DUST PARTICLE FORMATION AND CHARACTERISTICS

A. Buekens
Department of Chemical Engineering CHIS 2, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
Keywords: Aerosols, Elutriation, Cascade Impactor, Particle Size Distribution, Sieving,
Source apportionment, Speciation.
Contents
1. Survey
2. Sources
3. Physical characteristics
4. Chemical characteristics
5. Source apportionment
6. Dust Sample Analysis
7. Particle Evaluation
8. Effluent Dust Analyzers
9. Dust Sampling Procedure
10. Conclusions
Related Chapters
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch

Summary
Dust is a very complex subject. Its origin may be natural, or a consequence of human activity.
Primary particles are as they were formed, secondary particles originate in atmospheric
conversion processes.
Aitken particles are the largest in number, but represent little in mass units. They are
important in cloud formation. Aerosols create haze and are relatively stable.
Total Suspended Particles represent the bulk of atmospheric dust and mass is still the basis of
dust emission codes. From a health point of view, however, it is important to know whether
dust is inhalable and how deeply it penetrates into the lungs. Today, there is a shifting
concern, from particulates smaller than 10 m (PM10) to PM2.5 and even much smaller.
The diameter of a particle may be defined in numerous ways, depending on the property
considered. Sieving addresses cross-sectional area, sedimentation, centrifugation and
elutriation an aerodynamic diameter. Particles can be examined using a microscope, Coulter
counter, laser diffraction, and cascade inertial impaction. Sampling and dust monitoring
methods are discussed.

1. Survey
Particulate matter (PM) is very variable in origin, nature, concentration, and size distribution.
Natural particulate arises from erosion, sand storms, and surf, from forest fires and volcanic
activity. Bio-aerosols comprehend pollen, a seasonal allergen, as well as transformation
products of natural semi-volatiles, such as terpenes and isoprene.
Anthropogenic particles originate from combustion, metallurgy, bulk and filter dust handling,
and are a carrier of adsorbed chemicals, bio-contaminants or condensed gases, which can
trigger various health effects.
Primary particles are introduced into the air in solid or liquid form, while secondary particles
are formed in the air by gas-to-particle conversion of oxidation products of emitted
precursors.
Atmospheric particles are evaluated very differently, depending on whether mass or number is
handled as a main criterion.
The amount of Total Suspended Particles (TSP) in the atmosphere is expresses in mass units.
Strong winds will enhance TSP, by remobilizing settled dust.
Inhalable particles, presented as PM10, are considered more important from a health viewpoint.
Size strongly influences in which part of the respiratory tract the particles are deposited.
Larger particles are deposited in the nasal area and in the upper parts of the respiratory tract.
Smaller particles follow the airflow to the deeper parts and have a high probability of
depositing by diffusion.
Aitken particles, smaller than 0.1 m in diameter, represent by far the largest number of
particles and play a role in atmospheric processes, such as cloud formation, rainout and
washout.
Aerosols are defined differently in various disciplines. They are relatively stable suspensions
of particles, and may also be termed mist, fog, fumes, and smoke.
The size of particles determines dynamic properties, behavior and fate during transport. Large
particles are mainly of crystal origin, and from natural sources. The highest level of
concentration of trace elements and toxins from anthropogenic sources and radioactivity from
natural sources is related to the very small particles.
Particle physical and chemical properties bear a relation to the sources generating the
particles. This helps to identify the parameters or their ranges that should be specifically
targeted for various types of emission sources operating in the environment under
investigation.
Atmospheric aerosol concentrations range from:
2 g m-3 in polar regions;
10 g m-3 as background value;
30 g m-3 for remote and rural locations;
170 g m-3 for polluted urban areas up to
100 000 g m-3 in sand storms!

2. Sources
Coarse particles are mainly from mechanical processes, including grinding, breaking and wear
of material, transport, and dust re-suspension, and contain largely earth crust compounds.
Fine particles are mainly from combustion, photochemical processes, and gas to particle
conversion. Typically they contain soot, organic compounds, and acid condensates, i.e.
sulfates and nitrates, as well as trace metals and other toxins.
Some processes generate particles with broad size distributions, covering both fine and coarse
ranges, e.g. in forest fires there are airborne combustion products, as well as large diameter
particles that are entrained into the smoke column as a result of the turbulence and buoyancy
generated by the fire. In most cases, however, fine and large particles result from totally
different generation processes. Thus fine and coarse airborne particles, or particle number and
mass are not necessarily correlated. It is evident that from the measurement of total particle
mass only limited information can be obtained.
Primary biological aerosol particles are discussed in Indoor Air Quality Monitoring and
Control.
Condensed water aerosols comprise haze, fog, and clouds.
Raindrops, snow and hail are very short-lived.
Hydrometeors are atmospheric particles with water as a dominant component.
Clouds can be subdivided into:
o cumulus, clouds with considerable vertical development;
o stratus: layer clouds;
o nimbus: rain clouds and
o cirrus: fibrous ice clouds.

These are further combined to subgroups, e.g. strato-cumulus.

In haze horizontal visibility is between 1 and 10 km; in fog it descends below 1 km.
Particle properties strongly depend on both particle formation and post formation processes.
Fine and coarse mode particles have different chemical composition and origins, are
transported and removed by different mechanisms, and require different detection techniques.
Many efforts have been made to correlate emission sources and immission of particulate, on a
basis of composition, elemental and isotopic ratio, and other characteristics, termed source
markers.

3. Physical Characteristics
Some important physical properties of particles (individually, or as a group) include:
Number and number size distribution;
Mass and mass size distribution;
Specific surface area;
Shape;
Volatility;
Hygroscopicity;
Electrical charge.
There are no instruments that can measure the entire particle size range, from nanometers to
tens of micrometers and usually there is a size range selected for investigations that depends
on the objectives of the investigations. Various classifications and terminologies have been
used to define particle size ranges.
3.1. Number and Number Distribution
Large numbers (up to millions per cubic meter) are associated with Aitken particles and Cloud
Condensation Nuclei. A second mode (i.e. a maximum in the distribution curves) is generally
 generated by fine or coarser aerosol particles, caused by emissions and by atmospheric
chemical reactions often involving ammonia and sulfuric acid.
Coarse particles are generally blown up by the wind and are of crystal origin.
3.2. Particle Sizes and Size Distribution
Size is characterized by particle diameter, or for irregular shapes - equivalent particle
diameter, i.e. the diameter of a sphere having the same value of a physical property as the
particle being measured. Equivalent diameter relates to any property, e.g. inertia, electrical or
magnetic mobility, light scattering, radioactivity, Brownian motion, or to chemical or
elemental concentration, cross-sectional area, and volume to surface ratio.
Particles from most atmospheric sources have a lognormal size distribution: a particle
concentration versus particle size curve is normal (bell shaped), when the particles are plotted
on a logarithmic scale. Particle size distributions often contain several distinct peaks, called
modes.
A wide-ranging aerosol collector (WRAC) provides an estimate of the full coarse mode
distribution. Inlet restrictions of the high volume sampler for TSP, the PM10 sampler, and the
PM2.5 sampler reduce the total mass reaching the sampling filter.
3.3. Droplet Size
Droplets are approximately spherical in shape, although elongation occurs under industrial
flow conditions. Depending on the application at hand the representative droplet size is
selected differently.
Droplet size is frequently denoted by a mean or median diameter. Each nomenclature for
describing droplet sizes leads to different numerical values. Mass Volume Median Diameter is
the largest of all and number median diameter is the smallest. The differences between the
various mean and median diameters provide a way of conveniently specifying the spread of
droplet sizes produced. If all droplets had been uniform in size, the mean and median
diameters would have been identical with the uniform size. Droplet size has been measured
with a PDPA (Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer) system.

