Review
Nanotechnology and its applications in
the food sector
Nesli Sozer and Jozef L. Kokini
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 211B Mumford Hall, 1301 W Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are new frontiers of
this century. Their applications to the agriculture and
food sector are relatively recent compared with their use
in drug delivery and pharmaceuticals. Smart delivery of
nutrients, bioseparation of proteins, rapid sampling of
biological and chemical contaminants and nanoencap-
sulation of nutraceuticals are some of the emerging
topics of nanotechnology for food and agriculture.
Advances in technologies, such as DNA microarrays,
microelectromechanical systems and microfluidics, will
enable the realization of the potential of nanotechnology
for food applications. In this review, we intended to
summarize the applications of nanotechnology relevant
to food and nutraceuticals together with identifying the
outstanding challenges.
Introduction
Nanoscience and nanotechnology have already been
applied in various fields, such as computer electronics,
communication, energy production, medicine and the food
industry. The nanoscale devices are often manufactured
with the view to imitate the nanodevices found in nature
and include proteins, DNA, membranes and other natural
biomolecules [1,2].
In todays world, food materials are often considered not
only a source of nutrients but also as having to contribute
to the health of consumers. Most of the nanoparticles used
traditionally belong to the group of colloids (i.e. emulsions,
micelles, mono- and bi-layers). One of the first colloidal
gold dispersions was prepared by Michael Faraday in the
middle of the 18th century. The particles were attracted to
each other through Van der Waals forces, which give them
colloidal stability. In colloidal particles, steric stabilization
is achieved by adsorbing polymers and surfactants on the
surface. Nanoparticles could be further stabilized by coat-
ing them with molecules that can form chemical bonds [3].
For food applications, nanotechnology can be applied by
two different approaches, either bottom up or top down
(Table 1). The top-down approach is achieved basically by
means of a physical processing of the food materials, such
as grinding and milling. For example, dry-milling technol-
ogy can be used to obtain wheat flour of fine size that has a
high water-binding capacity [4]. This technology has been
used to improve antioxidant activity in green tea powder
[5]. As the powder size of green tea is reduced to 1000 nm
by dry milling, the high ratio of nutrient digestion and
absorption resulted in an increase in the activity of an
Corresponding author: Kokini, J.L. (kokini@uiuc.edu).
82 0167-7799/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.10.010 Available online 8 January 2009
oxygen-eliminating enzyme [5]. By contrast, self assembly
and self organization are concepts derived from biology
that have inspired a bottom-up food nanotechnology. The
organization of casein micelles or starch and the folding of
globular proteins and protein aggregates are examples of
self-assembly structures that create stable entities. Self
organization on the nanometer scale can be achieved by
setting a balance between the different non-covalent forces
[6].
Owing to the greater surface area of nanoparticles per
mass unit, they are expected to be more biologically active
than larger sized particles of the same chemical compo-
sition. This offers several perspectives for food appli-
cations. Nanoparticles can, for instance, be used as
bioactive compounds in functional foods [7]. Bioactive
compounds that can be found naturally in certain foods
have physiological benefits and might help to reduce the
risk of certain diseases, including cancer. By reducing
particle size, nanotechnology can contribute to improve
the properties of bioactive compounds, such as delivery
properties, solubility, prolonged residence time in the
gastrointestinal tract and efficient absorption through
cells [8]. Omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids, probiotics,
prebiotics, vitamins and minerals have found their appli-
cations in food nanotechnology as bioactive compounds [9].
