be computed using plain section analysis. Figure 2.1 templates used to manufacture FRP

casings & FRP crossties. Figure 2.2 shows Placement of crossties in columns.

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 Fig 2.1. Templates used to manufacture FRP casings & FRP crossties

Fig 2.2 Placement of crossties in columns

2.1 BFRP BARS AND BFRP SHEET REINFORCEMENT

The one another type is the use of BFRP bars or BFRP sheet reinforcement. The study

about the BFRP bars and sheets were done by Liu- Zhen Yao and Gang wu in 2016. The FRP

can be used to increase the axial load carrying capacity of the column with minimal increase in

7
the cross-sectional area. the seismic behaviour of pre damaged reinforced concrete

columns repaired using early-strength cement mortar and basalt fiber-reinforced polymer and

has been investigated through lateral reversed cyclic tests on seven large-sized RC columns.

Two pre damage levels, moderate damage and severe damage were assigned to the RC

columns through cyclic loading. The axial load and residual displacement were kept constant

during the retrofitting process, and the retrofitted columns were retested after 6 days of

mortar and epoxy curing at room temperature. The ductility and energy dissipation capacities

of the fiber-reinforced polymer(FRP)-retrofitted pre damaged RC columns were greatly

improved after early-strength cement mortar perfusion and BFRP wrapping compared with

the original intact columns. Confinement consists of wrapping the column with BFRP sheets;

The use of the confinement increases the lateral pressure on the member which results in

more ductility and higher load carrying capacity. FRP reinforcements for structural elements

in construction have raised the interest of structural engineers since the beginning of the fiber

reinforced plastics industry and the use of FRP composite materials with various fiber

reinforcement types has become an interesting alternative as reinforcement for various

concrete members.

In 2015 Gao Ma and Hui were conducted their studies on BFRP and said that

Comparison between the numerical simulations and experimental results indicate that the

proposed method is appropriate for predicting pushover curves and the hysteresis response of

strengthened columns. Simple BFRP model converts equivalent stress-strain reinforcement

for easy implementation in fiber based analysis The bond slip affects initiates the premature

fracturing of NSM FRP bars and lead to more effective utilization of near surface mounted

(NSM) reinforcement and amore ductile column behaviour. The texture of the FRP bar is a

retrofit parameter that can be used to control the inelastic performance of lap splice. The

texture of the BFRP bars can be used to control the inelastic deformation of the RC column.

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Figure 2.3 shows confinement and figure 2.4 shows FRP sheets application and Fig.2.6.

shows FRP Bars.

Fig.2.3 FRP confinement Fig.2.4. FRP sheets application

Fig.2.6. FRP Bars

2.2 STRENGTHENING OF LAP SPLICES USING CFRP

In 2015 Amer M. Elsouri and Mohamed M. Harajii said that the approach is based

on providing adequate concrete confinement within the splice zone for allowing the

spliced bars to theoretically develop enough post elastic tension strains demanded by

large earthquakes before experiencing splitting bond failure. The accuracy of the

approach was validated experimentally by evaluating the seismic behaviour of full-

scale gravity load-designed (as-built) rectangular columns that were strengthened or

repaired in accordance with the proposed approach. Three types of confinement were

used and compared, namely, internal steel ties, external fiber polymer reinforced

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jackets, and a combination of both. Repair or strengthening of as built column of current

investigation by providing an area of confining reinforcement with in the spliced zone

allowed the spliced bars to develop sizable post yield strains. The columns the acquire

considerably larger lateral loads and energy dissipation capacities and to experience

much less damage than the as-built columns.

In 2015 Mohammed F. M. Fahmy and Zhisen Wu said that The bond

conditionbetween the BFRP bars and the surrounding materials was examined using bars

with smooth and rough textures. Three columns were designed with poor detail in the

longitudinal lap splices and improper transverse confinement; one sample served as a

reference, and the others were strengthened with NSM BFRP bars and an external

BFRP jacket around the plastic hinge zone. The test results were assessed in terms of the

seismic performance of a well-designed column. The test results indicated that the

texture of the FRP bars is a key retrofit design parameter that can be used to control the

inelastic performance of lap-splice columns.

