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An Example of Phylum Cnidaria:

Hydra
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In this article we will discuss about Hydra:- 1. Habit and

Habitat of Hydra 2. Structure of Hydra 3. Structure and
Function of the Different Cellular Units 4. Locomotion 5.
Nutrition 6. Respiration and Excretion 7. Reproduction 8.
Life History.
Contents:
1. Habit and Habitat of Hydra
2. Structure of Hydra
3. Structure and Function of the Different Cellular Units of Hydra
4. Locomotion of Hydra
5. Nutrition in Hydra
6. Respiration and Excretion in Hydra
7. Reproduction in Hydra
8. Life History of Hydra

1. Habit and Habitat of Hydra:

One of the smallest solitary polyps amongst the cnidarians is
represented by Hydra. Almost all the hydras inhabit clear, transparent
freshwater ponds and lakes excepting Protohydra which is marine.
Hydra owes its name from Greek mythology where the sea-serpent
named Hydra had the inherent potentiality to regenerate its head, if
extirpated.

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Several species of hydra are recorded. The common Indian species is

the Hydra vulgaris (formerly known as Hydra grisea) and the
Pelmatohydra oligacitis (formerly called as Hydra fusca). The phase
orientalis of Hydra vulgaris is the commonest variety present in the
neighbouring ponds of Kolkata.

Pelmatohydra oligactis has a comparatively slender body and the

length of the tentacles exceeds three to four times the length of the
body column. Another form of hydra which needs mentioning here is
Chlorohydra viridissima (formerly known as Hydra viridis). This
species harbours symbiotic algae Zoochlorella in the endodermal cells
which render the colour of the body green.

Certain parasites are recorded in hydra, namely Hydramoeba

hydroxena and few ciliates, Kerona pediculus and Trichodina
pediculus. All the forms of hydra are built on same basic pattern and
the following description will give an idea on the biology of hydra in
general. Hydra exists only in polyp form (monomorphic) and the
phenomenon of metagenesis or alternation of generation is totally
absent.

2. Structure of Hydra:
Hydra has a slender tubular body and exhibits distinct radial
symmetry (Fig. 12.2). The body is extremely contractile and the length
varies from 10 to 30 mm. The lower end of the tubular body is closed
and this side is designated as the aboral or proximal end. This end of
the body is named as the foot or basal disc which is used as a structure
for attachment to the substratum and it aids in locomotion as well.

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The opposite end (the oral or distal end) is free and possesses the
opening of the mouth, situated at the summit of a conical elevation
called the hypostome or manubrium. The base of the hypostome is
surrounded by a number of tentacles. The usual number of tentacles is
six but it may vary from four to eleven in some cases. Tentacles are
totally absent in Protohydra.

The mouth leads into the coelenteron which occupies the interior of
the body and is also continuous with the slender cavities of the
tentacles.
In most cases, the fairly grown individuals bear buds located at the
specific budding zone of the body, i.e., the region of the body column
just below the middle of the body. During breeding season the mature
individuals possess many male gonads or testes and usually one
female gonad or ovary.

3. Structure and Function of the Different Cellular Units of

Hydra:
The body of Hydra is composed of two cellular layers with a thin non-
cellular mesoglea (Fig. 12.3) in between. The outer layer is known as
the ectoderm and the inner layer is known as the endoderm. In
addition to the power of contractility common to both the layers, the
ectoderm is mainly protective and the endoderm is primarily nutritive
in function.

Both the layers are constituted of several cell-types, destined to

perform diverse physiological functions (Fig. 12.4). In Hydra cellular
differentiation is associated with the physiological division of labour.
Each kind of cell performs definite and specific functions in co-
operation with each other for the individual as a whole.

I. Ectodermal cell-types:
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The ectoderm is composed of epitheliomuscular cells, interstitial cells,
cnidoblasts, sensory cells, nerve cells and basal disc cells.

A. Epitheliomuscular cells:
These cellular units constitute the main bulk of the ectoderm and are
comparatively larger in size. The compound name of this type is due to
its dual functioning capacities, protection and the power of
contraction. The cells are roughly conical in shape having their broad
ends directed outwards.

These ends fuse and give rise to a continuous cuticles along the entire
length of the body. The narrower ends are directed to the mesogleal
side and are produced into contractile processes which are oriented
along the length of the animal to act as longitudinal muscles. The
contraction of these processes shortens the body- column and
tentacles. This cell-type has a prominent nucleus and several small
vacuoles.