In the food industry, several novel applications of nano-
technologies have become apparent, including the use of
nanoparticles, such as micelles, liposomes, nanoemulsions,
biopolymeric nanoparticles and cubosomes, as well as the
development of nanosensors, which are aimed at ensuring
food safety [1013]. Worldwide sales of nanotechnology
products to the food and beverage packaging sector
increased from US$ 150 million in 2002 to US$ 860 million
in 2004 and are expected to reach to US$ 20.4 billion by
2010 [14]. However, despite the increased marketing
efforts in the nanotechnology sector, research into nano-
technology of food and food-related products is only just
beginning to develop [7]. Some examples of the use of
nanotechnology in food products are cooking oils that
contain nutraceuticals within nanocapsules, nanoencapsu-
lated flavor enhancers and nanoparticles that have the
ability to selectively bind and remove chemicals from food
(Nanotechnology in agriculture and food, available at
http://www.nanoforum.org). The main reasons for the late
incorporation of food into the nanotechnology sector are
issues associated with the possible labeling of the food
products and consumer-health aspects.
In fact there are no worldwide accepted rules or regu-
lations for nanotechnology. In a survey performed by Israel
Review
Table 1. Range of sizes of nanomaterials in the food sector
Structures Diameter or length (nm)
DNA 12
Glucose 2175
Liposome 3010000
LDH 40300
Amylopectin 44200
Casein micelle 60100
PLA nanosphere 100300
Zein 200
500
Cubosome
Nanosensors <1000
and the USA in March 2006, it was found that over 200
manufacturers currently market products identified as
nanoproducts. Approximately 60 of these products were
for health and fitness and 9% were for food and beverage Bionanocomposites are hybrid nanostructured materials
products [7]. Despite the lack of unifying nanotechnology
guidelines, manufacturers nevertheless have to deal with
existing general regulations for food products and the
introduction of a new nanoingredient can be difficult and
time consuming. For this reason, most expected nanoap-
plications in the food market will probably occur in food
packaging and only few in actual food products.
Already, several applications of nanotechnology are
available (Figure 1). Up to now, most of the research on
nanotechnology focused on the electronics, medicine and
automation sector. The knowledge gained from these sec-
tors could be adapted for the use of food and agriculture
products, such as for applications in food safety (e.g. detect-
ing pesticides and microorganisms), in environmental pro-
Figure 1. Potential applications of nanotechnology in the food and food-packaging
industries. Applications in food packaging are considered highly promising
because they can improve the safety and quality of food products. This includes
intelligent packaging, which is reactive to the environment and active packaging,
which is able to interact with the food product. Extensive use of nanoadditives to
the food itself is less likely in the near future owing to safety concerns.
Trends in Biotechnology Vol.27 No.2
tection (e.g. water purification) and in delivery of nutrients
(Conventional and nano-based water technologies, avail-
able at http://www.merid.org/nano/waterpaper/) [7,1517].
In this review, we focus on the aspects of nanotechnol-
ogy that are related to food quality and the development of
smart foods and food packaging materials, as well as the
use of nanosensors for the detection of microbial and
pesticide contamination. We will also discuss the implica-
tions of food nanotechnology and identify current problem
areas in nanotechnology in view of the potential risks of
nanomaterials for health and the environment, as well as
regulatory issues and public perception.
Nanotechnology and food packaging
Nanoparticles for food packaging
with improved mechanical, thermal and gas barrier prop-
erties [1822]. The use of bionanocomposites for food
packaging not only protects the food and increases its shelf
life but can also be considered a more environmentally
friendly solution because it reduces the requirement to use
plastics as packaging materials (Figure 2). Most of the
traditional packaging materials are made from nondegrad-
able materials, which increase environmental pollution in
addition to consuming fossil fuels for their production.
However, current alternative biodegradable films exhibit
poor barrier and mechanical properties and these proper-
ties need to be improved considerably before they could
replace traditional plastics [23,24] and thus help to man-
age the worlds waste problem [25].
Biodegradability of a packaging material can be
enhanced with the introduction of inorganic particles, such
as clay, into the biopolymeric matrix and can also be
controlled with surfactants that are used for the modifi-
cation of layered silicate. The use of inorganic particles also
makes it possible to introduce multiple functionalities,
which might help to improve the delivery of fragile micro-
nutrients within edible capsules [2527].