2.3 WRAPPING WITH FRP JACKETS

In 2004 Xinbao Yang, Jun Wei, Antonio Nanni and Lokeswarappa R. Dharani found

that the stiffness of the applied FRP jacket was the key parameter in the design of external

jacket retrofits. It was concluded that the use of FRP significantly enhances strength,

ductility, and energy absorption capacity of Columns. Here the steel- I-sections encased by

concrete wrapped with epoxy saturated glass and carbon FRP sheets. Confining pressure

provided by FRP jackets and composite actions between constituent materials resulted in the

compressive behaviour. In 2012 Kian Karimi Ph.D, Wael W. El-Dakhakhni and Michael J.

Tait found that FRP enhances the strength and ductility of the RC columns wrapping by

providing pressure confinement. Confinement efficiency decreases with increased

slenderness parameter on failure mode changes from loss of c/s to loss of member stability.

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The stability using the FRP jacket were done in order to increase load carrying capacity. The

energy dissipation capacity will be 2-14 times larger than of steel columns. Figure 2.6

Shows Schematic of composite columns

Fig 2.6 Schematic of composite columns

Precast post tensioned segmental FRP confined and unconfined crum rubber concrete

columns In 2017 Reza Hassanli, Osama Youssl and Julie E. Mills found that The effect

of the confinement on the strength of rubberized concrete was higher than that of the

conventional concrete. Increased the column post tensioning force increases the

measured peak load and decreases the ultimate drift for both unconfined and FRP-

confined specimens. FRP confined specimens establishes ductile behaviour without

noticeable damage throughout the cycle test. One layer of the FRP confinement for the

bottom most segments showed a significant effect on the columns peak load, ultimate

drift and post peak stiffness. Figure 2.7 shows FRP confined segments preparation

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 Fig 2.7 FRP confined segments preparation

Precast post tensioned segmental FRP confined and unconfined crumb rubber

concrete columns In 2017 Reza Hassanli, Osama Youssl and Julie E. Mills found that

The effect of the confinement on the strength of rubberized concrete was higher than that

of the conventional concrete. Increased the column post tensioning force increases the

measured peak load and decreases the ultimate drift for both unconfined and FRP-

confined specimens. FRP confined specimens establishes ductile behaviour without

noticeable damage throughout the cycle test. One layer of the FRP confinement for the

bottom most segments showed a significant effect on the columns peak load, ultimate

drift and post peak stiffness.

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2.4 CONCRETE FILLED FRP TUBE COLUMNS
In 2005 Yan Xiao, Wenhui He, found that the concrete filled FRP tube column will be

capable of developing very high inelastic deformation capacities under seismic loading. The

main parameters of the experimental study were the axial load level, column cross-sectional

shape, concrete strength, amount and type of FRP confinement, and FRP tube corner radius.

Increase the corner radius will increase the column lateral drift capacities. The influence of

the cross-sectional shape is found to be significant, with the circular CFFT exhibiting a larger

lateral drift capacity compared with the companion square CFFTs This will control the local

buckling of the steel tube and confining the concrete in the potential plastic hinge region. The

lateral drift capacity increases with the increase in the amount of confinement. The column

deformability decreases with increase in axial load level and concrete compressive strength.

CFFTs with FRP tube made of higher ultimate tensile strain appear to develop slightly higher

lateral drift capacity than companion CFFTs with FRP tubes constructed of fibers with lower

ultimate tensile strain. Figure 2.8 manufacturing process of CFCT coloumns.

Fig.2.8. Manufacturing process of CFFT columns

Non laminated FRP strap elements for Reinforced concrete applications

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 In 2005 J.M. Lees and A.U Winistorfer states that non laminated FRP straps

have been found to have higher efficiencies than equivalent laminated straps,

which is advantageous in high-tension applications. Non laminated straps have a wide

range of uses in combination reinforced with concrete structures. A CFRP strap

represents a versatile, durable, lightweight, self-anchoring tension element. When the

strap is nonlaminated, higher efficiencies can be achieved because of a reduction in the

stress concentrations in bend regions. Nonlaminated thermoplastic straps rely on the

integrity of the fusion-bonded joint. Laminating the straight legs of the strap while

leaving the curved support regions nonlaminated would reduce reliance on the joint

region. Nonlaminated prestressed CFRP strap elements have a wide range of uses in

combination with reinforced concrete, timber, and masonry structures. The CFRP straps

are un bonded, which means that in most cases they can be fairly easily inspected, and

provision can be made for future replacement.