B. Interstitial cells:
In the intercellular spaces between the narrower ends of the
epitheliomuscular cells there are small cells called the interstitial or
sub-epithelial cells. These are comparatively small in size and oval in
shape. These cells usually occur in clusters. Each cell has a prominent
nucleus with one or more distinct nucleoli and the cytoplasm is very
inconspicuous.

Interstitial cells can give rise to other cell-types, such as the

cnidoblasts or nematoblasts and sex- cells. For this reason these cells
are known as perennially undifferentiated embryonic cells.

C. Cnidoblasts:
This type of cellular unit constitutes a very important component of
the ectoderm. The cell contains a sac-like nematocyst and a layer of
specially contractile cytoplasm with distinct nucleus. From the outer
end of cnidoblast projects a trigger-like pointed process called the
cnidocil. When touched, it conveys the sensation to the inner part of
the cell.
Each nematocyst or cnida is a fluid-filled rounded capsule, the narrow
end of which is drawn into a long, coiled, thread-like tube. It remains
immersed within the cavity of the nematocyst (Fig. 12.5). It can be
everted to aid in capturing the prey or in locomotion.

Cnidoblasts may occur singly in the body column, but in the tentacles
several smaller ones are grouped around a central one (penetrant
type) to form small surface tubercle or battery. Cnidoblasts have a
characteristic regional distribution. They are quite numerous in the
tentacles and anterior region of the body but gradually slide down
towards the aboral side and are totally absent in the basal disc.
Usually four types of nematocysts are encountered in Hydra (Fig.
12.6).

They are as follows:

Penetrant type or Stenotele:
This type has a large spherical cell-body of about 16 micra in diameter.
It has a long thread-like tube which remains coiled in transverse
plane. The base of the thread contains three long barbs and bears rows
of small thorns or nettles. When the cniodcil is stimulated, the thread
tube shoots out. It pierces the body of the prey and injects a fluid
containing a toxic protein called hypnotoxin to paralyse the victim.

Volvent type or Desmoneme:

They are pear-shaped forms having an average length of about 9
micra. Each nematocyst of this kind contains a thick short thread,
which usually forms a single loop. After discharge the thread coils
round any part of the prey.

Glutinant Streptoline type or Holotrichous isorhiza:

They are oval in shape and are about 9 micra in length. Each
nematocyst possesses a long thread with three or four transverse coils
and bears small nettles. The thread may coil after discharge.

Glutinant Stereoline type or Atrichous isorhiza:

These types of nematocysts are comparatively smaller in size and are
about 7 micra in length. Upon discharge the thread remains straight.
The thread is unarmed.

The penetrant and volvent types of nematocysts help in capturing the

prey and the streptoline and stereoline glutinant types, in addition to
the capture of food, help in locomotion by producing sticky secretion.

Discharge of nematocysts:
Cnidoblasts possess an independent effector. Any stimulus affecting
the cnidocil directly causes the discharge of the thread. Opinions differ
as regards the actual mechanism of discharge. Mechanical stimuli are
not always found to be effective.

Substances are extracted from the crustacean larvae on which Hydra

feeds provoke discharge of nematocysts. Acetic acid is seen to cause
discharge of the nematocysts. The discharge of thread is caused by the
increased osmotic pressure of the fluid within the nematocyst capsule.

Nematocysts once shot out are not incorporated in the body system.
New cnidoblasts develop out of interstitial cells. Usually one
cnidoblast develops from one interstitial cell, but often two or more
may arise.

D. Basal disc cells:

In the basal disc region the epitheliomuscular cells are modified into
tall cells. These cells have deeply stained granules in the cytoplasm
and have faint striations. These cells produce a sticky secretion which
helps the animal to adhere to the substratum under water. Sometimes
these cells also produce gas bubble which helps the animal to float in
water.

E. Sensory cells:
Scattered in the ectoderm there are numerous slender sensory cells.
Several types of sensory cells are seen in Hydra. Sensory cells have
delicate tips with sensory hairs. Sensory cells are quite abundant in the
basal disc region, hypostome and tentacles. The bases of these sensory
cells are connected to the nerve cells.

F. Nerve cells:
Existence of nerve cells in the ectoderm of Hydra is a highly controver-
sial issue. By special histochemical techniques, some workers on this
line have demonstrated the presence of spider-like cell- bodies,
designated as the nerve cells. Delicate processes originating from the
cell-bodies form a network in the ectoderm adjacent to the mesoglea.

These processes are connected to the sensory cells, to the similar

processes of other nerve cells and lastly, to the contractile fibrils of the
epitheliomuscular cells. Such combination of nerve connection
produces a sort of simplest sensory-neuromotor mechanism in
animals. This system co-ordinates the movement of the body and
tentacles.