Figure 2. Representation of the formation of bionanocomposites. Besides their
improved material properties, biodegradability makes them an environmentally
friendly alternative to traditional packaging.
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Review
Figure 3. Illustration of different types of composite that can arise from the interaction between layered silicates and polymers. (a) Phase-separated composite
(microcomposite). (b) Intercalated composite (nanocomposite). (c) Exfoliated composite (nanocomposite). Reproduced with permission from [27].
Another approach to improve the properties of biode-
gradable films is the use of hybrid organicinorganic sys-
tems and, in particular, those containing layered silicates.
Hybrid composites, such as layered silicates embedded in a
polymeric matrix, improve stability and their biodegrad-
ability can be fine tuned by varying the amount of solvents
used, which might further expand the possible uses of
edible and biodegradable films [19].
Zein, a prolamin and the major component of corn
protein, has been an important material in science and
industry owing to its unique properties and molecular
structure. By dissolving zein, either in ethanol or in
acetone, biodegradable zein films with good tensile and
water-barrier properties can be obtained [2832].
Nanotechnology approaches are expected to yield new
applications for zein in specialty foods and in the biode-
gradable plastics industry. Zein can form a meshwork
consisting of tubular structures, which can be microbiolo-
gically resistant and inert, for example, after treatment
with formaldehyde [28,33,34]. However, zein nanobeads or
nanoparticles can be used as edible carriers for flavor
compounds or for encapsulation of nutraceuticals, as well
as to improve the strength of plastic and bioactive food
packages [28,3335]. Controlling the uniformity and
organization of zein films at the nanolevel are crucial in
terms of mechanical and tensile properties [31]. In an
attempt to control the surface morphology of zein films,
Shi et al. [35] tested different solvents and found that films
generated in acetic acids were smoother and structurally
more homogenous than films obtained from ethanol as a
solvent.
One possibility to increase the barrier properties of zein
polymers is treatment with stable silicate complexes (mon-
tmorillonite, hectorite and saponite) [29,30]. These plate-
let-like structured silicate complexes disperse in polymer
matrixes and are therefore able to improve their strength,
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Trends in Biotechnology Vol.27 No.2
stiffness and water and gas permeability even at low levels
of 1 to 5 vol % [5]. Silicates consist of cristalline layers with
1 nm in thickness and a diameter range of 30 to 2000 nm
[26]. The silicate layers in nanocomposites are able to
control the diffusion rate through their tortuous pathway
[25]. They can aggregate within the matrix in three differ-
ent forms, as phase-separated, intercalated or exfoliated
nanocomposites (Figure 3). Exfoliated nanocomposites
have the greatest ability to improve the tensile strength
of the film in which they are incorporated [27].
Nanoscale fillers usually consist of nanofibers, nano-
whiskers or nanotubes but can also be made out of solid-
layered silicate structures. Among the nanofillers, only the
solid-layered inorganic clays have so far been used in the
packaging industry because they are cheap and easy to
process; the first example was a nylonclay hybrid [36].
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are another type of
nanoparticle that could be used as nanofillers for polymer
matrixes [37]. They are able to form positively charged
layers within a 3D network of interconnected silicate layer,
which might explain the improved mechanical properties
of the resulting material. For this reason, LDHs could
replace conventional supporting matrices in applications
in which mechanical resistance is of particular importance
[25,37].
Another important property of any food packaging is its
ability to act as a barrier to mass transfer on a food product.
The components of biodegradable films that are respon-
sible for barrier function are usually polysaccharides and/
or lipids. So far, only a few studies have investigated the
possible incorporation of nanoparticles in packaging, for
example, the introduction of clays, with the aim to improve
the physical properties of these films [3840].