PET-FRP confined columns

In 2016 Shahzad Saleem Qudeer Hussain and Amorn Pimanmas, presents the results

of an experimental study on the compressive behaviour of circular and noncircular concrete

columns confined by poly ethylene terephthalate (PET) fiber-reinforced polymer(FRP). The

main objective of this study is to observe the compressive behaviour of PET FRP-confined

noncircular concrete columns, in which the cross-sectional geometry significantly influences

the effectiveness of FRP confinement. In contrast to linear tensile strain stress-strain response

of conventional FRP materials, Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)-FRP composite exhibit a

bilinear tensile stress-strain response. In 2013 Ahokan vvsuki The compressive stress strain

response of PET-FRP confined column is tri linear and consists of three different parts The

first part is similar to unconfined concrete with the peak strength slightly higher than that of

unconfined strength. A significant strength softening observed in 2nd position. Until the FRP

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rupture, the curve starts to ascend again. The c/s geometry significantly influence the

effectiveness of FRP confinement. PET-FRP exhibit larger rupture strain and exhibit highly

ductile behavior. In 2013 Arsalan Tavassoli and smamim shake stated that computational

method was developed to estimate the shear resisted by concrete, spirals, and CFRP

jacket and the confinement pressure provided by spirals and the CFRP jacket using

measured strains at different damage states.

It was concluded that even yielded spirals partially contribute to shears

strengthening damaged columns however, their contribution to confinement is

negligible. Based on this finding, repair design guidelines for standard columns were

developed to aid bridge engineers in quickly determining the number of CFRP layers needed

based on the apparent damage, column aspect ratio, diameter, and longitudinal steel ratio.

The bonding fiber reinforced polymer has been commonly used to seismic behavior of

circular reinforced columns in engineering practice. FRP jackets have a significant stress

hysteresis effect in this strengthening method. The initial lateral confined stress provided by

bpre stressed FRP strips can effectively inhibit the large emergence and development of

diagonal shear cracks and change the failure mode of specimens from brittle shear failure to

bending or bending shear failure with such ductility. For the improvement of the seismic

resistance of the structure, the bearing capacity, ductility, energy dissipation capacity and

deformation capacity of the strengthened specimens should have to be improved.

This paper aims to evaluate the feasibility of using GFRP as internal lateral

reinforcement in columns and presents the experimental results of seven circular columns

that were tested under simulated earthquake forces which included constant axial load and

cyclic lateral displacement excursions. In addition to the moment versus curvature

response and shear versus deflection behaviour, a number of ductility parameters related to

curvature and displacement, and work and energy dissipation are used to evaluate the

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performance of specimens. Due to their linear elastic behaviour until rupture at a strain of

approximately 0.02, GFRP spirals provided continuous confinement to the columns

seismic resistance capacity of the concrete with the cause of corrosion of the steel in

concrete structures can be improved by the use of the Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)

as an replacement of steel.

The application of GFRP as lateral reinforcement in concrete columns

minimizes the corrosion concerns and delivers a strong and ductile column response. The

strengthening of the structure for the flexure may lead to shear failure instead of giving the

desired increased load bearing capacity, because of the changed stiffness in an undetermined

structural system; the whole structure must be investigated. The strengthening should also

be designed with considerations to minimize the maintenance and repair needs.

Factors affecting the effectiveness of confinement

There are some factors which will affect the different strengthening scheme, they

are different strengthening scheme

Internal confinement
External confinement
Curvature radius of corners
Amount of FRP reinforcement
Cross sectional aspect ratio
Material of masonry blocks
Internal confinement is that, in the Internal confinement using vinyl ester will be used for

fabrication for FRP reinforcing bars and it will provide superior durability characteristic,

when embedded in concrete. In the External confinement, The strengthening is not nearly as

effective. Epoxy will be used for strengthening using FRP sheets/ plates with superior

adhesive characteristics when embedded in concrete.