Table 1: Usual Methods of Describing Droplet Size

[Source: Dr. Alan Rawle, "Basic Principles of Particle Size Analysis", Technical Paper,
Malvern Instruments Ltd.]

Mean Value Definition

Arithmetic Weighted average of the diameters of all individual droplets in the spray sample

Surface Diameter of a droplet whose surface area, if multiplied by the total number of
droplets, will equal the total surface area of all droplets in the spray sample

Volume Surface Diameter of a droplet whose ratio of volume to surface area is equal to that of
 or Sauter the entire spray sample

Table 1: Usual Methods of Describing Droplet Size

Mass (Volume) Median Diameter: the diameter, which divides the mass (volume) of spray
into two equal halves.

volume of mixture (1)

void fraction (2)

where
N = number of particles
Vg = volume of gas phase
Vp = volume of particulate phase
3.4. Number Frequency Distribution

Figure 1: Number Frequency Distribution

AREA =
Fraction of particles between and
(3)

Number mean

(4)

Number variance

(5)
 3.5. Mass Frequency Distribution

Figure 2: Mass Frequency Distribution

AREA =
(6)

= Fraction of particulate mass associated with particles between and

Mass mean

(7)

Mass variance

(8)
4. Chemical Characteristics
Important chemical properties are:
 Elemental composition, including mineral dust and water.
Secondary inorganic ions, mainly sulfate, nitrate and ammonium.
Carbonaceous compounds (organic and elemental carbon).
Organic composition.
4.1. Elemental Composition
Combustion results in emissions of a cluster of different trace elements, present in the fuel or
the lubricants used (motor vehicles). Since most trace elements are associated with ultra fine
particles and are less prone to chemical transformations, they undergo long-range atmospheric
transport.
Mechanical processes, such as mining, mineral processing, quarrying, breaking, grinding, dust
re-suspension, etc, generate particles predominantly containing crustal elements. Table 2
relates common outdoor particle sources to common suites of elements.

Table 2: Elements emitted from various particle sources (according to WHO). EC = Earth
Crust

[Source: Adapted from "Guidelines for concentration and exposure-response measurement of

fine and ultra fine particulate matter for use in epidemiological studies", Ed. D. Schwela et al.
World Health Organization, 2002.]

Emission Source Characteristic Elements Emitted

Road transport Br, Pb, Ba, Mn, Cl, Zn, V, Ni, Se, Sb, As

Motor vehicle emissions Fe, Al

Engine wear Rare earths, Pt

Catalytic converters ZnO, carbon black

Tyre wear EC, Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, Fe, Zn

Road side dusts

Industrial facilities V, Ni

Oil fired power plants Se, As, Cr, Co, Cu Al, S, P, Ga

Coal combustion V

Oil Refineries As, Sb, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Hg

Nonferrous metal smelters Zn, Pb

Iron and steel mills Cu, Zn

Copper refinery
Refuse incineration Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd, Hg, K

Mineral and material processing Si, Al, Ca, Mg, K, Sc, Fe, Mn.

Sea spray Na, Cl, S, K

Resuspended soil Si, Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, Ti, Sr, Mn, Sc

Table 2: Elements emitted from various particle sources (according to WHO), EC = Earth Crust
4.2. Speciation
Speciation is the identification of chemical forms of an element. Different chemical forms
have different physical and chemical properties and health effects. Processes such as
environmental transport and bioavailability are species dependent.
Arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, manganese, nickel, lead, tin, selenium, titanium,
vanadium and zinc all are enriched at the surface of particles. Also, their load in fly ash
increases in concentration with decreasing particle size.
Hence, conventional bulk analyses of particles provide but a poor measure of actual
concentrations of many toxic trace elements in the external environment of the particle. For a
particle of an aerodynamic diameter of one m, as much as 80 % of the trace elemental mass
is within the extractable surface layer.
4.3. Secondary Particles
The main atmospheric source of secondary particles is the oxidation of SO2 and NOx.
Oxidation of SO2 always results in the formation of aerosols, due to the low vapor pressure of
H2SO4. In contrast, HNO3 is distributed between both the gas and aerosol phases. Chemical
transformation of gases to particles depends on physical factors such as plume mixing and
dispersion, reaction kinetics, oxidant concentration, sunlight, catalytic aerosol surfaces, etc.
Conversion rates of SO2 are generally around one - two percent per hour and about 10 times
higher for nitrate.
SO2 is emitted both by natural and anthropogenic sources, mainly fossil fuel emissions of SO2
converted to H2SO4. Over continents, H2SO4 forms still acidic NH4HSO4 and neutral (NH4)2SO4
with ammonia mainly from animal farming and catalytic car mufflers.
Secondary pollutants, whether in the vapor phase or aerosols, are also formed from organic
compounds, derived from engine exhausts, fugitive emissions and evaporation of solvents, or
natural in origin.
Other sources of particulate organic carbon include pollen, leaf abrasion, suspension of
biological debris, as primary sources. Secondary particulate organic carbon results from gas-
particle conversion of certain VOC oxidation products.
4.4. Humidity
Atmospheric particles generally grow with relative humidity (hygroscopicity). Water certainly
contributes significantly to the outdoor PM mass concentration. Aerosol particles therefore
contain a significant amount of water. From growth factor measurements, it can be calculated
that a particle of NH4(SO4)2 contains about 30 % of water in mass at 50 % relative humidity.
4.5. Carbonaceous Aerosols
The carbonaceous fraction comprises carbonate, a wide range of organic compounds and
elemental carbon, which is an inert tracer of primary combustion. This fraction can be defined
from optical properties or from the analytical conditions in which it evolves as CO2.
Combustion aerosols contain organics, more in particular products of incomplete combustion,
or PICs (see Pollution Control through Efficient Combustion Technology).
4.6. Particle Organic Composition
Combustion sources generate large amounts of volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds.
Semi-volatile organic compounds in the air are either in vapor or in particle form (solid or
liquid). Exposure to organic compounds has been associated with various types of health
effects.
Polyarenes, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), some strongly carcinogenic, are a
class of compounds contained in the organic fraction of fine particulate matter. PAH
compounds grow into large molecular structures in low-oxygen environments, such as the
fuel-rich region of the flame. If exiting incompletely combusted from the flame zone, they are
released and condensed or are adsorbed onto the surface of the particles.
A compilation of health effects of selected PAH may be found in publications by WHO and
the US EPA.
Semi-volatile compounds include aliphatic hydrocarbons, from diesel and gasoline engines.
Guaiacol and derivatives result from the pyrolysis of wood lignin and appear to be relatively
stable in the atmosphere; they serve as tracers of wood smoke. A strongly carcinogenic
compound present in diesel emissions is 3-nitrobenzanthrone. Still, most of the human burden
derives from the food chain.
Organic acids, emitted from combustion of fossil fuels and biomass can contribute to source
apportionment and have been linked to health effects.
From a human health viewpoint it seems relevant in what physical form the semi-volatile
compounds are inhale: in vapor form, or associated with particles of specific sizes. There is
little information available, mainly due to the difficulties in investigating organics in small
amounts of mass.
Summary of the most common volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds emitted from
combustion sources may found in the specialized literature.