Nanotechnology has already led to several innovations
in the packaging of food products and among these is the
use of nanotubes [41,42]. A nanotube is a nanometer-scale
Review
Figure 4. Representation of the self-assembly of partially hydrolysed a-lactalbumin into nanotubes in the presence of Ca2+. The transmission-electron micrograph on the
right shows negatively stained a-lactalbumin nanotubes. Micrograph reproduced with permission from [46].
wire-like structure and most frequently composed of car-
bon [42]. Carbon nanotubes can be incorporated into poly-
mer structures (liquids, solutions, melts, gels, amorphous
and crystalline matrices) to increase their mechanical
properties in terms of tensile strength and elasticity
[43]. The information obtained from these studies can be
used to help to develop new applications of nanotubes for
the food sector [44].
Particularly relevant to the food sector is the possibility
to obtain nanotubes from milk protein a-lactalbumin by
partial hydrolysis (Figure 4). The resulting a-lactalbumin
nanotubes are able to increase viscosity owing to their high
aspect ratio (i.e. large surface area) and stiffness, which
requires less protein [45,46]. In addition, these high
protein-density nanotubes could also be used as thickener
alternatives [46]. Moreover, a-lactalbumin nanotubes have
cavities of 8 nm in diameter, which might enable the
binding of food components, such as vitamins or enzymes.
These cavaties could also be used to encapsulate and
protect nutraceuticals or to mask undesirable flavor or
aroma compounds [46]. Because these nanotubes consist
of milk protein, they are considered food-grade materials,
which should make their introduction into the market
place relatively easy and might facilitate widespread appli-
cations in nanoencapsulating of nutrients, supplements
and pharmaceuticals.
Natural biopolymers
Starch and its derivatives are other important natural
polymers that could be further improved through nano-
technology approaches. After extrusion, the starch is typi-
cally converted to a thermoplastic material with low
mechanical resistance and poor protection against oxygen
and moisture [4750]. Park et al. prepared hybrids of
thermoplastic starch (TPS) with nanoclay and investigated
the resulting properties. They found that the strong inter-
action between the TPS and the nanoclay improved tensile
strength and lowered water-vapor permeability compared
with native TPS matrix [51].
Biopolyesters are another important class of biodegrad-
able polymers formed from biological monomers, including
polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and
polycaprolacton (PCL). Biopolyesters are biodegradable
and biocompatible and can be formed into films or molded
into objects [24]. However, biopolyester applications in the
food-packaging industry have some important limitations
that are caused by their relatively poor gas-barrier proper-
ties and brittleness. In an attempt to overcome these
limitations, nanoclays have been used as supportive filling
Trends in Biotechnology Vol.27 No.2
agents in a biopolyester matrix where they formed nano-
composite structures [52,53]. Cabedo et al. showed that the
addition of nanoclays, in this case kaolinite nanofillers, to
PLA films improved both thermal stability and mechanical
properties without decreasing barrier properties. These
positive results are expected to increase the potential
food-packaging applications of these polymers [53].
Advantages of nanomaterials in food-packaging
applications
Bioactive packaging materials need to be able to keep
bioactive compounds, such as prebiotics, probiotics, encap-
sulated vitamins or bioavailable flavonoids, in optimum
condition until they are released in a controllable manner
into the food product [50,54,55]. Bioactive-packaging
materials can help to control oxidation of food stuffs and
to prevent the formation of off-flavors and undesirable
textures of food. Bioactive compounds that are encapsu-
lated into the packaging itself are a promising approach
because this would allow the release of the active com-
pounds in a controllable manner. Several already-
approved food additives could be used for such nanoencap-
sulation, including carrageenan, chitosan, gelatin, polylac-
tic acid, polyglycolic acid and alginate [50,56,57].
Nanosensors
In addition to food packaging, food preservation is also of
great importance for the food industry. Food spoilages can
be detected with so-called nanosensors, for example, an
array of thousands of nanoparticles designed to fluoresce in
different colors on contact with food pathogens. Available
nanosensor types and their potential applications in the
food sector are summarized in Figure 5. Taking into
account the crucial importance of time in food micro-
biology, the main aim of nanosensors is to reduce the time
for pathogen detection from days to hours or even minutes
[58]. Such nanosensors could be placed directly into the
packaging material, where they would serve as electronic
tongue or noses by detecting chemicals released during
food spoilage [59,60]. Other types of nanosensors are based
on microfluidics devices [61] and can also be used to detect
pathogens efficiently in real time and with high sensitivity.
