ECONOMICALLY HEALTH MECHANICAL

Energy and resource use: The total
energy used in the extraction, production,
transportation and construction of a
building material is the embodied
energy of that material. As high
consumers of energy, buildings have a
significant impact on our environment.
Understanding embodied energy allows us
to understand how much and where
energy is used in the construction of
buildings and the benefits of recycling.
Health and safety during Material sources: The source of materials
construction/installation: Some must be considered to keep transport costs
materials such as solvents and and resultant emissions to a minimum. The
chemicals release VOCs, and heavier or bulkier materials are, the greater
materials that release dust and the transport costs will be where possible,
other airborne pollutants may be heavy and bulky materials in particular should
harmful to people during be sourced locally.
installation or application. Limit
harmful effects by using paints,
adhesives and primers that
contain fewer harmful solvents
providing good ventilation in
spaces where LOSP treated timber
is being used following the
recommendations made by the
manufacturer or supplier
regarding installation or
application.

Ease of Sound insulation: Building Durability: A highly durable material may

construction/installation: Select
materials and systems for ease of
construction and installation. Complicated
installations with close tolerances can
result in greater wastage or even rework
is required.
design and material selection must
contribute to the sound insulation
of the building, both from exterior
noise and sound transmission
within the building.
provide the most sustainable solution if it
reduces maintenance or replacement
requirements but a material should also be
appropriate to the expected life of the building.
Durability considerations should include:
the actual or serviceable life of the
building
maintenance requirements
the minimum statutory requirements for
the building element.

Material deterioration/decay: Some
materials deteriorate rapidly, particularly
in a moist environment or if they are
continuously wet, generally due to the
growth of molds or fungi, or corrosion of
some materials, so it is essential that
materials selected have the durability
required for their area of use.
Transport to site: The further materials
must be transported, the greater the
financial and emissions costs will be.
Heavy or bulky products will have greater
transport costs than lighter weight
materials.
Fire performance: Building
design and material selection must
be in accordance with the
requirements of Building Code
clause C Protection from fire
including fire compartment
separations, allowing the
occupants safe escape from the
building and allowing fire service
personnel safe access to the
building. Materials must be
selected for ignitability, surface
spread of flame, fire loading, and
fire resistance and stability
Byproducts and emissions: The
processes for the production of
building materials can cause
pollution and emissions of
CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
Maintenance: Design buildings using
materials that are readily and easily
maintained. Generally, elements with higher
maintenance requirements are likely to have
lower initial costs but they may also have
higher whole-life and environmental costs. The
level of maintenance of a building element may
also be determined by the performance
requirements of the Building Code, particularly
with regard to durability and weather
tightness.
Moisture resistance: Selected materials must
be protected from moisture. Some materials
have a natural moisture resistance while others
must be fully protected from moisture.

Corrosion COST
The importance of material selection in Cost is a critical fact to consider when selecting materials for a certain design for most
engineering is clearly visible in products because they are facing a severe competition in the market. So you may see that
corrosive environments. Also it is an most of the metal or other valuable materials are replaced by plastics in most of the
important engineering design criterion designs which they are applicable such as mechanical engineering designs. The cost
for designs open to the environment factor can be neglected when performance is given the top priority. When estimating
costs, all the associated cost factors must be considered to get a more reasonable value. It
for a longer period of time. Some
may involve the transportation, processing, etc. costs.
materials are very likely to be corroded
in the service depending on the service
environment. Metals like iron are
heavily prone to corrosion if it not
prepared to resist
 Ability to manufacture
Although the material is well capable of using Mechanical properties
the design, it may be difficult to manufacture.
When a certain design is going to be actually produced it must be subjected to a number
This is particularly applicable in
mechanical engineering design. If this of manufacturing practices depending on the material and the design process. At the
selection criterion is neglected the completion of production it must be totally fit for the service phase, too. In order to predict
manufacturing process might be very costly
the reliability of both of these requirements, the materials must be able to withstand a
making it unprofitable as a commercial
product. So before selecting the materials certain load. Therefore the material must possess a certain strength and stiffness.
this fact also must be considered. These Selected materials are examined for strength and stiffness values, and then potential
facts are widely varied with the type of
materials are further inspected for other desired properties.
manufacturing method.

Q2

0RDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

I. USES:
It is used for general construction purposes where special properties are not required. It is normally used
for the reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, pavements, and where soil conditions are normal. It is also
used for most of the concrete masonry units and for all uses where the concrete is not subject to special
sulfate hazard or where the heat generated by the hydration of cement is not objectionable. It has great
resistance to cracking and shrinkage but has less resistance to chemical attacks.