The amount of the FRP greatly affects the length of the plastic hinge region and drift

capacity of the FRP retrofitted column. Increase in the confinement after crucial value cause

16
reduction in the deformation capacity of the column. Amount of the confinement FRP jackets

affect the drift capacity of the FRP retrofitted columns. Confinement at low level will

increase the drift capacity of the column. After a critical value further increase in the

confinement will reduce the deformation capacity of the column. The latter is the effect of

cross sectional aspect ratio. Large aspect ratio has a + ve effect compared with the

performance of columns monotonically loaded until failure. These cycles of every

displacement excursions significantly affect the drift capacity.

The material of the masonry block is also a depending factor governing FRP

confinement. In confined masonry construction, the masonry walls carry the seismic loads

and RC confining elements are used to confine the walls. Confined masonry uses locally

available materials and known construction technologies and is particularly appropriate for up

to four- story buildings. Effect of corner radius is also a governing factor, The maximum

efficiency confining system using FRP materials is reached in case of columns with circular

cross section and is explained by the fact that the entire section of the column is involved into

the confinement effect.

Advantage of circular columns over cross sectioned columns in about

confinement effectiveness

In 2010 Dong-Sheng Gu, Gang Wu, Zhi- Shen Wu and Yu-Fei Wu done their studies

on effectiveness of circular columns and concluded that, Circular columns are more effective

than rectangular columns i.e., rectangular confining reinforcement is less efficient as the

confinement action is mostly located at the corners. Square columns are also less confinement

effectiveness than circular columns because of less corner radius. In the circular columns,

confining pressure is uniform and is a function of the hoop strength of jacket. But in the

square sections, the confining pressure varies from maximum at the corners to minimum in

between the edges. The ultimate strength of the square section is lower than their peak

17
strength whereas for circular sections, the peak and the ultimate strength are the same.

Volumetric response is also a factor enhancing confinement effectiveness in circular

columns, which shows a descending post peak response in square sections but it shows a

form of plasticity due to strain hardening process in circular columns. Failure of the

cylindrical specimens were generally marked by fiber rupture at or near its mid height, after

which the specimen could not carry additional load in square specimens, a significant load

drop would accompany a popping noise after which the load would stabilize at a lower value.

In 1999 Amir mirmiran and Mohsen shahawy states that Confinement effectiveness of

fiber reinforced plastic FRP jackets (shells) in concrete columns depends on several

parameters, including concrete strength, types of fibers and resin, fiber volume and fiber

orientation in the jacket, jacket thickness, shape of cross section, length-to-diameter

(slenderness) ratio of the column, and the interface bond between the core and the jacket. In

this paper effects of shape, length, and bond on FRP-confined concrete are studied. Square

sections are shown to be less effective in confining concrete than their circular counterparts.

Their effectiveness is measured by a modified confinement ratio that is a function of the

corner radius and the jacket's hoop strength.

Tests on FRP confined concrete

Some tests on the FRP confined columns are constant axial loading test,

uniaxial compressive test and seismic loading. In the Constant axial loading test an axial

load is a force administered along the lines of the axis. Axial loading occurs when an

object is loaded so that the force is normal to the axis. In the Uniaxial compressive tests

predict to complete stress strain curves of concrete subjected to tri axial stresses, which

were caused by axial loading and lateral force. In the Seismic loading, the

specimens/confined columns were subjected to seismic loading. Seismic loading will be

done in order to find the resistance of the specimen, against seismic collapse in terms

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of ductility, deformability etc. Seismic loading should be done to predict seismic

resistance. It is concluded that whereas. Adhesive bond does not affect load-carrying

capacity of FRP-confined concrete, mechanical bond (shear connectors) significantly

improves the performance of the section by distributing the confinement pressure more

effectively around the circumference of the tube.