5. Source Apportionment
Source characterization and quantification of emissions from individual pollution sources is
necessary for dressing inventories at local, regional and national levels and developing
management and control strategies related to air quality and its impact on health.
The principal primary sources of emissions in the UK are road transport, stationary processes
(coal burning) and industrial processes, i.e. acid processes, cement production, petroleum
refining and incineration.
5.1. Atmospheric Aerosols
In atmospheric aerosols the dry fine particulate is dominated by the following species:
sulfates, mainly either with ammonia or acidic;
nitrates, mainly with ammonia;
organics;
carbon;
soil dust.
Under ambient conditions water is an important component of aerosol particles.
Depending on atmospheric humidity aerosol particles either grow or evaporate. One
publication, for instance, cites phase transition points from solid to liquid (deliquescence) for
a number of salts, ranging from 61.8 (NH4NO3) to 84.2 percent (Na2SO4). Only NH4HSO4 is
extremely deliquescent, at 39 percent. Salts may either be non-volatile (NaCl) or rather
volatile (NH4Cl).
Wet deposition is damaging to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
5.2. Source Markers and Source Signatures
In order to control the sources it is necessary to have an understanding of where particles are
coming from, and how much individual sources contribute at the receiving end. Many sources
emit a very large number of compounds. For example, over 4000 different compounds can be
found in tobacco smoke. It is not only impossible, but also unnecessary to monitor all these
compounds. Instead some so called source signatures and source markers are used as
fingerprints, i.e. physical or chemical characteristics specific for particular emissions, through
which their source can be identified.
An ideal marker should be easily, accurately, and cost-effectively measurable. Source markers
are used for quantification of exposures to a particular type of a source. A suitable marker for
quantifying concentrations of emissions from a particular source should be:
Unique or nearly unique to the source,
Similar in emission rates for a variety of fuels used,
Easily detected at low concentrations,
Proportional to compounds that have effects on human health,
Related to organic compounds, but not evaporating during transport from source to
receptor
In practice, however, source identification and apportionment is difficult:
Outdoor air contains a dynamic mixture of pollutants.
The latter is emitted from numerous and various sources.
This mixture undergoes continuous change in time
o as interactions take place between the pollutants, and
o as components are removed from the air to various sinks.
 Only rarely emission characteristics are unique to a particular source. More often
emissions from other sources display some of these characteristics as well.
Source signatures include specific suite of elements or compounds and specific ratios of
elements, isotopes, or compounds.
5.3. Spatial and Temporal Variation
Following formation and emission, pollutants undergo a range of physical-chemical
processes, which change chemical composition, physical characteristics and concentration in
the air. The residence time of emission products in the atmosphere varies from seconds or
minutes to days or weeks, sometimes even years. Some combustion related emission products
are highly dynamic, while mechanical dust is less so. Particles measured away from the
emission site, or particles generated indoors and measured some time after emission, have
different characteristics to those measured immediately after formation. Larger particles are
removed through gravitational settling, smaller particles by dry and especially wet
precipitation or diffusion deposition.
Close to the emission point certain compounds could create significant health effects.
There is still little information on the fate of fine and ultra fine particles in the air. In an urban
environment, motor vehicle emissions usually constitute the most significant source of fine
and ultra fine particles. One study examining PM10, PM2.5, NO2, black smoke, and benzene at a
distance from a major motorway concluded that NO2 and black smoke concentrations decrease
with increased distance from a road up to 300 m, whereas there is no significant decrease in
concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, and benzene.
Apart from vehicle emissions, also re-suspended road dust could contribute significantly to
PM10 or PM2.5 and the degree of this contribution is very site specific. Re-suspension is
significant for wind speeds rising above 5.4 m s-1.
5.4. Combustion Aerosols
Combustion results in the emission of non-reactive, reactive gases and aerosols. The relative
abundance of these three groups of compounds depends on the quality and characteristics of
both combustion processes and fuels. Several distinct processes may explain aerosol
formation:
Polymerization of reactive fuel products;
Dismutation of carbon monoxide, generating elemental carbon;
Secondary reactions, including ageing.
Fresh combustion-derived particles may be presented as a carbonaceous matrix with
inclusions of various trace elements and compounds. Relevant are:
the initial composition of the fuel matrix,
the distribution of compounds between volatiles and residue (i.e. fixed carbon),
primary and secondary conversion reactions.
In the atmosphere aerosols interact with other species, undergoing coagulation and secondary
reactions. Electrolytes (sulfates) and semi-volatile compounds (PAHs, dioxins) are collected
onto the particles.
5.4.1. Markers
The carbon content may be defined in different ways. The Total Carbonaceous fraction of
aerosols is the residual carbon remaining after acidic treatment for removing carbonates.
Organic Carbon, OC, can be separated from Black Carbon, BC, by a thermal treatment. The
material evolving at a temperature below 350 C corresponds to volatile, primary and
secondary organics, the balance, at 350 C, is often considered to be BC.
There is a continuous evolution in time and temperature of such products; the residual black
carbon is not elementary, graphitic carbon, since it has its surface coated with organic groups.
The state of these compounds can be characterized by their:
Hydrogen/Carbon Ratio;
Volatility;
Analysis, after extraction;
Aromaticity and color.
A number of compounds have been proposed as markers, e.g.:
potassium, long-chain alkanes, n-alkanoic acids or alkanols, terpenic compounds,
phenols, arising in the thermal degradation of lignin-based compounds in biomass
combustion;
alkanes, PAH-compounds, benzanthracene (automotive) and benzofluoranthenes (diesel).

PAHs have been proposed to apportion sources. There is, however, some ambiguity in the
literature data, because OC, BC, soot, smoke, elemental carbon are used too loosely.
Scanning electron microscopy can be used to study the morphology of carbonaceous particles
and Transmission electron microscopy - of smaller particles. Electron energy loss
spectroscopy can reveal the inner structure, and X-Ray analysis allows detection of elemental
markers (potassium, vanadium, sulfur). Enrichment in 13C and 14C has been also used in
discrimination.
Other salient properties are:
Particle surface reactivity;
Optical properties;
Sensitivity to humidity;
Atmospheric chemical impact on particles.