II. Endodermal cell-types:

The endoderm of Hydra is primarily made up of nutritive-muscular
cells and gland cells. Interstitial cells and cnidoblasts occur very rarely
in the endoderm. Sensory cells and nerve cells are also present in the
endodermal layer as in the ectoderm.
A. Nutritive-muscular cells:
The nutritive-muscular cells constitute the main bulk of the
endoderm. They are tall columnar cells encircling the coelenteron. In
the hypostome region, the cytoplasm of the nutritive-muscular cells is
granular and homogeneous. But in the tentacles and in the basal disc
regions these cells are highly vacuolated with little cytoplasmic
content. In the rest of the stem body these cells are highly developed.

The nucleus is usually located towards the mesogleal side and contains
one or two nucleoli. Cytoplasm is less vacuolated. Deeply stained
spherical bodies are abundantly found in these cells. The mesogleal
ends of the nutritive-muscular cells are produced into contractile
processes oriented transversely to encircle the body.

These processes act as circular muscles. When contracted, the dia-

meter of the body is reduced and consequently the length of the body
is extended. Nutritive-muscular cells are of two types amoeboid and
flagellated. The broader end of amoeboid cells projecting in the coe-
lenteron produces pseudopodia to engulf the particles of food.

The cells with whip-like flagella cut the particles of the food into
pieces. Recent observations have, however, failed to record the
presence of such flagellated cells. As stated earlier symbiotic
Zoochlorella and some parasitic amoebae and coccidia are recorded
amidst the endodermal cells, particularly the nutritive-muscular cells
of some species of Hydra.

B. Gland cells:
Gland cells are present all through the endoderm of Hydra excepting
the tentacles. They are plenty in the oral region but their number
gradually reduces towards the aboral region. They are usually located
in between the nutritive-muscular cells. Two types of gland cells are
encountered in the endoderm. The first category of the gland cells is
smaller in size. The shape is oval.

The end facing the coelenteron is broader and the other end is
gradually narrowed to a thread-like projection touching the mesoglea.
The cytoplasm is intensively basophilic and vacuolated. Nucleus is dis-
tinct and is situated at the narrow end of the cell. The second category
of the gland cells exhibits less basophilic cytoplasm. Vacuoles of
different sizes are dispersed within the cell body. Nuclei are not
distinctly visible.

The above mentioned types of the gland cells also have characteristic
regional distribution. The former category of the gland cells is quite
abundant in the oral part of the body, while the other category has
outnumbered them in the aboral region.

It has been observed that the distribution of various cell-types varies

along the entire length of the body. The difference in cell- population
at different zones of the body column indicates the presence of
functional diversity in the different regions of the body (Fig. 12.7).
Cell flow in Hydra:
It has been observed that Hydra loses its old cells through the basal
disc and tip of the tentacle. New cells are believed to be formed in a
region immediately beneath the hypostome. This subhypostomal
region is called the growth zone of Hydra. The cells produced in this
region migrate in two directionsone towards the tentacles and the
other towards the basal disc.

This phenomenon of two-directional cell-flow in the body of Hydra

can be experimentally shown. Mookerjee (1962) has shown that a
middle piece of Hydra, when grafted in the subhypostomal region
induces a basal disc. Similar result has also been obtained by Sinha
(1967) by implanting middle piece material at the base of any one of
the tentacles.

When the host Hydra is cultured, the induced basal disc at the
subhypostomal region gradually descends down and merges with the
original host basal disc. While the induced basal disc at the base of the
tentacle ascends up to the tip of the tentacle and is discharged through
the tentacular tip.

These experiments demonstrate the existence of two directional cell

flow from the subhypostomal region of Hydra. By this cell flow Hydra
not only replaces the old cniodoblasts but also renews the entire cell
column. The body of Hydra thus shows a dynamic state and such
phenomenon of cell replacement has enabled this animal to be
immortal.

4. Locomotion of Hydra:
Hydra normally remains attached to the substratum by basal disc and
stands erect. For capturing the prey and to change the location, Hydra
exhibits several types of movement (Fig. 12.8).
Looping:
While standing erect the animal bends its body and fixes the tentacles
to the substratum by the glutinant nematocysts. It then releases the
attachment of the basal disc and moves its free end to a new site. The
animal now stands up by disengaging its tentacles.

Somersaulting:
In this type of movement, Hydra fixes itself on the substratum by the
hypostomal end and shifts the attachment of basal disc. The basal disc
is then rotated 180 and is fixed at a new point. The hypostome is
again raised.

Other types of movement:

Hydra often uses its tentacles as legs and moves in an inverted way.