Advantage of FRP confined columns

Corrosion resistance (inherent corrosion)

High strength - weight ratio
Low maintenance.
Extended service life
Design flexibility & strong adaptability
Due to the lightweight of FRP materials implies that the installation procedure is
Faster, easier, and less dangerous for the operator.
improved chemical resistance

Gaps in literature

Future study can be done in the effectiveness of the FRP confinement system

on concrete columns and to find the behaviour against severe seismic conditions.

Additional research will be necessary on the measurement of radial stress and radial

stress distribution for different type of FRP material system and geometry

CHAPTER 3
NEW MODEL OF CFRP-CONFINED CIRCULAR
CONCRETE
3.1 COLUMNS: ANN APPROACH
The application of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites in civil engineering

works has increased in recent years, especially in the area of strengthening concrete

19
columns. The objective of this research is to develop new mathematical models for

predicting the confined compressive strength of carbon FRP (CFRP) circular concrete

columns using artificial neural networks (ANNs), which is done using 208 excremental

data results collected from the literature. Two mathematical models were developed: one

depended on six input parameters, whereas the other depended only on three important

parameters, namely, unconfined compressive strength of concrete, total thickness of the

CFRP, and tensile strength of CFRP along the hoop direction. Comparison of the new two

models using experimental data showed a good agreement and accuracy of the developed

ANN models inpredicting the CFRP-confined compressive strength of circular concrete

columns. The new models were also used to perform a parametric study to evaluate the

effect of the input parameters on the CFRP-confined compressive strength of circular

concrete columns. Externally bonded carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite

sheets and laminates have been used widely in civil engineering construction to strengthen

reinforced concrete (RC) components because of their high strength, light weight, ease in

use, durability against weather conditions, chemical resistance properties, relative low

cost, and ease in repair.These CFRP composites are used for strengthening of columns .

Confinement of the columns using CFRP jackets is done by wrapping the fibers along the

hoop direction of the concrete columns. Concrete expands laterally when subjected to

axial compression. The FRP jacket provides a confining pressure to the concrete to resist

the expansion caused by the axial compression. Ultimate failure occurs when the FRP

jacket ruptures because of the tensile stress along the hoop direction .Because of the FRP

confinement, both the compressive strength and ultimate strain of the concrete can be

improved . Artificial neural networks (ANNs) have experienced increased interest over the

last years and have been successfully applied across a range of engineering problems,

including the strengthening of columns , increasing the capacity of RC beams strengthened

20
with FRP reinforcements , prediction of the compressive strength of concrete ,linear and

nonlinear model updating of RC T-beams , predicting the bond strength of FRP-to

concrete joints , and many other engineering applications. Naderpour et al. employed the

ANN to generate a model for predicting the compressive strength of FRP-confined

concrete independently from the network. The model consisted of an empirical chart and

seven mathematical equations.

In the present study, new mathematical models are developed based on ANNs

using a database built from existing tests on CFRP-confined circular concrete specimens.

This new model is then compared with the experimental data. Finally, the trained network

model is used to perform a parametric study to evaluate the effect of various parameters on

the CFRP confined compressive strength of concrete.

3.2 AVAILABLE EMPIRICAL FRP-CONFINED MODELS

The confining pressure provided by the FRP jacket, as derived from empirical

models, is a function of the columns diameter, stiffness of the FRP jacket, and

compressive strength of the unconfined concrete. A lateral confining stress f1 is produced

in the concrete when the confining jacket and the member is loaded such that the concrete

starts to dilate and expands laterally. The stress is related to the thickness and strength of

the FRP.

(1)

Where is the tensile strength of the FRP along the hoop direction, t is the total

thickness of the FRP, and d is the diameter of the confined concrete. Several existing

strength models for FRP-confined concrete take the following form

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 (2)

Where and are the compressive strength of the confined and unconfined concrete,

respectively is the lateral confining pressure, and is the confinement effectiveness

coefficient. A number of strength models have been proposed specifically for the FRP-

confined concrete, which employ Eq. 2 with modified expressions for k 1.