5.4.2. Heavy Metals

Many trace metals are ubiquitous in fossil fuels (Ni, Hg, V) and ores, as well as in some
industrial products (Hg in caustic soda).
Some elements are highly volatile, as the element proper, its oxides, or halogenides
(mainly chloride and much less - bromide).
Some elements (Ag, As, Cd, Pb, Sb, Se, Zn) are strongly enriched on fine particulate.
Long-range transport is possible.
5.5. Association to Other Pollutants
In addition to particles, many emission sources, particularly combustion sources, generate
gases and vapors: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide and
volatile organic compounds. Many of these pollutants have been independently, but also in
combination with particles, associated with health impacts.
5.6. Relevance for Health Related Issues.
Table 3 summarizes some characteristics measured because of potential links between
exposure/dose and health effects.

Table 3: Potential links between exposure/dose and health effects and justification for
the recommendation of further study.

[Source: Adapted from "Guidelines for concentration and exposure-response measurement of

fine and ultra fine particulate matter for use in epidemiological studies", Ed. D. Schwela et
al.,World Health Organization, 2002.]

Characteristics Justification (abridged)

Particle mass Effect on health, representative of exposure to coarse particles, only
occasional correlation with other particle physical characteristics
PM10
Effect on health, represents respirable fraction of particles, in some
PM2.5 environments, however, good correlation with PM10

PM1 Effect on health, representative of exposures to combustion particles,

only occasional correlation with other physical characteristics

Particle number Effect on health; lack of correlation with other physical characteristics
such as mass.

Particle surface area Intermediate between number and mass, available amount of a toxic
species is related to the surface area.

Particle number size Since most particle number is present in the ultrafine range, for many
distribution investigations particle size distribution does not need to be measured on
a continuous basis, but on campaign basis to acquire general
information for the study area.

Chemical composition Recent evidence of its effect on health, only occasional correlation with
other particle physical characteristics; those elements and compounds
that are associated with local emission sources and their relation to
health effects should be particularly targeted;
Detailed size fractionated Different areas of deposition in the lung result in different bio-
chemical composition availability of toxic and carcinogenic substances and thus in different
health effects

Table 3: Potential links between exposure/dose and health effects and justification for the
recommendation of further study.
The effects of exposure to fine and coarse particles differ, not only in their ability to penetrate
to the different parts of the respiratory tract, but also - in their significantly different chemical
and toxicological composition. For this reason studies aimed at linking health effects to
exposure to particles should include characterization of atmospheric factors as many as
practically possible, and relationships between particles and other pollutants in air.

6. Dust Sample Analysis

6.1. Sieving
Analytical sieving is conceptually a simple method for deducing the particle-size distribution
of a powdered solid: one passes the sample through wire meshes that have openings of
various sizes and then measures how much of the sample is retained on each sieve. Sieving
analysis is difficult to perform for oily, cohesive powders, or irregular-shaped particles,
because they tend to clog sieve openings.
Sieving, dry or wet, typically applies to particles resulting from mechanical operations, such
as breaking and milling. Sieving is the most widely used method for analysis of aggregate or
particles larger that 50 m. The lower limit of traditional sieve analysis is 37 or 74 m, which
is too coarse for treating most filter dusts. Rarely sieves are used for fine particle analysis.
Sieves are made from wire mesh sealed into the base of an open cylindrical container. The
ideal sieve openings are apertures that are nearly square.
Particles are commonly classified by placing the sample in a nest of sieves and agitating in a
standard fashion for a fixed period of time. In the first stage of sieving, particles considerably
smaller than the screen opening pass readily. In a second stage, particles close to the size of
the opening pass slowly; the second part of the sieving process is affected by particle shape,
moisture content, method of shaking, and amount of sample. Typically 50 to 150 grams are
placed in the top sieve, and after 10 or 15 minutes of shaking the amount of particles retained
on each screen is weighed.
The Tyler Standard Scale is widely used for sieve sizes. The standard is based on a wire cloth
with 200 openings per linear inch, which is known as a 200-mesh sieve. The size of the
opening of this screen is 74 m. The ratio between successive sizes of the screen scale is the
square root of two, so that each sieve has opening areas twice those of the next-finer sieve.
The US Sieve Series was defined by the National Bureau of Standards using the same ratio as
the Tyler Standard Scale, but based on an opening of one m.
6.2. Sedimentation
Particle sizes can also be analyzed by studying the terminal velocity of particles in a
sedimentation medium, i.e. a gas or a liquid. Stokes Law then yields an equivalent particle
diameter, d, for a sphere falling at the same terminal velocity, ut, (cm s-1):

(9)
with
p = particle density, g cm-3
f = particle density, g cm-3
G = gravitys acceleration, i.e. 981 cm s-2
= absolute viscosity, g cm-1 s-1
The diameter, d, is also called the Stokes or the sedimentation diameter. The equivalent aero-
or hydro-diameter, also called reduced Stokes or sedimentation diameter, is the diameter of a
sphere of unit density having the same settling speed as the particle.
Stokes Law is strictly valid only for:
Spherical particles,
Unhindered settling, i.e. without interaction with other settling particles,
Streamline or viscous flow, i.e. for Reynolds Numbers, Re < 1.2

(10)
Particles of diameters equal or less than the mean free path of the molecules (see, kinetic
theory of gases in Basic Concepts of the Gas Phase) slip between the molecules of the fluid
and the molecules fall faster by a Cunningham correction factor, C of:

