Basic Concepts of

Measurement Methods
ME3312
Precision Engg. & Metrology

Abdul Wahab Butt

Capital University of Science and Technology
Scheme of Study

Rough guide for success

course outline
Learning Outcomes
Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods
Introduction
General Measurement System
Calibration
Standards
Presenting Data

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Rough Guide for Success

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You are expected to
Be enthusiastic

Actively participate
Work hard and in all class
work smart activities

Spend about 8-10 Accomplish all

hours per week after readings and home
class assignments

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Course Outline
Instrumentation and Measurements

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Course Outline

Textbook:
Theory and Design for Mechanical
Measurements, fifth edition by
Richard S. Figliola and Donald E.
Beasley, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Course Plan

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Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of Chapter 01, you will able to:

Identify major components of a general measurement system
Develop an experimental test plan
Distinguish between random and systematic errors
Describe various error types
Define and distinguish different standards
Delineate defined and derived dimensions

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Basic Concepts of Measurement
Methods
1.1 Introduction

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What purpose does it serve.

Everyday measurements
Objective: to answer a question

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Important Questions

How can a measurement or test plan be devised so that the

measurement provides the unambiguous information we seek?

How can a measurement system be used so that the engineer can

easily interpret the measured data and be confident in their meaning?

Open ended design problem !!!

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Basic Concepts of Measurement
Methods
1.2 General Measurement System

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What is measurement ?

A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical

variable. That physical variable is the measured variable

A measurement system is a tool used for quantifying the measured

variable by extend the abilities of the human senses

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Measurement System

A system is composed
of components that
work together to
accomplish a specific
objective
Example
Atomic Force
Microscope measures
profile of a surface at
nanometer scale

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Atomic Force Microscope Sensor Stage

a physical element
that employs some
natural phenomenon
to sense the variable
being measured
Natural Phenomenon:
Deflection under the
action of force
Variable Measured:
height of the surface

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Atomic Force Microscope Sensor & Transducer Stage

A transducer
converts the sensed
information into a
detectable signal
The signal might be
mechanical,
electrical, optical, or
may take any other
form that can be
meaningfully
recorded

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Measurement System Output Stage

The goal of a measurement system is to convert the sensed

information into a form that can be easily quantified
(express or measure the quantity).

Output Stage indicates or records the value measured.

This might be a simple readout display, a marked scale, or even a
recording device such as a computer disk drive.

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Another Example

Liquid-in-glass bulb
thermometer

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Components of bulb thermometer equivalent to
sensor, transducer, and output stages:

The energy exchange: input signal to measurement system.

Liquid movement up and down the stem: output signal.
The liquid in the bulb: acts as the sensor.
Internal capillary design: acts as a transducer.
The expanding liquid into a narrow capillary transforms thermal
information into a mechanical displacement.
The readout scale: serves as the output stage

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Components of a General Measurement System

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General Template for a Measurement System:

General Stages:
sensortransducer stage
output stage
feedback-control stage
Optional / Intermediate Stages: modify the transducer signal
Amplification
Signal-conditioning
Filtering stage
linkage

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Closing the Loop

The feedback-control stage, contains a controller that interprets the

measured signal and makes a decision regarding the control of the
process.
This decision results in a signal that changes the process parameter
that affects the magnitude of the sensed variable.
Expert System

Mechatronics deals with the interfacing of mechanical and electrical

components with microprocessors, controllers, and measurements

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Basic Concepts of Measurement
Methods
1.3 Experimental Test Plan

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Elements of any sophisticated test: Step 1

An Experimental test serves to answer a question

Q: What is the fuel average of my car ?
What question
Determine theam
testI trying to answer ?
objective
What needs
Identify the to be measured
process variables? and parameters
What
Determine theand
variables means for their will
parameters control
affect my results?

Parameter Design
Plan
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Elements of any sophisticated test: Step 2

An Experimental test serves to answer a question

Q: What is the fuel average of my car ?
In what ways
Select can I do the measurement
a measurement technique, equipment, and test
procedure
How good do based on some
the results preconceived
need tolerance
to be to answer limits for
my question?
error

System and tolerance

design plan

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Elements of any sophisticated test: Step 3

An Experimental test serves to answer a question

Q: What is the fuel average of my car ?
How will I interpret the resulting data?
Analyze
How will I use the data to answer my question? Present
How good is my answer? Use
Does my answer make sense?

Data Reduction
Design plan
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Variable Types

Variables are entities that influence the test

In addition to the measured variable, there may be other variables that will affect
the outcome
Independent Variable
can be changed independently of other variables
Dependent Variable
affected by changes in one or more other variables
Continuous or Discrete Variable
Controlled Variable
constant value or some prescribed condition during a measurement

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Variable Types

Extraneous Variables
that are not or cannot be controlled but have effect
introduce differences in repeated measurements under identical
operating conditions
impose a false trend onto the behavior of measured variable
Superimpose signal as noise and drift

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Boiling point test of water

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Parameters

Functional grouping of variables

Moment of inertia
Reynolds Number

Control Parameter
effects on the behavior of the measured variable

A parameter is controlled if its value can be maintained during a set of

measurements

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 Noise vs Interference

Noise is random
variation of measured
signal
Extraneous variable
Data scatter

Interference imposes
undesirable
deterministic trends
Uncontrolled influence

Randomization !!!