3.3. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

A neural network is a computer model whose architecture essentially mimics the

knowledge acquisition and organizational skills of the human brain. The function of

artificial neurons is similar to that of real neurons ; they are able to communicate via

signals sent among them by a large number of biased and weighted connections. Each

neuron has its own transfer function, which describes how to convert a weighted sum of

input to output. The multi-layer perceptron is the most widely used type of ANN . It is

both simple and based on solid mathematical grounds. The input quantities are processed

through successive layers of neurons.An input layer (with the number of neurons equal

to the number of variables in the problem) and an output layer always exist. The layers in

between are called hidden layers. Without a hidden layer, the perceptron can only

perform linear tasks. All problems, which can be solved by a perceptron, can be solved

with only one hidden layer; however, using two or more hidden layers is sometimes more

efficient.

3.3.1 Back-propagation neural network

The back-propagation (BP) neural network is a multi-layered feed-forward. The BP neural

network adjusts internally the weight values to set the non-linear relationships between the

input and the output without giving explicitly the function expression. Further, the BP

22
neural network can be generalized for the input that is not included in the training patterns.

The BP algorithm is used to train the BP neural networks. This algorithm looks for the

minimum error function in the weight space using the method of gradient descent. The

combination of weights that minimizes the error function is considered to be a solution to

the learning problem. The input feed forward can be described by the following steps

Once the input vector i x is introduced into the input layer, it can calculate the input to the

hidden layer

as

(3)
where j b is the bias and ji w is the synaptic weight that connects input neuron i to hidden
neuron j.

Each neuron of the hidden layer takes its input H j h , uses it as the argument for a
function, and produces an output H

j y given by

(4)

The input to the neurons of output layer o k h is calculated as

(5)

and the network output k y is given by

(6)
where f represents the activation function. Then

23
 . (7)

The complete algorithm can be found

3.4 NEURAL NETWORK DESIGN AND TRAINING

A set of test results were collected from the literature for the axial compressive

strength of the circular confined concrete columns .The selected database contains 208 test

results. The data collected from the field were divided randomly into two groups. The first

group, which contained 188 results, was used in the training of the neural network, and the

other data group, which contained 20 results, was used to test the obtained networks. The

multi-layer feed-forward BP technique was implemented in the current research to develop

and train the neural network, where the sigmoid transform function was adopted. Different

training functions are available in MATLAB .The Levenberg Marquardt (LM) technique

have been proven to be an efficient training function and are therefore used to construct

the ANN model. This training function is one of the conjugate gradient algorithms that

start the training by searching in the steepest descent direction (negative of the gradient)

on the first iteration. The LM algorithm is known to be significantly faster than the more

traditional gradient descent-type algorithms for training ANNs. The input, as well as the

output, was scaled in the range of 0.1 to 0.9. The scaling of the training data sets was

carried out using the following equation:

(8)

Any new input data should be scaled before being introduced to the network and

the corresponding predicted values should be unscaled before use. For each model, several

architectures of the ANN models were examined by varying the number of hidden layers

24
and the training function parameters to establish a suitable and stable network for the

project. Each network must be tested and analyzed, and the most appropriate network must

be chosen for a particular project.

The parameters used for the input nodes in the ANN modeling were as follows:

diameter (d) of the circular concrete specimen (mm), height (L) of the circular concrete

specimen (mm), compressive strength (f C) of the unconfined concrete (MPa), total thickness

(t) of the CFRP (mm), tensile strength (f FRP) of the CFRP along the hoop direction (MPa), and

elastic modulus (EFRP) of the CFRP (MPa).The target node was the compressive strength of

the confined concrete (fcc). ,The range of the input data used is listed in Table 1. The

architecture of the developed ANN model is shown in Fig. 3.1

Table 3.1: Range of input data used in the ANN models

A regression analysis was conducted between the network

response and the corresponding targets and a correlation coefficient
was found. This option is a measure of how well the variation in the
output is explained by the targets. If this number is equal to one, then a
perfect correlation exists between the target and output predictions.
Fig. 2 shows the plot of the experimental compressive strength against

25
the corresponding ANN predictions for the test data. A linear correlation
can be observed, and the correlation coefficients are 0.977 and 0.964
for the training and the test data, respectively. Therefore, we can
conclude that the model successively predicts accurately the
compressive strength of the confined concrete.