Gliding:
Occasionally, Hydra may glide along the substratum by the
pseudopodial action of the basal disc cells.

Floating:
Sometimes, Hydra can produce a bubble of gas, secreted by the basal
disc cells, which helps the animal to float on the surface of the water
and is passively carried from one place to another by water current or
wind flow.

Climbing:
Hydra can climb by attaching its tentacles to some distant object and
then releasing the basal disc and by contracting the tentacles, the body
is drawn up to a new position.

5. Nutrition in Hydra:
Nutrition in Hydra is holozoic. The entire process may be divided into
ingestion, digestion and egestion.

Food and ingestion:

The food of Hydra comprises mainly of minute crustaceans and their
larvae. Instances of taking insect larvae and Tubifex are also common.
When Hydra is hungry, it exhibits a special kind of movement in
search of food. It extends its body to its fullest extent and the tentacles
are fully stretched in search of food.

Whenever wandering forms like Daphnia or Artemia larvae come in

contact with the tentacles, nematocysts are discharged at once. It has
been demonstrated that feeding reaction may be induced by the
application of glutathione.

The penetrant type of nematocysts penetrates the body of the prey to

inject the hypnotoxin to cause paralysis and the volvent types wrap the
body of the prey. After causing paralysis, the tentacles bend inward
and carry the food towards the mouth (Fig. 12.9).

The mouth then opens and by muscular contraction it pushes the food
into the coelenteron. It is said that the food is then cut into bits by the
beating of flagella of the flagellated type of the nutritive-muscular
cells.

Digestion:
The gland cells of the endoderm become activated and produce diges-
tive juices containing only proteolytic enzymes. The proteins are
broken down into amino-acids which are absorbed by endodermal
cells and are then distributed among the body cells. This particular
type of digestion is called extracellular digestion.

The small bits of food matters that escape digestion are engulfed by
the pseudopodia of the amoeboid nutritive-muscular cells. In these
amoeboid cells the food particles are taken within food vacuoles where
the food matters are digested. This type of amoeba-like digestion is
called the intracellular digestion.

In the food vacuole, carbohydrate-splitting, fat- splitting as well as

protein-splitting enzymes are produced. Thus in Hydra a combination
of both higher (extracellular) and lower (intracellular) types of
digestion occur.

Egestion:
Indigestible residues are passed out to the exterior through mouth
which also acts as an anus.

6. Respiration and Excretion in Hydra:

Hydra utilises the oxygen dissolved in water for respiration. Oxygen is
diffused from the surrounding water directly into the

different cells. The carbon dioxide goes out mainly from the ectoderm
by diffusion. The nitrogenous waste products are also removed from
the body surface through diffusion.

7. Reproduction in Hydra:
Hydra reproduces asexually as well as sexually.

Asexual reproduction:
The asexual reproduction includes budding and fission. Budding is
most common and regarded as the normal way of propagation which
occurs throughout the season in well-fed mature individuals. A bud
appears as a conical protuberance of the body wall from the budding
zone. The projection contains ectoderm, mesoglea, endoderm and the
continuation of the coelenteron of mother Hydra.

Gradually, this projection elongates and attains a considerable length.

Rudiments of tentacles appear at the free end of the bud. The hypos-
tome is conical and bears the opening of the mouth at the centre. After
this a constriction appears at the region of junction of the developing
but with the mothers body.
Gradually, the constriction becomes deeper. By this time basal disc in
the bud is formed. Finally, the bud detaches itself from the body of the
mother and leads an independent life (Fig. 12.10).

Several buds may occur in a single mother Hydra at a time, although

the usual number is one. When several buds are present the older one
is located towards the proximal side while the fresh ones are on the
distal side.

Fission:
Both longitudinal and transverse fissions are seen in Hydra. But these
fissions generally follow accidental breakdown and are not routine
modes of reproduction. In this type of reproduction, the rest of the
part is grown by a process called regeneration.

Events of regeneration:
Hydra is capable of replacing any of its lost structures within a short
time.

This power of regeneration is due to highly plastic nature of its cellular

organisation. When the hypostome or the basal disc is amputated, the
lost structures are reformed by the existing mass of cells within 48
hours (Fig. 12.11). The whole phenomenon of restitution may be
divided into two phases.
At first, the closure of the wound occurs which involves extension of
the endoderm cells, migration and secretion of gland cells, formation
of a slime plug from the secreted

material and ultimately coalescence of the endoderm cells at the

centre of the wound. This completes the phase of wound healing and
after wound healing, the second phase, i.e., the differentiation of the
lost structure takes place.