Tests On Ordinary Portland Cement

1. Fineness test
2. Soundness test
3. Setting time test
4. Strength tests
Compressive strength test
Tensile strength test
Flexural strength test
5. Specific gravity test
6. Consistency test
7. Heat of hydration test
8. Loss of ignition test
II. OPC reaction in hydration process

When ordinary Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound constituents undergo a series
of chemical reactions that cause it to set. These chemical reactions all involve the addition of water to the
basic chemical compounds. This chemical reaction with water is called "hydration". Each one of these
reactions occurs at a different time and with different rates. Addition of all these reactions gives the
knowledge about how Ordinary Portland cement hardens and gains strength. Those compounds and their
role in hardening of cement are as under:

1. Tricalcium silicate (C3S): Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for
initial set and early strength. Ordinary Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S
will exhibit higher early strength.
2. Dicalcium silicate (C2S): Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for
strength increases beyond one week.
3. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): Hydrates and hardens the quickest. It liberates a large
amount of heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum
is added to Ordinary Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A
hydration would cause ordinary Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding
water.
4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF): Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to
strength. Most ordinary Portland cement color effects are due to C4AF.

Q3

i. DRYING SHRINKAGE
Hardened Concrete undergoes in three types of shrinkage that are important with respect to its
dimensional stability:
1. Plastic shrinkage.
2. Drying shrinkage.
3. Thermal shrinkage.
i. Plastic Shrinkage.
This is the shrinkage that the freshly placed concrete undergoes till it sets completely. It may also be
called initial shrinkage.
Such a volumetric change is due to loss of water from the fresh concrete due to evaporation, bleeding,
seepage and soaking by formwork.
Excessive shrinkage at initial stages may develop extensive cracking in the concrete on the setting.
Therefore, all precautions should be taken to avoid excessive loss of water due to evaporation.
ii. Drying Shrinkage :
As the concrete has completely set and hardens, some further shrinkage may result because of contraction
of gel-structure due to further loss of moisture, or drying (against the term evaporation used in the first
type of shrinkage).
This kind of shrinkage is practically an essential and irreversible property of concrete. It has to be met
with by careful design of reinforcement to avoid its ill effects (cracking of hardened concrete).
iii. Thermal Shrinkage.
This may be due to fall in temperature of concrete from the time it is laid till it sets completely. Thus,
when concrete laid at 30C cools down to 15-18C, some shrinkage may be expected. It may be
negligible on its own account. But when added to drying shrinkage, it becomes necessary.
 ii. CREEP

This defines the behavior of concrete under loads. It is now well established that concrete is not a truly
elastic material. Also, it is not an entirely plastic material. When hardened concrete is loaded, it deforms
1. partly as a result of elastic strain (which is recovered on the removal of the load);
2. partly as a result of plastic strain (a permanent deformation).
This latter non-elastic time-dependent deformation is a typical property of concrete and is commonly
referred as CREEP.
Among the various causes of creep, the following may be mentioned:
1. Closure of the void-structures of concrete on application of load;
2. Squeezing of water from within the cement gel when the concrete is loaded,
3. Flow of cement-water paste, in a viscous state, causing a permanent shrinkage under load;
4. Readjustment of aggregates under load.

It is believed that the proportion of mix and the type of cement used in concrete have a profound
influence on the rate of creep. Concrete mixes with higher water-cement ratio will also show higher creep
rates. Creep is thought to be beneficial in some cases and harmful in other cases. In reinforced concrete, it
helps in transferring stresses to the reinforcement and, thereby reducing chances of failure by stress-
concentration.

iii. STRENGTH
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
It may be defined as the maximum compressive load that can be taken by concrete per unit
area. It has been shown that with special care and control, concrete can be made to bear as high
loads as 800 kg/sq.cm or even more. In practice, however, concrete with compressive Strength
between 200-500 kg/sq.cm can be easily made on the site for the common type of construction.
The compressive strength is also called the crushing strength, and it is determined by loading
axially cube shaped (or cylindrical shaped, in the USA) specimens made out of the concrete.
The tests are carried out in 3 days, 7 days and 28 days after the casting of the samples.

TENSILE STRENGTH
Plain concrete (without steel reinforcement) is quite weak in tensile strength which may vary
from 1/8th to 1/20th of the ultimate compressive strength .It is primarily for this reason that
steel bars (reinforcement) are introduced into the concrete at the laying stage to get a block of
concrete which is very Strong in compression as well as in tension. In plain concrete, tensile
strength depends largely on the same factors as of the compressive strength. The Tensile
strength of concrete becomes a valuable property when it is to be used in road making and
runways. It is determined by using indirect methods. In one of such methods, it is deduced from
the flexural strength test. In this test, a beam of concrete is cast in standard dimensions
depending upon the nominal size of the aggregate. Then, the beam is properly cured and tested
after 28 days.
 iv. HARDNESS

v. DURABILITY
Durability is the second most important quality of hardened concrete. It may be defined as the
capacity of hardened concrete to withstand all the forces of deterioration that are likely to act on
it, after setting, in a given environment. Among these forces, the following are more likely to
act.
1. Frost action.
2. Abrasive forces.
3. Chemical action.
4. Alkali-aggregate reaction.