A major advantage of microfluidic sensors is their minia-
ture format and their ability to detect compounds of in-
terest rapidly in only microliters of required sample
volumes, which has already led to widespread applications
in medical, biological and chemical analysis [62,63].
Silicon-based microfluidic systems have proven popular
in the so-called laboratory-on-a-chip technology [64].
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Review
Figure 5. Types of nanosensors and examples of their application in the food sector.
Recently, Bodor et al. have used several food additives,
including benzoate, sorbate, p-hydroxybenzoic acid esters
and glutamate, to evaluate the performance of different
types of electrophoresis methods within a chip-setup and
found that, for different additives, different detection
methods proved to be optimal [65]. In the food-analysis
market, devices produced with the so-called nanoelectro-
mechanical systems (NEMS) technology are already in use
and these systems contain moving parts ranging from
nano- to milli-meter scale, which might serve as developing
tools in food preservation. They can control the storage
environment and act as active sell by devices. A digital
transform spectrometer (DTS) produced by Polychromix
(Wilmington, MA, USA) uses microelectromechanical sys-
tems technology to detect trans-fat content in foods [66].
NEMS could be used in food quality-control devices
because they consist of advanced transducers for specific
detection of chemical and biochemical signals. The use of
so-called micro- and nano-technologies (MNTs) have sev-
eral advantages for food technology, such as portable
instrumentation with quick response, low costs and smart
communication through various frequency levels. In the
area of food safety and quality, MNTs are particularly
suitable because they are able to detect and monitor any
adulteration in packaging and storage conditions [67].
Nanocantilevers are another innovative class of biosen-
sors. Their detection principle is based on their ability to
detect biological-binding interactions, such as between
antigen and antibody, enzyme and substrate or cofactor
and receptor and ligand, through physical and/or electro-
mechanical signaling [68]. They consist of tiny pieces of
silicon-based materials that have the capability of recog-
nizing proteins and detecting pathogenic bacteria and
viruses [69]. Nanocantilever devices have already had
tremendous success in studies of molecular interactions
and in the detection of contaminant chemicals, toxins and
antibiotic residues in food products [70]. Pathogen detec-
tion is based on their ability to vibrate at various frequen-
86
Trends in Biotechnology Vol.27 No.2
cies in dependence on the biomass of the pathogenic
organisms. A European Union-funded project called Bio-
Finger developed a nanocantilever device that could be
used for the diagnosis of cancer and to detect pathogens in
food and water based on the sensing of ligandreceptor
interactions [71].
The silicon surface of nanocantilevers can be modified to
attach antibodies, resulting in a change of the resonant
frequency depending on the attached mass. Gfeller et al.
were able to detect Escherichia coli, which is an indicator of
fecal pollution of water and food products, with the help of a
cantilever coated with agarose [72] (Figure 6).
Outstanding issues
Risks and regulations
It is important to note that nanomaterials, owing to their
increased contact surface area, might have toxic effects in
the body that are not apparent in the bulk materials [73].
In addition, there might be potential and unforeseen
risks for their use in food-packaging materials. Although
nanomaterials from food packaging are not normally
ingested or inhaled by consumers, detailed research will
need to determine their effects on the microbial flora
present in the mouth and in the gut (Nanotechnology
and food, available at http://www.iufost.org/reports_re-
sources/bulletins/documents/IUF.SIB.Nanotechnolo-
gy.pdf). Currently, no regulations exist that specifically
control or limit the production of nanosized particles and
this is mainly owing to a lack of knowledge about the risks.