(11)
where
= mean free path, cm
A = a numerical factor, ca. 0.9
D = particle diameter, cm
In sedimentation analysis one must distinguish between the settling of a homogeneous
suspension or particles introduced at the top of a column. Sedimentation methods measure:
the changes in concentration at a particular level in a settling suspension (pipette, diver,
hydrometer, photo-extinction methods),
the cumulative changes in the total concentration of a settling suspension (sedimentation
balance, manometric method).
The first methods yield directly the weight fraction of particles smaller than the size that
would fall from the surface to that depth, during a time counted from the commencement of
settling.
The second methods yield as a result a weight deposited vs. time curve, i.e. an integrated
result.
These methods are relatively fast but should only be used in samples with a known,
homogeneous density.
Another delicate factor is obtaining adequate dispersion, because of electrostatic charging in
gas jets and poor performance of mechanical stirrers in liquid systems. These procedures also
fail to satisfy the requirement of no mutual interaction of particles: since it is inconvenient to
study single particles, a compromise is made between number and mutual interference. The
existence of convective currents creates other operating problems.
6.3. Hydrometer Kit, Standard Set
In the hydrometer method the sample is cleaned from organic matter, dried and weighed.
Next, it is suspended in water and sieved. The solution that passes through the sieve is
transferred to a measuring cylinder with water. Sedimentation time and hydrometer readings,
taken after regular intervals, are used to determine the grain sizes according to the Stokes
Law.
A commercial hydrometer kit contains: a number of hydrometers, sedimentation cylinders, a
thermometer, a glass container, a heating element with thermostat and stirrer, a soil stirrer and
various accessories.
6.4. Elutriation
Elutriation is the entrainment of fine particles in a rising current of fluid. A particle elutriation
separator may be composed of a number of vertical columns, with gradually rising cross-
section. A filter closes the column on top.
Initially the sample is introduced at the bottom of the set-up. The particles distribute in an
upward air stream over the various columns, the coarse particles remaining suspended in the
lower, narrower, but high velocity zones, the finer particles finding an equilibrium position at
lower rising air velocity.
Two main operating problems arise:
Particles become electrostatically loaded, and start agglomerating to growing balls,
or they adhere to the wall.
6.5. Centrifugal techniques
Centrifugal techniques similarly allow classification of particles, but at a multiple of gravity
acceleration, so that they are much faster. This technique classifies particles by depositing
them at specific locations corresponding to their settling velocity. Commercial analyzers
based on the principle of liquid phase photo-sedimentation with maximum rotational speed of
10,000 rpm have an analytical capability from 0.01 to 300-micrometers.
Bulk samples can be analyzed using for instance, a centrifugal classifier, a combined
centrifuge-elutriator consisting of a rotor assembly driven by a totally enclosed electrical
motor.
It yields accurate and reliable results in a size range between one and 30 micrometers. The
instrument applies the principle of terminal settling velocity to determine particle size
distribution. This method requires a sample greater than 10 g for analysis.
The motor creates precisely controlled air velocities within the air spiral and sifting chamber
of the centrifuge. The sample is introduced into a spiral shaped air current flowing toward the
center. It has suitable tangential and radial velocities so that a certain part of the sample is
accelerated by the centrifugal force toward the periphery of the whirl, the other part of the
sample being carried by the air current toward the center of the whirl. Size, shape, and weight
of the particles determine which direction they will take in the air current. Varying the air-
flow allows to adapt the terminal velocity limit of division and thus the material can be
divided into a number of fractions with limited terminal velocity ranges.
The classified sample can be recovered in whole from the instrument following analysis.
6.6. Filtration
Fibrous filters are unsuitable for particle counting or size determination, as particles penetrate
too deeply into the fibrous mass, eluding microscopic evaluation.
Membrane filters range in pore size from 0.005 to 10 m and can be used for microscopic
study of fine particulate. Smaller particles are retained only partly, but retention is virtually
complete for particles above this nominal size.
Filter media must effectively retain particles at the lower side of the size range of interest,
show uniform efficiency and an acceptable resistance to air-flow. Leaks between filter and
holder must be avoided.
6.7. Inertial Impactors
Inertial impingers, e.g. the konimeter, the Owens jet dust counter, the Greenburg-Smith
impinger, etc. have been in use for many years. The latter collects particles onto a plate
immersed in a collecting liquid. Historically, impingers have first been used in evaluating
mineral dusts related to pneumoconiosis.
Cascade impactors are based on a stepwise increase in classifier air velocity, by sending the
same flow through orifices stepwise reduced in size. Particles may be collected by wax-coated
plates, and weighed before and after use. The Anderson cascade impactor contains a series of
four or more impinger stages of decreasing jet width. As velocity increases through the
decreasing jet apertures the collected particles progressively are finer.
The Graseby-Andersen Cascade Impactor is used for isokinetic sampling of particulate, while
using inertial separation to size segregate particulate samples from the gas stream. Each of the
successive separation stages gives a cut-point based on aerodynamic diameter of the particles.
To keep this cut-point constant, the impactor operates at a constant flow rate.
During sampling, the particles are jet-driven toward a collecting surface where they may
cling. Impaction occurs when the particle's inertia overcomes the aerodynamic drag. By
changing the velocity (orifice size of the jet), the size of the particles collected is controlled.
The size of the jets within each stage is constant, but for each succeeding stage the jets get
smaller.
At each stage, the particle impacts on a desiccated, weighed Whatman glass fiber mat.
For modeling purposes, it is convenient to express the behavior of an irregularly shaped
particle as if it were a spherical particle. Typically, the density of a particulate sample is not
known during field sampling. All calculations are therefore assuming unit particle density.
Test time for particle size distribution is dependent on the actual grain loading of the gas
stream.
The Marple - Miller Impactor is a cascade impactor used for testing aerosol drug delivery
devices (metered dose inhaler and dry power inhaler), and determines the aerosol size
distribution. It is easy to operate and has sharp cut-point characteristics and low internal
particle holdup.
6.8. Precipitation
Electrostatic precipitation and thermal precipitation are other means of producing dust
samples. In the Casella thermal precipitator dust deposits in a rectangular pattern on each
cover glass. After examination for uniformity of deposition, the particulate is counted using a
microscope.

7. Particle Evaluation
7.1. Optical Microscopic Examination
Particles smaller than 100 m can advantageously be examined using an optical microscope.
The theoretical resolution in a light microscope is ca. 0.24 m.
Prior to this examination the particles can be dispersed dry on a slide, randomly, without bias
or fractionation. Alternatively, a drop of water or solvent can be placed on the slide, and dust
added using the end of a toothpick. The mixture is spread over the slide as a thin film. The
liquid evaporated dust dispersion resides on the slide. To fix the sample permanently Canada
balsam dissolved in xylene may be used. Quartz particles, however, have a refraction index
very close to that of balsam, and can no longer be seen.
Thermal precipitation samples collected dry may be examined immediately. Samples
collected on membrane filters are placed on slides, dust side down. Adding immersion oil will
make the filter transparent.
7.2. Optical Sizing
Microscopic images allow linear and area measurements. The projected diameter is the
diameter of a circle equal in area to the profile of the particle when viewed normal to its
position of greatest stability. Such areas are determined by comparison with calibrated circles,
using a micrometer, or with a planimeter measuring projected areas on a screen or a
photograph.
Particles can be evaluated using a Martins or a Feret diameter; the first is smaller, the second
larger than the projected diameter. The ratio of both diameters tends to be constant for a given
material. Statistical evaluation requires examination of at least 200 particles.
The projected diameter corresponds more closely to that derived from sedimentation tests.

Figure 3: Martins and Ferets diameter measuring

 Figure 4: Statistical distribution of particles using Ferets diameter
The electron microscope allows direct observation down to around 0.001 m.
7.3. Automatic Coulter particle counters
Coulter in 1956 first developed a high-speed method for blood counts that was later applied to
accurate particle counting within a given size range.
Particles suspended in a slightly conducting liquid move from one chamber into another,
through a calibrated orifice. Each time a particle passes through the orifice a change in
resistance is recorded, permitting to count the particles passing. Larger particles produce a
deeper dip in conductivity and take longer to pass the orifice. Obviously, the orifice should be
adapted to the particle range. The instrument is calibrated using mono-disperse particles.
7.4. Photic sensing
Other useful methods to detect particles are photic sensing, involving the forward and
sideways scattering of light by particles, or their shadowing.
A light source sends an intense beam of light in the sensing zone where aerosol particles are
introduced. Instruments exist for both gas and liquid phase measurement. The light scattered
at an angle is picked up by a photomultiplier, resulting in pulses being a measure of
concentration. Size is related to the amplitude of the pulses. Minimum particle sizes for
detection by such methods are 0.2 0.4 m in the gas phase, a few m in liquids.
Maximum values vary between 10 and 70 m in the gas phase.
Advantages of such instruments are:
particles are counted as they occur in air and no sampling or sample preparation are
required;
changes are detected almost instantaneously, which is important in process control;
very low concentrations can be detected and monitored.