A brief note on each of these is given below.

i. Frost Action.
Frost Action is a major cause of deterioration of concrete in Cold Climates. It takes place due to freezing
or water within the concrete pores and cavities during extremely cold weather.
Water on freezing expands and exerts pressure on the walls of the pores. This cyclic freezing of water in
the pores are responsible for the development of cracks of various nature in the concrete.
To minimize frost actions following measures should be taken.
In cold weather, the water-cement ratio should be kept as low as possible. This will not allow any
extra water to remain within the concrete pores. Hence frost formation will not take place.
Use good drainage and covering methods for removing any surface water from staying on the
concrete during the curing process.
ii. Chemical Attack.
Concrete is liable to attack to various degrees by acids alkalies and salt solutions.
Among the acids, hydrochloric. Sulphuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid and formic
acid are very harmful to concrete.
The sources of these acids can be from within or outside the environment in which concrete has been
used. Thus, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid may be present in industrial and domestic sewage.
They will destroy gradually the calcium hydroxide components of concrete used for sewage disposal.
Other acids may attack the concrete used in the industrial buildings of acids.
The organic acids are common though in traces, in food processing factories and dairy farms. Concrete
used in these buildings will gradually deteriorate from these acids at a fast rate.
iii. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction.
Sodium and potassium hydroxides of cements are capable of reaction with silica. Since amorphous silica
is a common component of many coarse aggregates, such an alkali-aggregate reaction may create harmful
effects on cement concrete.
This is because the gel-like silicate structures produced by the above reaction are quite weak and unstable
and result in greater expansion.
These may be the cause of frequent cracking in some concretes. For avoiding this reaction, either the
percentage of alkalies (K2O and Na20) has to be kept very low in the Portland Cement.
Or a great care has to be taken for selecting aggregates free of amorphous silica like opal, chert,
cristobalite, etc.

vi. TOUGHNESS

Q4 Effect of Admixtures on Shrinkage

Admixtures are defined as a material other than aggregate, water, of cement which is added to the
concrete. The use of suitable admixtures can result in an enhancement of the performance of concrete.

Air Entraining Agents

Air entraining agents are used primarily to increase the freeze-thaw resistance of concrete. They also
supply greater resistance to deicing chemicals, improve workability, lower water demand for a particular
slump, reduce the amount of fine aggregate needed in the mixture, reduce segregation and bleeding,
increase durability, and improve pumpability. Even though air entrainments have no effect on drying
shrinkage, they do create a slight loss in concrete strength.

Water Reducing Agents

A certain amount of water is added to concrete to make the concrete placeable and to ignite the hydration
reaction of portland cement. Over 50 percent of the water added has no useful effect and has a direct
impact on drying shrinkage, durability, and strength of concrete. Water reducing agents added to the
concrete reduce the water demand of the mix, maintain the workability, increase the strength, reduce the
cost, reduce bleeding, reduce segregation, reduce honeycombing, reduce cracking and permeability,
increase bond strength of concrete to steel, and reduce drying shrinkage. An average of 12-15 percent
reduction in total water content will attain this goal.
Set Retarding Agents
These agents are primarily used for delaying the setting time of concrete. Set retards are useful, but are
not the solution to poorly designed mixes, inferior materials, or low cement factors. The set retarder must
be uniformly dispersed throughout the whole mix. Failure to do so will result in the admixture remaining
in voids, causing some areas to remain plastic. This leads to plastic shrinkage.

Accelerating Agents
Accelerating agents are used to shorten the setting time and increase the early strength of concrete. These
agents are mainly used for concrete needs to be used immediately.

Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride is generally used in cold weather to hasten the setting time and produces an early finish
of the concrete. Calcium chloride can effect the characteristics of concrete causing temperature rise,
increased internal stresses, corrosion of unprotected reinforcement, a decrease in the resistance to
freeze/thaw, an increase in the attack of sulfates, and an increase in the amount of drying shrinkage
between 10 and 50 percent.

Other Agents
Other admixture agents have a varying result on the increase on drying shrinkage, but the percent of
shrinkage is constant for a given admixture.

Q5

TYPE I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for all uses where the special properties of other
types are not required. It is used where cement or concrete is not subject to specific exposures, such as
sulfate attack from soil or water, or to an objectionable temperature rise due to heat generated by
hydration. Its uses include pavements and sidewalks, reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railway
structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts, sewers, water pipes and masonry units.

TYPE II Type II portland cement is used where precaution against moderate sulfate attack is important,
as in drainage structures where sulfate concentrations in groundwaters are higher than normal but not
unusually severe (Table 2). Type II cement will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I.
With this moderate heat of hydration (an optional requirement), Type II cement can be used in structures
of considerable mass, such as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining walls. Its use will reduce
temperature rise -- especially important when the concrete is placed in warm weather

TYPE III is a high-early-strength portland cement that provides high strengths at an early period, usually
a week or less. It is used when forms are to be removed as soon as possible, or when the structure must be
put into service quickly. In cold weather, its use permits a reduction in the controlled curing period.
Although richer mixtures of Type I cement can be used to gain high early strength, Type III, highearly-
strength portland cement, may provide it more satisfactorily and more economically.

TYPE IV Type IV is a low heat of hydration cement for use where the rate and amount of heat generated
must be minimized. It develops strength at a slower rate than Type I cement. Type IV portland cement is
intended for use in massive concrete structures, such as large gravity dams, where the temperature rise
resulting from heat generated during curing is a critical factor.
Q6