Despite this lack of regulation and risk knowledge, a
handful of food and nutrition products that contain nanos-
cale additives are already being sold, such as iron in
nutritional drink mixes, micelles that carry vitamins,
minerals and phytochemicals in oil and zinc oxide in break-
fast cereals. Nanoclays have also found use in plastic beer
bottles (Do nanoparticles in food pose a health risk?,
available at http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=do-
nanoparticles-in-food-pose-health-risk) [25].
 Review
Figure 6. Illustration of the function of a nanocantilever sensor that is based on
mass increase due to bacterial growth. (a) E. coli cells are deposited on top of an
agarose-coated cantilever. The thin nutritive layer (200 nm thick) stays in
equilibrium with the humid environment. (b) The bacteria start to grow and
assimilate water, protein, salts and carbohydrates from the nutritive layer. (c) To
regain equilibrium with the humid environment, the nutritive layer absorbs water.
This compensation leads to additional mass load (Dm refers to change in mass
load) onto the cantilever that can be sensed by the change in frequency levels (Df)
from the cantilever. Reproduced with permission from [72].
The US Food and Drug Administration require manu-
facturers to demonstrate that the food ingredients and food
products are not harmful to health, yet this regulation does
not specifically cover nanoparticles, which could become
harmful only in nanosized applications.
Public perception
Public perception of nanotechnology is another important
factor that will affect the realization of nanotechnology
approaches in the food industry, as seen in the example of
genetically modified (GM) foods [29,74,75]. Similar to GM
foods, consumers cannot directly judge the benefits of a
food derived from nanotechnology and any benefits need to
be explained to the consumer. However, it is likely that
some products engineered with nanotechnology will be
accepted more easily by the public than others. A recent
survey performed by Siegrist et al. [76] evaluated the
public perception of different types of food materials,
Trends in Biotechnology Vol.27 No.2
including an antibacterial food-packaging material, a
nanocoating that protects tomatoes from humidity and
oxygen, a bread containing nanocapules of omega-3 fatty
acids and a juice with vitamin A encapsulated in starch.
The results obtained from 153 people showed that the
nanotechnology-derived packaging was perceived as being
more beneficial than the nanotechnology-engineered foods.
These results also supported the hypothesis that nano-
technology inside a food is perceived as less acceptable
than being on the outside (i.e. in the food packaging).
Conclusion
Nanotechnology is becoming increasingly important for
the food sector. Promising results and applications are
already being developed in the areas of food packaging
and food safety. The incorporation of nanomaterials into
food packaging is expected to improve the barrier proper-
ties of packaging materials and should thereby help to
reduce the use of valuable raw materials and the gener-
ation of waste. Edible nanolaminates could find appli-
cations in fresh fruits and vegetables, bakery products
and confectionery, where they might protect the food from
moisture, lipids, gases, off-flavors and odors.
Natural biopolymers of nanosize scale, such as polysac-
charides, can be used for the encapsulation of vitamins,
prebiotics and probiotics and for delivery systems of drugs
or nutraceuticals.
In the food sector, one of the most important problems
is the time-consuming and laborious process of food
quality-control analysis. Innovative devices and tech-
niques are being developed that can facilitate the prep-
aration of food samples and their precise and inexpensive
analysis. From this point of view, the development of
nanosensors to detect microorganisms and contaminants
is a particularly promising application of food nanotech-
nology.
However, there are social and ethical issues of using
nanotechnology in the food sector that must be considered.
Currently, the potential risks of nanomaterials to human
health and to the environment are unknown [73]. The 2006
report of the Institute of Food Science and Technologists
mentions that size matters and recommends the use of
nanoparticles in the food sector only after safety has been
proven following vigorous testing. Special attention should
also be given to consumer attitudes towards food nano-
technology. Taking lessons from the GM arguments across
European countries, it is crucial to discuss the benefits and
risks of this highly promising technology. Governments
should consider appropriate labeling and should also set
down regulations that will help to increase consumer
acceptability.
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