A major difficulty is relating the signal to actual concentration numerical figures, since the
relationship between signal and geometry, optical systems, and particle or aerosol
characteristics (size, shape, refractive index and absorption coefficient) are almost impossible
to establish.
Using unique incoherent light scattering theory, a devise called Crystalsizer is able to
measure dry powders from 0.7 to 2500 microns.
A new, measuring set-up in the Camsizer with two digital cameras as an adaptive measuring
system, improves and refines the principle of digital image processing. Its theoretical
measurement limits are 15 m and 90 mm.
7.5. Laser Aerosol Particle Size Spectrometer
Laser diffraction at present is the most widely used technique for particle size analysis over a
broad size range and in a variety of dispersion media. A representative cloud of particles
passes through a broadened beam of laser light, which scatters the incident light onto a
Fourier lens. This lens focuses the scattered light onto a detector array and, using an inversion
algorithm, a particle size distribution is inferred from the collected diffracted light data. Sizing
particles using this technique depends upon accurate, reproducible, high-resolution light
scatter measurements to ensure full characterization of the sample. The laser beam is
broadened by the use of a spatial filter in order that it may interact with a large number of
particles in the sample cell. It needs to be aligned relative to the detector array. Main areas of
concern are:
Inter-instrument reproducibility, determined by how accurately the laser can be aligned,
whereas measurement reproducibility on one instrument is primarily determined by how
consistently the alignment can be maintained. If the laser is not accurately aligned, the light
scatter pattern will be observed at the incorrect angle, and hence systematic errors will creep
into every measurement.
Limited Resolution (missing shoulders, tails and sub-populations in particle size
distributions).
Submicrometer characterization

7.5.1. Resolution
The resolution of a laser diffraction particle size analyzer can be defined as the ability of a
system to differentiate between similarly sized particles and therefore measure the correct
shape and true width of the particle size distribution. Resolution is primarily determined by
how well the angular scattering pattern is measured. Optimal size distribution results are
achieved by covering a wide angular range with a sufficient number of detectors to ensure that
important information from the scattered light is not lost or overlooked.
7.5.2. Particle Size Distribution
Light, scattered by particles, forms a series of concentric rings of alternating maximum and
minimum intensities often called the Airy disk. The first minimum (closest to the center of the
Airy disk) provides information to determine the mean size of the distribution. Subsequent
maxima and minima contain information on the shape and width of the distribution, including
any shoulders and tails. It is this series of maxima and minima that needs to be accurately
measured in order to report the true shape of the particle size distribution.

7.5.3. Characterising Submicrometer Particles

Characterisation of submicrometer particles poses additional problems. Particles scatter light
at an angle that is inversely proportional to their size; therefore, as the size of the particles
decreases the scattering angle increases. Most laser diffraction instruments are only able to
measure the angular intensity pattern up to a maximum angle of about 45 degrees, limited by
both the sample cell design and the Fourier lens size and quality. Unfortunately,
submicrometer particles scatter most intensely at higher angles than this, so not all the
scattered light is collected. Moreover, there are very small differences in the laser diffraction
scatter patterns from differently sized submicrometer particles. Therefore, it is almost
impossible to characterize submicrometer particles by laser diffraction alone.

7.5.4. Backscatter Analysis

Backscatter analysis gives a little more information, but does not overcome the fundamental
limitation that the intensity of scattered light is virtually constant in all directions for
submicrometer particles.

7.5.5. Polarization Intensity Differential Scattering

Polarization Intensity Differential Scattering (PIDS) uses three different wavelengths of light
(450, 600 and 900 nm) in two planes of polarization (vertical and horizontal) to irradiate the
sample and give high submicrometer resolution. The PIDS detectors are placed at angles of up
to 150 degrees to collect the high angle scatter data. Modem laser diffraction instruments use
Mie Theory as the basis of their size calculations. As Mie Theory covers all light scatter from
spherical particles both PIDS data and laser diffraction data can be processed into a particle
size distribution using one continuous algorithm.

7.5.6. ISO 13320-1 Laser Diffraction Methods

The ISO Standard 13320-1 (Particle Size Analysis Laser Diffraction Methods
Part I: General Principles) established new guidelines for the understanding
and interpretation of laser diffraction analysis. The following factors are important to
resolution and sensitivity:
Number, position, and geometry of the detector elements;
Signal-to-noise ratio;
Fine structure in the measured scattering pattern;
Difference in scattering pattern between size classes;
Actual size range of the particulate material;
Adequacy of the optical model;
Smoothing applied in the deconvolution procedure.
The particles of interest are irradiated by electromagnetic radiation of a specific wavelength,
each particle acting as a scattering center. The resulting flux pattern, i.e. light intensity as a
function of angle, is then analyzed mathematically to determine the size distribution.
Measuring light intensity as a function of angle is crucial to the successful interpretation of
the particle size distribution. Nearly all laser diffraction instruments use silicon-based
photodiodes in their detector arrays. The number, position, and spacing of these elements are
crucial in characterizing the scattering pattern. The more detectors the array has, the greater
the resolution of the scattering pattern. Indeed, the first-draft copy of the ISO standard stated
this clearly.
The position and geometry of the detector elements is also of vital importance to ensure
adequate characterization of the flux pattern.
Commercial models cover an ultra-wide measurement range, from 0.02 to 2000 microns for a
variety of laboratory use, such as pharmaceuticals, ceramics, batteries, abrasives, emulsions,
resins etc. The main applications are in:
Measuring particle size distributions (spray, dust, powder);
Filter testing and characterization;
Estimation of fractional efficiency;
Characterization of pharmaceutical aerosols;
Aerosol research.
7.6. Droplet Analysis
Years ago, the accepted technique was to collect droplets on glass slides, but the process was
slow and droplet splatter raised doubts about accuracy. Today, advanced techniques are based
on laser light signals. Such instruments use a signal-processing algorithm supposing that the
signal comes from a spherical particle. Any signal, which deviates from this form, is rejected.
This has significant limitations since it does not cope well with large or non-spherical droplets
found in industrial environments. A direct video imaging system pioneered by Bete offers
many significant advantages, since imaging systems also report information about the droplet
morphology.
7.7. TEOM
The TEOM (tapered element oscillating microbalance) measures the ambient particulate mass
concentration of PM10, PM2.5, PM1 and TSP (total suspended particulate) collected on a filter in
real time. Mass concentration data are reported in micrograms per cubic meter at standard
averaging times. Exposed collection filters can be analyzed for heavy metals using standard
laboratory techniques, such as AA and ICP. This patented monitor is used in ambient air
monitoring networks, indoor air quality assessment, and exposure studies. The instrument has
the US EPA equivalency designation for PM10. The German EPA also approves the monitor as
an equivalent continuous monitoring technique for TSP (total suspended particulate matter)
and PM10. The instrument is suitable for a range of other applications requiring time-resolved,
mass measurement of the suspended particulate matter concentration.
8. Effluent Dust Analyzers
8.1. Scope
Dust is an important parameter in numerous industrial emissions, e.g. pulverized coal firing,
clinker production in cement kilns, metallurgical processes, or in physical operations, e.g.
drying, pneumatic conveying, pulverizing. Raw off-gas typically contains one to 100 g Nm-3
of dust and clean gas between one to 100 mg Nm-3. Immission values, depending on natural
sources and anthropogenic pollution, are expressed in g Nm-3.
Some industrial spaces must be free of dust, e.g. clean rooms in electronics or pharmaceutical
industry. Dust in air or gases is monitored using:
Dust Filters, gravimetrically or by -radiation attenuation,
Gas opacity, with laser beam, transmitted- or scattered-light,
Tribo-electrical sensors.
Dust particles may be collected from an air or gas stream upon, e.g. silica or cellulose filters
and after having treated a certain volume of gas, the filters are either dried and weighed
(gravimetric method), or examined under an optical or scanning electron microscope. The
latter not only yields a picture of the dust, but possibly also - its elementary chemical
composition (except for the lighter elements) using appropriate techniques (e.g. XRF or
ERD). The latter may be produced for a certain area of the sample, or a specific feature of its
surface; moreover the particle interior can also be scanned, after sputtering away successive
surface layers. This allows establishing a composition gradient, starting from the surface and
entering deeper and deeper into the sample. In environmental samples the surfaces is often
enriched in pollutants, and it is important to know whether an analytical method addresses
either the surface or the bulk of the particle.
Another frequently occurring problem is evaluating soot formation in combustors. The true-
spot smoke tester was developed for that purpose. The operating principle is simple: using a
hand pump a given amount of gas is aspired through a filter, which in the process turns to
various grades of gray or black. The latter are visually compared to a scale, e.g. that of
Ringelmann, or of Baccharach, but the result is not always accurate.
8.2. Isokinetic sampling
When collecting dust particles from a gas stream upon a filter only a small stream of gas is
selected for establishing the concentration of dust. However, the latter may be aspired so
strongly that the gas stream to be analyzed becomes enriched in the particles, compared to the
bulk of the gas stream. Conversely, a high resistance filter with weak aspiration of the gas
may recover fewer particles than normally available. In both cases, the sample gas lacks
representativeness. Great care should be taken that the particles are aspired at their normal
speed, so that they are neither enriched nor reduced in number. This is the principle of
isokinetic sampling.
Isokinetic sampling is only possible in a suitably long, straight duct (e.g. a stack), since duct
curvature as well as local turbulence both lead to uneven and unpredictable particle
distributions. Moreover, dust sampling occurs according to a predetermined grid of sampling
locations that is representative for the entire cross-section of the duct.
This can be performed according to several international standards, e.g. ISO, VDI, EPA,
ASTM.