Fig 3.1. Architecture of the first ANN model

Fig 3.2 Experimental and corresponding ANN compressive strength for the training and
test data of ANN Model

3.5 IMPORTANCE OF INPUT PARAMETERS

Because the weight of the BP neural network cannot be easily understood in a numerical
matrix form, it could be transformed into code values in percentage form by dividing the
weights by the sum for all the input parameters, which yields the relative importance of
26
each input parameter to the output parameter. The method of partitioning weights,
proposed by Garson and adopted by Goh , was used in this study to determine the relative
importance of the various input parameters (Fig. 3.3). The major important parameter that

influences the compressive strength of the confined concrete is the tensile strength

of the CFRP along the hoop direction with an importance of 30.67%, followed by
the total thickness (t) of CFRP with an importance of 20.78% and the compressive

strength of the unconfined concrete with an importance of 19.13%. The diameter (d) of
the circular concrete specimen does not affect the compressive strength of the confined

concrete because its importance is only 4.162%. Most mathematical models consider
the column diameter as one of the main factors.

Fig 3.3.. Importance of input parameters of the first ANN model

3.6 MODEL DEVELOPMENTS FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

CONFINED CONCRETE

27
 Another application of ANNs is in building a mathematical
model. The present study contains six input and one output
parameters. A model equation can be established using the weights
as the model parameters . The mathematical equation can be
written as

Table 3.2: Weights and threshold levels of the ANN model

Equation (9) is long and complex because it contains six independent variables. On

the other hand, it can predict accurately the compressive strength of the confined
concrete (Fig.3.2) with a correlation coefficient equal to 0.964.
The equation length depends on the number of nodes in the input and hidden layers.
To simplify the equation, the most importance input parameters, which are the

compressive strength , of the unconfined concrete the total thickness(t) of CFRP, and

the tensile strength of the CFRP along the hoop direction, were used in training the

28
second ANN model with two nodes in the hidden layer. The result was the development of
an ANN model with a regression of 0.9259 (Fig. 4).The small number of connection
weights of the neural network enables the ANN model to be translated into a relatively

simple formula in which the compressive strength of the confined concrete can be
expressed as follows:

Before using Eqs. 1012, 14, and 15, all input variables must be scaled between 0.1
and 0.9 using Eq. 8 for the data ranges shown in Table 3.1. The predicted values obtained
from Eqs. 9 and 13 are scaled between 0.1 and 0.9. To obtain the actual values, these had
to be unscaled using Eq. 8. In contrast to all previous models, the second ANN model

depends on thecompressive strength of the unconfined concrete, the total thickness (t)

of CFRP, and the tensile strength of the CFRP in the hoop direction, whereas the
geometry of the column is not considered in this ANN model.

Fig.3.4. Experimental and corresponding ANN compressive strength of the test data of
second model

Gaussian distributions are perhaps the most important model for studying
the quantitative phenomena in the natural and behavioral sciences, such

29
as the problems encountered in structural analysis and design. To
determine the suitability of the developed CFRP-confined model, all 208
experimental and predicted confined compressive strength values were
taken, and the results of the confined compressive strength ratio
(predicted/experimental) were statistically analyzed with a 0.5% level of
significance using the SPSS software V.16. The average and variance of all
values were found to be 92% and 0.02, respectively. Fig.5 shows the
frequency histogram of the confined compressive strength ratio (f cc)pred./
(fcc)Exp population curve. The (fcc)pred./(fcc)Exp values are distributed around
their mean values. The magnitude of the frequency becomes smaller when
the value moves away from the mean central value. The probability of
obtaining a ratio between 90% and 95% is 85%.