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Experimental Test Plan: Example

Known
Pressure calibration
system

Find
Independent,
dependent, and
extraneous variables

Solution ???
P V / T = constant

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Random Tests

Measurement Matrix
Sets a random order to change in the value of the independent variable

Randomization
The effect of random order on the results
Effective for local control of extraneous variable

Example
Different instruments
Test operators
Operating conditions

Randomizing a test matrix to minimize discrete influences can be done

efficiently through the use of experimental design using random blocks !!!

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Replication and Repetition

In general, the estimated value of a measured variable improves with

the number of measurements
Repetition
Repeated measurements made during any single test run or on a single batch
(the operating conditions are held under certain nominal control)
helps to quantify the variation in a measured variable
Does not assess how precisely the operating conditions can be set
Replication
An independent duplication of a set of measurements using similar operating
conditions
quantifies the variation in a measured variable as it occurs between different
tests (same nominal values of operating conditions)

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Concomitant Methods

Used to obtain two or more estimates for the result, each based on a
different method
can be compared as a check for agreement
additional variables may need to be measured

Example - Volume of a Cylindrical Rod

Length and Diameter
Total weight and specific weight

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Basic Concepts of Measurement
Methods
1.4 Calibration

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Overview

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Establishing I/O Relationship

Calibration applies a known input value to a measurement system for

the purpose of observing the system output value.
Static calibration
Dynamic calibration
Static sensitivity
Range
Accuracy
Precision and Bias
Hysteresis
Error Types
Repeatability vs. Reproducibility
The known input value is called standard
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Static vs. Dynamic Calibration

Static implies that values of the variables remain constant

Magnitude
Time Independent

Input / Output
Controlled independent variable
Dependent variable of calibration

Dynamic Calibration
Time (or space) Dependant
Input: known dynamic behaviour

The known input value is called standard

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 Calibration Curve

Apply a range of
known input values

Observe system
output values

= ()
Direct !!!

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Static Sensitivity

Static Sensitivity is a measure relating the change in the indicated

output associated with a given change in a static input
Slope of static calibration curve

= 1 =
=1

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Range vs. Resolution

Input Operating Range

Known input values from min to max (limits) for which the measurement system
is to be used
=

Full-scale Operating Range

Output operating range / Output span Avoid Extrapolation !!!
=

Resolution
Smallest increment in the measured
Least count (or least significant digit of output)

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Accuracy and Error

Accuracy Indicated Exact

Closeness of the agreement between the measured value and true value

Error
e = Measured value True Value

Relative Error / Relative Accuracy

Estimated value is based on a reference value used during calibration

= 100

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 Deviation Plot

Reference Value (expected

Value) vs Measured Value

differences are too small

to suggest possible trends
on direct curve

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Random and Systematic Errors

Error
Effects that cause measured value to differ from its true value
Compromises accuracy

Random vs. Systematic

Random variations
Offset of mean value

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 Effects on Calibration

Scatter is mainly due to:

Measurement system /
measurement method
Uncontrolled variables

Offset is due to systematic

error

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Uncertainty

Uncertainty is the estimated range of an error

Individual errors are properties of the instruments, the test method, the analysis,
and the measurement system
Uncertainty is a property of the test result

Assigned Uncertainty
based on available information, the operator might feel confident that the error
is within certain bounds, a plus or minus range of the indicated reading

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 Uncertainty: Example

Values assigned to each

error is the uncertainty

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Sequential Test & Hysteresis

A sequential test applies a sequential variation in the input value over

the desired input range
Upscale
Downscale
Effective diagnostic technique for identifying and quantifying
hysteresis error
Hysteresis error refers to differences between an upscale sequential
test and a downscale sequential test
=

% = 100

The hysteresis error of the system is estimated by its uncertainty

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 Random Test

Hysteresis Error

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 Random Test

Linearity Error

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 Random Test

Sensitivity Error
statistical measure of the
random error in the
estimate of the slope of
the calibration curve

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 Random Test

Zero Shift (null) Error

Sensitivity is constant but
zero-intercept is not fixed

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 Random Test

Repeatability Error
The ability of a
measurement system to
indicate the same value on
repeated but independent
application of the same
input provides a measure

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Reproducibility vs Instrument Precision

Reproducibility in instrument specifications, refers to the closeness of

agreement in results obtained from duplicate tests carried out under
similar conditions of measurement
The term instrument precision, in instrument specifications, refers
to a random uncertainty based on the results of separate repeatability
tests.
Manufacturer claims of instrument precision must be based on multiple tests
(replication) performed on different units of the same manufacture, either
performed in the same lab (same-lab precision) or, preferably, performed in
different labs (between-lab precision).

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Overall Instrument Error and Uncertainty

An estimate of the overall instrument error is made by combining the

estimates of all known errors into a term called the instrument
uncertainty
The estimate is computed from the square root of the sum of the
squares of all known uncertainty values. For M known errors, the
overall instrument uncertainty, uc ,is estimated by
2 12
= 12 + 22 + +

For example, for an instrument having known hysteresis, linearity, and

sensitivity errors, the instrument uncertainty is estimated by
1
= 2 + 2 + 2
2

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Chapter 01 Completed !!!

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