Figure 5: A dust sampling system

Off-stack analyzers only measure the dust load at a specific sampling point, needing an
isokinetic and labor-intensive way of dust sampling, resulting in extra difficulties for
industrial plant having unstable dust emissions. Metallurgical plant, for example, often
operates batchwise and with huge differences in dust load, depending on the part of the
process cycle (loading, heating, melting, refining, discharging) considered.
8.3. -Radiation Attenuation Sensors
The raw gas is taken through a filter, e.g. during ten minutes. To prevent condensation, it is
sometimes diluted with purified air before entering the filter. The amount of collected dust is
determined by evaluating the attenuation of -radiation: the loaded filter is measured against a
blank filter. The captured radiation intensity is measured using a Geiger-Mller counter.
The thickness and composition of the collected dust layer and the used filter type all influence
upon the absorption of radiation. In a given plant, the absorbing capacity of the collected dust
does not vary very much; hence, the resulting reading is a direct function of the thickness of
the collected dust layer. After the measurement the filter-tape runs idle for a while until a new
measuring cycle starts, filtering the gases through another part of the filter-tape.
Weighing the filter, after cutting out its dust-loaded part, allows calibration. By weighing
blank filter pieces, having the same surface, the real dust load can then be calculated.
8.4. Flue gas opacity monitors
Flue gas opacity is commonly monitored in-stack, as a measure of dust concentration in off-
gas flows. The system uses either transmitted or scattered light. Opacity measurements in
commercial analyzers are conveniently expressed equivalent to a certain dust concentration,
in mg m-3.
An obvious advantage of these monitors the use of a representative, full stack traverse as a
measuring zone. There is no direct contact between the measuring device and the flue gas and
hence less need for cleaning. However, a standard dust quality must be assumed for
calibration, since the reduction in light transmission or its scattering also depends on the
nature of the particles (size, bright or dark color, absorptive and reflective properties) in the
gas. Thus the response of white ash or dark soot particles differs markedly.
A disadvantage of opacimeters is hence their need for external calibration using comparative
measurements. Each change in dust characteristics requires a new calibration of the
instrument, each calibration needing at least ten comparative measurements, preferably at
markedly different levels of dust concentration.

8.4.1. Transmissiometry
When a beam of light passes through a gas its intensity is weakened by the particles, as a
result of both attenuation and scattering. The more particles present and the longer their
traveling distance in the light beam, the greater will be the attenuation. The particle content
can be calculated by comparing the intensity of the initial and the emerging light beams. This
technique is suitable for medium and high dust concentrations, and can even be used in ducts
with very large diameters.
 Figure 6: Measurement of Light Transmission
The transmittance T, the ratio I/I0 of the transmitted intensity I to the original intensity I0 of the
light source, depend on nature and size of the particles, the dust concentration and the
instrumental path length. The relation can be expressed by the Beer- Lambert equation:
Transmittance
T = e a.c.l
(12)
Where
a = size and nature of particles
c = dust concentration
l = path length
Opacity = 1 T
Careful calibration, using comparative gravimetric measurements, is necessary for
quantification of the dust concentration or emission rate.

8.4.2. Scattered-light Opacimetry

A light transmitter emits a beam of visible or infrared light, scattered by the particles in the
gas flow. The scattered light is detected and quantified by a highly sensitive optical detector.
The strength of the emitted beam and the angle of the reception field define the volume
required in the gas duct for achieving an accurate measurement.
Due to its high sensitivity, this measurement principle is suitable for low concentrations, even
for large duct diameters.

Figure 7: Measurement of Scattered Light

8.4.3. Laser Dust Monitors

The aforementioned technique can also be applied using laser beams. Laser back-scatter
systems are used in cross-stack continuous measurements, even for stacks up to 20 m
diameter.

8.4.4. Triboelectric sensors

A rather new technique for indicating particle concentrations in a gas flow is based upon
triboelectric effects. These occur when dust particles in the gas stream impact upon the sensor,
causing the transfer of a small electrical charge from the particles to the conducting sensor
surface. The charge is measured after suitable multiplication. The signal depends on the
number of particles hitting the sensor and also on the properties and composition of the dust.
Important advantages of the system are simplicity, compactness and low cost, including
installation expenditure and maintenance requirements.
This technique is most commonly used for controlling the effectiveness of filter devices, e.g.
for verifying that bag house sleeves are free from pinholes. They are less suitable for
measuring dust emissions, because too many different factors affect the results.
No prior calibration is required for controlling puffs of dust, escaping from a filter. Damaged
filter elements can easily be detected, merely by relating the occurrence of dust signals with
the cleaning cycle of specific rows of sleeves. This simplifies maintenance, allows avoiding
product losses and preventing a visible exhaust gas trail from the stack.