The histo-differentiation of the hypostome starts with the formation of

a new layer of ectoderm over the cut surface from the endodermal
cells, plastering the open end. Finally, during the re-organisation of
the hypostome, the gland cells gradually lose their granules and take
up a non-granular amorphous nature.

The gland cells and other endodermal cells at the future hypostome
site change their shape to crescentic forms. Formation of tentacles is
initiated by the extension of the coelenteron at specific sites. When the
tentacle grows a good number of cells are seen coming out from the
junction of tentacle and the hypostome.

The gland cells never enter the tentacle, and other endodermal cells
undergo vacuolation while entering the tentacular lumen. During
tentacle formation a larges cale differentiation of nematocysts takes
place.

The wound healing phase in the restitution of basal disc is similar to

what happens in the case of hypostome regeneration. After the
formation of a new layer of ectoderm from endoderm, the delaminated
cells become flattened sidewise and assume appreciable tallness.

These newly formed columnar cells further take up fibrous nature and
spread over the presumptive basal disc area. Almost all of the gland
cells including some other endoderm cells which once migrated to the
amputated site are now thrown out and are found in free state inside
the coelenteron. The cellular events during hypostomal and basal disc
regeneration are shown in Figure 12.11.
Sexual reproduction:
Propagation by sexual process is very rare in Hydra. Sexual
reproduction does not occur throughout the year, but happens
occasionally. In Hydra, experimental alteration of temperature for 2-3
weeks will induce sexuality which occurs in the early winter or
summer. Others have suggested that the temperature plays a major
role in the initiation of sexuality than the photoperiod.

Most species of Hydra are dioecius while monoecious species are also
common. Phenomenon of sex reversal is also seen in Hydra. Hydra
once producing male gonads in one part of the year is seen to produce
female gonads in another period of the year.

Gonads are temporary structures and occur in distinct localised zones

of the body column. The female gonad (ovary) produces eggs and the
male gonad (testis) produces spermatozoa (Fig. 12.12). Both the
gonads develop by the modification of the interstitial cells.
Male gonads or testes:
Several testes usually occur at the upper half of the body. Each testis is
a conical swelling of the ectoderm. It has a heap of rapidly multiplying
interstitial cells covered by a protective layer of epitheliomuscular
cells. These rapidly multiplying interstitial cells are called the
spermatogonia. Each spermatogonium divides repeatedly to produce a
large number of spermatocytes which migrate outwards and become
round.

Each cell now undergoes two maturation divisions to form four nuclei
in an undivided mass of cytoplasm. These are called as the spermatids
which are transformed into spermatozoa. Each spermatozoon has a
conical head, short neck and a long wavy tail. When the testis matures
the covering capsule ruptures and the spermatozoa are liberated in
water where they remain viable for a day or two.

Female gonad or ovary:

The development of ovary resembles the formation of testis at the
earlier stages. Of the rapidly multiplying interstitial cells, one becomes
amoeboid. This is the oocyte which increases in size at the expense of
the others which provide nutrition for the developing oocyte.

The cytoplasm of the oocyte is heavily loaded with dark yolk granules.
The oocyte then enters into two maturation divisions to form three
small non-functional polar bodies and one mature ovum or egg.

Fertilization:
When the egg becomes mature the capsular wall of the ovary ruptures
to form a small opening in the ectoderm for the entry of the sperm and
thus the egg is exposed. The ovum secretes a gelatinous substance by
which a number of sperms are attracted to it and only one sperm
fertilizes the ovum.

8. Life-History of Hydra:
The egg after fertilization begins to divide. The cleavage is total and
equal blastomeres are formed. The blastomeres then arrange
themselves to form a cellular hollow ball called the blastula
(coeloblastula). The wall of the blastula is composed of a single layer of
cells and the enclosed cavity is called the blastocoel.

New cells are formed and cut off from the inner end of the existing
cells and migrate into the blastocoel to form the inner layer. This stage
is called the gastrula. The outer layer is destined to form the ectoderm
and the inner solid layer is converted into the endoderm. This type of
solid gastrula is called stereo-gastrula.

The endoderm is solid at first which hollows out subsequently to form

the coelenteron. A jelly like mesoglea is formed in between the two
cellular layers. The embryo now secretes a horny capsule or cyst with
spinous outer surface. The embryo then drops away from the mothers
body and sinks to the bottom of the pond.

After some time (the period varies from about 10 to 70 days) the
capsule softens and a young Hydra with small tentacles hatches out.
Thus young Hydra now settles down and begins to feed and grow (Fig.
12.13).

Thus the development of Hydra is direct and a larval form which is the
characteristic of other cnidarians is absent.