Fig. 3.5. Histogram and normal distribution curve for the second mathematical model
3.7 PARAMETRIC STUDY
One of the advantages of the ANN models is that parametric studies can be easily
conducted by simply varying one input parameter while all other input parameters are set
to

30
constant values. Parametric studies can verify the performance of the model in simulating
the physical behavior of the CFRP-confined concrete due to the variation in certain
parameter values. The second ANN model and Eq. 13 were used to complete this
parametric study. Figs. 3.6 and 3. 7 show the relationship between the compressive

strength of the unconfined concrete and that of the CFRP-confined concrete

under different values of tensile strength of the CFRP and total thickness(t) of the
CFRP, respectively. In general and regardless of the other parameters, the compressive

strength increases with the increasing compressive strength of the unconfined

concrete. Fig.3. 6 shows the effect of the tensile strength of the CFRP on the

compressive The compressive strength of the confined concrete strongly affects the

tensile strength of the CFRP, especially under high unconfined compressive strength
and high tensile strength of the CFRP. For the unconfined compressive strength of 25
MPa, changing the tensile strength of the CFRP from 2,500 MPa to 4,000 MPa led to an
increase in the confined compressive strength from 55.18 MPa to 56.6 MPa (increasing by
2.57%), whereas for the unconfined compressive strength of 65 MPa, the same change in

the tensile strength of the CFRP led to an increase in the confined compressive

strength from 75.64 MPa to 87.27 MPa (increasing by 15.37%). strength of the

CFRP-confined concrete under different values of compressive strength of the

unconfined concrete with a constant total thickness (t) equal to 0.22mm.

Fig 3.6 Effect of the tensile strength of the CFRP on the compressive strength of the FRP
confined concrete

Fig. 3.7 shows the effect of the total thickness(t) of the CFRP on the compressive

strength of the CFRP-confined concrete for different values of compressive strength

31
 of the unconfined concrete with a constant tensile strength equal to 3,000 MPa.
For different thicknesses(t) of CFRP, the curves are parallel, that is, a low or high
unconfined compressive strength wields the same effect on the compressive strength of the
CFRP confined concrete with different thicknesses.
Two mathematical models for predicting the confined compressive strength of an
CFRP circular concrete column have been developed using the ANN approach. The
importance study showed that the diameter and height of the specimen and the elastic
modulus of CFRP had little effect on predicting the confined compressive strength of the
CFRP circular concrete column; hence, they were excluded from building the second ANN
model, leaving only three input parameters. Both parametric and importance studies
showed that the tensile strength of CFRP had an effect on predicting the confined
compressive strength of the CFRP circular concrete column. Finally, the ANN approach
was proven to be good and efficient in developing the mathematical models.

Fig 3.7. Effect of the total thickness of the CFRP on the compressive strength of the CFRP
confined concrete

CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSIONS

32
 From the study on the improvement of earthquake resistance capacity of circular

columns using FRP, results shows that the deformation capacity can be increased by FRP

casings. Corner radius will affect the confinement effectiveness of columns. Axial

compression loading does not affect the lateral resisting capacity and energy dissipation

capacity. Effectiveness of concrete column will provide stability against overall

buckling and consequently enhancing the buckling capacity of the columns. FRP confined

column will provide environmentally friendly alternative to conventional concrete in

structural applications. Specimens with FRP and UHC have higher flexural strength, initial

stiffness and lower residual drift. Circular column has maximum effective confinement and

rectangular and square column will have minimum effective confinement due to lower corner

radius. FRP jackets are effective at increasing lateral confinement of as-built columns and it will

increase the ductile behaviour. In the circular sections the confining pressure is uniform and is a

function of hoop strength of the jacket. Stress strain response of the FRP columns

changes from bilinear to tri linear.

Two mathematical models for predicting the confined compressive strength of an

CFRP circular concrete column have been developed using the ANN approach. The

importance study showed that the diameter and height of the specimen and the elastic

modulus of CFRP had little effect on predicting the confined compressive strength of the

CFRP circular concrete column; hence, they were excluded from building the second ANN

model, leaving only three input parameters. Both parametric and importance studies

showed that the tensile strength of CFRP had an effect on predicting the confined

compressive strength of the CFRP circular concrete column. Finally, the ANN approach

was proven to be good and efficient in developing the mathematical models.

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33
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35