9. Dust Sampling Procedure

9.1. Method
A representative sampling of particles under real industrial conditions is very difficult because
of erratic variations in dust load and composition, settling and inertial separation of solid
particles, gyrating flow, following bends in industrial ducts, and a heterogeneous distribution
of dust in the cross-section at sampling level. To minimize these problems, the sampling
procedure has to satisfy three basic rules:
The choice of an appropriate measuring location,
The structuring of the section,
Isokinetic sampling.
Vertical flow is preferred over horizontal, avoiding problems of dust sedimentation.
The measuring section must be free of swirling flow and local turbulence. The measuring
section must be located at two third of the total length of a straight duct, counted from
upstream. The duct shape and cross-section must be constant and its length at least six times
the hydraulic diameter Dh, defined as

(14)
The measurement section is subdivided in segments with identical surface. The center of
gravity of each of these partial surfaces constituting the cross-section is sampled for at least
ten minutes, the same time in each measurement point.
The required number of measurement areas varies with the diameter of the duct. For a circular
duct with a diameter of 3.50 m, this amounts to 25 points organized according to three axes.
Because of the limited length of most sampling probes it is impossible to cover the whole
diameter in once.
Measuring the speed of the gas is important in performing isokinetic sampling, before starting
the actual sampling. The local gas velocity varies with temperature (indicated by a
thermocouple), the differential pressure in the duct (measured by a Pitot-tube at the level of
the measurement section) and the volumetric mass of the gas, varies with the possibly
unknown composition of the gas.
9.2. Data acquisition and reduction
A series of physical or chemical parameters must be measured to determine the pollutants
concentration in the flue gas. Some data is directly available by on-line analyzers (e.g.
concentrations) and others must be computed (e.g. flow rates). A mobile laboratory is
equipped with a data acquisition system recording all necessary parameters. The following
values are available:
Average over one minute,
 Minimum value,
Maximum value.
Astronomical numbers of numeric data are generated during a measurement campaign. Care
should be taken that instruments are regularly calibrated and checked. A study of time trends
or statistical correlations between parameters learns a lot on a particular plant operation.
9.3. Isokinetic Sampling Train
The isokinetic sampling train is composed from:
A heated sampling probe, adapted to the stack dimensions, with an aperture, adapted to
the gas speed in the duct and therefore to the characteristics of the sampling pump.
A filter, heated to above 100 C, to avoid condensation of water in the equipment and
retaining a representative sample of the dust. The filter is weighed and the additional dust
weight is reported to the gas volume aspired by the sampling pump. After weighing the dust
sample is available for further analysis, e.g. by Scanning Electron Microscope/Electron Ray
Diffraction.
a condenser system with a circulating refrigerant follows the dust filter. Temperature and
pressure are measured to correct for residual water vapors in the exhaust gas.
A membrane pump.
An orifice dry gas flow meter. Temperature and pressure are measured to correct actual
readings to standard conditions.
 Figure 8: Isokinetic sampling of particles

10. Conclusions
A survey is given of methods to define and characterize particle dimension and properties, of
source apportionment, dust sampling and analysis.

Related Chapters
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Glossary
Aerosol :a fairly stable dispersion of tiny solid or liquid particles in a gas.
Aitken :atmospheric particles smaller than 0.1 m in diameter.
particles
Anthropogenic :particles originating from human activities.
particles
Baccharach :cf. Ringelmann scale.
scale
Cascade :particulate classification device, based on a stepwise increase in classifier air
impactors velocity, by sending the same flow through orifices stepwise reduced in size.
Elutriation :entrainment of fine particles in a rising current of fluid.
Inhalable :particles that penetrate into the respiratory system, often expressed as PM10
particles
Isokinetic :representative sampling of particulate by aspiring a flow at an undisturbed
sampling local gas flow rate.
PM10, PM2.5, :particulate smaller in size than 10, or 2.5 m.
Primary :natural or anthropogenic particles introduced into the air.
particles
Plurimodal :(e.g. particle size) distribution with several maximum values.
distribution
Ringelmann :various grades of gray or black of a filter, exposed to soot and ash from flue
scale gases.
Secondary :particles formed in the air by gas-to-particle conversion of precursors.
particles
Source ]:identification of the potential origins of atmospheric particulate.
apportionment
Stokes or :particle diameter for a sphere with the same terminal falling velocity as a
sedimentation particle in a sedimentation medium, i.e. a gas or a liquid.
diameter
Total :tiny airborne particles or aerosols with diameters less than 100 microns.
Suspended
Particles
(TSP)
Total :mass of all particles confounded per unit of gas volume.
suspended
matter (TSP)
Triboelectric :sensor sensitized by the impact of particles.
sensors

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Biographical Sketch

Alfons Buekens was born in Aalst, Belgium; he obtained his M.Sc. (1964) and his Ph.D (1967) at Ghent
University (RUG) and received the K.V.I.V.-Award (1965), the Robert De Keyser Award (Belgian Shell Co.,
1968), the Krber Foundation Award (1988) and the Coca Cola Foundation Award (1989). Dr. Buekens was full
professor at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), since 2002 emeritus. He lectured in Ankara, Cochabamba,
Delft, Essen, Sofia, Surabaya, and was in 2002 and 2003 Invited Professor at the Tohoku University of Sendai.
Since 1976 he acted as an Environmental Consultant for the European Union, for UNIDO and WHO and as an
Advisor to Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, T.N.O. and VITO. For 25 years, he advised the major industrial
Belgian Bank and conducted more than 600 audits of enterprise.
Main activities are in thermal and catalytic processes, waste management, and flue gas cleaning, with emphasis
on heavy metals, dioxins, and other semi-volatiles. He coordinated diverse national and international research
projects (Acronyms Cycleplast, Upcycle, and Minidip). Dr. Buekens is author of one book, edited several books
and a Technical Encyclopedia and authored more than 90 scientific publications in refereed journals and more
than 150 presentations at international congresses. He is a member of Editorial Boards for different journals and
book series.
He played a role in the foundation of the Flemish Waste Management Authority O.V.A.M., of a hazardous waste
enterprise INDAVER, and the Environmental Protection Agency B.I.M./I.B.G.E. He was principal ministerial
advisor in Brussels for matters regarding Environment, Housing, and Classified Enterprise (1989). Since 1970 he
has been a Member of the Board of the Belgian Consumer Association and of Conseur, grouping more than a
million members in Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain.
He is licensed expert for conducting Environmental Impact Assessments (Air, Water, Soil) and Safety Studies
regarding large accidents (Seveso Directive).

To cite this chapter

A. Buekens, (2005), DUST - PARTICLE FORMATION AND CHARACTERISTICS, in Pollution Control
Technologies, [Eds. Bhaskar Nath, and Georgi St. Cholakov], in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS),
Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK, [http://www.eolss.net] [Retrieved
July 5, 2007]