DRYING

CHAPTER 6
Coverage
6.1 Introduction and methods of drying
6.1.1. Purposes of drying
6.1.2. General methods of drying

6.2 Equipment for drying

6.2.1 Tray dryer
6.2.2. Spray dryer
6.2.3. Drum dryer

6.3 Vapor pressure of water and humidity

6.3.1. Vapour pressure of water
6.3.2. Humidity and humidity chart
6.3.3. Adiabatic saturation temperatures
6.3.4. wet bulb temperature

6.4 Rate of drying curves

6.4.1. Introduction and experimental methods
6.4.2. Rate of drying curves for constant-drying conditions
6.4.3. Drying in the constant-rate period
6.4.4. Drying in the falling-rate period
6.4.5. Moisture movements in solids during drying in the falling rate period
 6.1. Introduction and methods of
drying
6.1.1 Purposes of drying

Definition of drying process :

- Removal of moisture from a substance.

- Removal of water from process material and other
substances, in which the water is removed as vapour
by air

Purposes of drying:
1. As preservation technique for foods.
2. As final processing step before packaging
 6.1.2. General methods of Drying

Classification methods of drying:

1. Batch: when material inserted into drying

equipment and the drying proceed for a given
period of time

2. Continous: when material is continously

added to the dryer and dried material is
continously removed
Methods of drying based on its physical condition:

1) Direct heat: heat is added by direct contact

with heated air at atm pressure, then water
vapour is removed by air

2) Vacuum drying: the heat is added indirectly by

contact with a metal or by radiation

3) Freeze drying: water is sublimed from the

frozen material
The most commonly employed modes of heat transfer
for drying are:

(1) Convection from a hot gas in contact with the

material

(2) Conduction from a hot, solid surface in

contact with the material

(3) Radiation from a hot gas or hot surface in view of

the material

(4) Heat generation within the material by dielectric,

or microwave heating.
 Laboratory dryer

Microwave dryer with vacuum Freeze dryer

 6.2. Equipment for drying
6.2.1. Tray dryer

material is spread uniformly on a metal tray to a depth of 10-100mm

steam-heated air is recirculated by a fan over and parallel to the surface of

the trays.

After drying, the dried trays are replaced with a new batch of trays.

Useful when low production rates of multiple products are involved and
where drying times vary from hours to days

Example of tray dryer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQ7y6Kvjd5Y

 6.2.2 Spray Dryer

Liquid or slurry is sprayed into a hot gas stream in the form of fine droplets

The water is rapidly vaporized, leaving dry solid, which separate from gas
stream

The dried solids leave at the bottom through a screw conveyor

The particles product usually light and porous such as dried milk powder
and detergent

Example: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u2LhmpDUjKk
 6.2.3 Drum Dryers
 Consist of heated metal roll, where the thin layer
of liquid or slurry is evaporated to dryness at the
outside of metal roll (indirect heat).

The coating of thin layer must adhere to the

surface of the drum

Drum dryers are used to dry starch solution,

potatoes, brewed yeast, coffee, etc.

Example of drum dryer: ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdhsiNAXlWs

6.3. Vapour Pressure of water and
humidity
6.3.1.
Vapour pressure of water
Humidification : transfer of water from the liquid
phase into a gaseous mixture of air and water
vapour.

Dehumidification : reverse transfer, water vapour is

transferred from the vapour state to the liquid state.
solid ice
Pure water liquid
vapour
 Line AB : liquid and vapor
Phase diagram for water phases

Line AC: solid ice and

vapour phases

Line AD: solid ice and

vapour phases

(1)...(2): solid ice heated,

melts into liquid (cross AC)
and vapourized into vapour
(cross AB)

(3)...(4): solid ice sublimes,

directly into vapour (cross
AD)

Boiling occurs: vapour

pressure of water equal to
total pressure above the
water surface
 6.3.2. Humidity and humidity chart

Humidity (H) of an air-water vapour mixture: kg of

water vapour contained in 1 kg of dry air.
2 18.02
=
28.97

Saturated air ( ) : air in which water vapour is in

equilibrium with liquid water at the given
conditions of pressure and temperature.
18.02
=
28.97 ;
Percentage humidity ( ): 100 times the
actual humidity of the air divided by
saturated air at the same temperature and
pressure.

= 100

Percentage relative humidity ( ) : Amount

of saturation of an air-water vapour mixture

= 100

Dew point temperature :
-temperature at which a given mixture of air
and water vapour would be saturated.
-temperature when the given mixture is at
100% saturation.

Humid heat ( ): amount of heat required to raise

temperature of 1 kg of dry air plus the water
vapour by 1K or 1C

kJ/kg dry air. K = 1.005 +1.88 H (SI)

btu/ dry air. F = 0.24 + 0.45 H (English)
J/kg.K = 1.005+ 1.88 H (spec. Cases)
Humid volume ( ) : total volume (m) of dry 1 kg
of dry air plus its vapour at 1 atm.

m/ kg dry air = 2.83 10;3 + 4.56 10;3

ft/lbm dry air = 0.0252 + 0.0405

for a saturated air-water vapour mixture:

= and is the saturated volume
Total enthalpy ( ): Total enthalpy of 1 kg of air
plus its water vapor.

If T is datum temperature chosen for both

components:

= + 0 (SI)

If T is base temperature of 0C (32F)

= 1.005 + 1.88 0 + 0 (SI)
Humidity chart: chart properties of air-water vapor
mixtures at 1 atm
Notations
= Humidity
= Saturation humidity
= Percentage humidity
= Percentage relative humidity
= Humid heat
= Humid volume
= Total enthalpy
0 = Latent heat
= Temperature
= Datun or base temperature
= Partial pressure of water vapour in air
= Vapour pressure of pure water
= Total pressure
Example 1: problem 9.3-3
The air entering a dryer has a temperature of
65.6C (150F) and dew point 15.6C (60F). Using
the humidity chart, determine the actual
humidity and percentage humidity. Calculate
the humid volume of this mixture and also
calculate using SI and english units.
Given: Dry air temp. T = 65.6C
Dew point = 15.6 C
Find: (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Solution:
At dew point, the saturation is 100%.
From humidity chart plot of T= 15.6 C and 100%
percentage humidity, the humidity is 0.0113,
hence,
(i) At T= 65.6C, humidity = 0.0113
 (ii)
(i)
(ii) Percetage humidity, at T = 65.6C , = 0.0113
Plot of T and H at humidity chart and using linear
interpolation:
0.0113;0.0105
= 5% + (10%-5%)
0.021;0.0105
= = 5.38%
(iii) Humid volume,
= 2.83 10;3 + 4.56 10;3
= 2.83 10;3 + 4.56 10;3 0.0113 (65.6 + 273)
= 0.975 m/ kg dry air
(iv) Humid heat,
= 1.005 +1.88 H
= 1.005+1.88(0.0113) = 1.026 kJ/kg dry air. K (SI)

= 0.24 + 0.45 H (English)

= 0.24 + 0.45 (0.0113) = 0.245 btu/ dry air. F
 6.3.3. Adiabatic saturation temperatures ( )

the temperature of water being

recirculated reaches a steady state temperature.
- steady state temperature attained when a
large amount of water is contacted by entering
the gas
T < when humidity (H) is not saturated

Heat balance over the process:

+ = +

Rearranging,
; 1.005:1.88
= = (SI)
;

; 0.24:0.45
= (English)
;
 Example 2: Problem 9.3-5
Air at 82.2C having a humidity, = 0.0655 kg
2 /kg dry air is contacted in an adiabatic
saturator with water. It leaves at 80% saturation.

(a) What are the final values of H and TC ?

(b) For 100% saturation, what would be the
values of H and T?
Given: = 0.0655
T = 82.2C
percentage humidity = 80%
Find: (a) final and T
(b) and T for 100% saturation
Solution:
(a) From humidity chart, plot initial H & T (red
lines). The adiabatic saturation curve
followed this point to the left until intersect at
80% (orange line). The values from the charts
are (green lines): H = 0.079 kg 2 /kg dry air
and T = 52.8C

(b) The same line (orange line)is followed to

100% saturation, where T = C and H = kg
2 /kg dry air
 6.3.4. Wet bulb temperature ( )

is steady state non equilibrium temperature

reached when a small amount of water is
contacted under adiabatic condition by
continous stream of gas (temperature and
humidity of gas are not changed)
Wet bulb temperature can be measured by wick method:

- thermometer is covered by wick or cloth

- the wick is kept wet by water and is immersed in flowing stream of air-water
vapour, having temperature of T (dry bulb)

- At steady state, water is evaporating to the gas stream

- The wick and water are cooled to wet bulb temperature (constant
temperature)

Sensible heat change of the vapourized liquid and radiation is:

=
The flux is

= =

For dilute mixture, where 1.0 and ,

=
1
+
After subtitution:

= . .

The rate of convective heat transfer from gas stream at

T to the wick at is:
= .
Rearranging:


=

is called psychrometric ratio with values approx.

0.96 -1.005

For water-vapor, the adiabatic saturation lines can

also be used for wet bulb lines with reasonable
accuracy
Notations:

= wet bulb temperature

= dry bulb temperature
= amount of heat change or heat transfer kW
= molecular weight of water
= molecular weight of air
= flux
= surface area
= latent heat
= mass transfer coefficient
= log mean inert mole fraction of the air
= mole fraction of water vapor in the gas at the
surface
= mole fraction in the gas
= heat transfer coefficient
Example 3: Problem 9.3-7
An air-water vapor mixture has dry bulb temperature of
65.6C and a wet bulb temperature of 32.2C. What is the
humidity of the mixture.

Given: dry bulb = 65.6C

= 32.2C
Find : H
Solution: Assume that the same as ,

to find humidity, H, from humidity chart, following the

adiabatic saturation curve of 32.2C, until it reaches 65.6C
(red lines). The humidity is found following the orange line.
Study :

All examples in text book & slides

Problems 9.3-9

Problems 9.3-10
References
Geankoplis,C.J.(2003). Transport Processes and
Separation Process Principle, 4th Edition.
NewYork: Prentice Hall

Seader,J.D. and Henley,E.J (2006). Separation

Process Principles. 2nd edition. NewYork:Wiley &
Sons.