OPET Czech Republic – OPET CR

Organization for the Promotion of Energy Technologies

Thermal bridges
Publication
in residential buildings in Denmark
A part of the OPET work package: RUE in prefabricated buildings

ENERGIE

Brno 2002
OPET Czech Republic – OPET CR
Organization for the Promotion of Energy Technologies

ENERGIE

In 1990 the EC launched the THERMIE Programme focused on demonstration of

non-nuclear energy technologies. At the same time a Network of Organisations for
the Promotion of Energy Technologies (OPET) was established to help
the Commission with the dissemination of information on project results and
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Since November 1996 the OPET Network has been managed as a co-operative
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In 2000 the OPET Network was extended to cover similarly oriented organisations
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operating in Europe and other countries.
The Czech Republic is a member of the OPET Network through the OPET CR.

The OPET Network is unique structure connecting the demonstration and inno-
vation part of former European programmes JOULE-THERMIE and INNOVATION
with current ENERGIE programme that is a part of the 5th Framework Programme
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The main task of the OPET Network is to collaborate with organisations,

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with practical needs of clients, particularly under the 5th Framework Programme
and other energy-oriented programmes.

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based by European Commission for the promotion of efficient and innovative energy technologies
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 Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark
A part of the OPET international work package:
RUE in prefabricated buildings

Brno 2002

Written by:
Lars Olsen – Division for Building Technology,
Niels Radisch – Division for Energy Technology
Danish Technological Institute
Graphics:
grafické studio Klassic, s. r. o., Norbertov 53/5, Praha 6-Dejvice

Published in the frame of the project of European Union – OPET Czech Republic – OPET CR
(Organization for the Promotion of Energy Technologies, Czech Republic)

Text © Lars Olsen, Niels Radisch

Grafics © grafické studio Klassic, s. r. o., Norbertov 53/5, Praha 6-Dejvice
Published © KEA energeticka agentura s. r. o., Brno, Technology centre AS CR, Praha
LIST OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction 6
2. Conclusion 7
3. The building regulations, standards and reports 8
3.1. The Danish Building Regulations 8

3.2. Standards 8

3.3. Reports 10

4. Types of residential buildings in Denmark 11

4.1. Typical designs of residential buildings 11

4.2. Typical residential houses according to material of periphery walls 11

5. Thermal-technical defects – thermal bridges 12

5.1. Geometrical thermal bridges 12

5.2. Structural thermal bridges 12

5.3. Systematic thermal bridges 13

5.4. Convective thermal bridges 14

6. Negative consequences of thermal-technical defects 15

6.1. Energy related consequences 15

6.2. Other consequences 15

7. Examples of solutions of defects 17

7.1. Additional insulation on the outside 17

7.2. Cavity wall insulation 17

7.3. Additional insulation on the inside 17

7.4. Other measures 18

8. References 19

5
OPET CZECH REPUBLIC – OPET CR
1. INTRODUCTION
The present report is the Danish contribution to the OPET
work package "RUE in prefabricated buildings", led by
OPET Czech Republic. The Danish part is about residential
buildings and is to some extent based on Nordic work on
thermal bridges.
At a meeting in Prague April 19, 2002, the Danish
contribution was gone through, and this present report
includes what was agreed at the meeting.
Since the 1970s Denmark has set up some of the most
extensive/ambitious building regulations concerning the in-
sulation of the building envelope. By doing this, concern
has also been given to thermal bridges, as they become
increasingly important by low U-values.
The chapters 3–4 of the report describe the situation
concerning:
· Danish building regulations and standards
· Reports including one common Nordic report
· European standards
· Residential buildings in Denmark
The chapters 5–7 describe thermal bridges more generally:
· Different types of thermal bridges
· The consequences of thermal bridges
· Examples on solutions
To improve the building envelope by reducing thermal
bridges, the calculations as well as the building techniques
should not be too complicated. Another important point is that
the demands on the energy performance of the buildings
have to be backed by the building regulations.
Danish Technological Institute
Lars Olsen & Niels Radisch
6

2. CONCLUSION
A Nordic study showed that the transmission loss is likely
to increase by 10–50% when more correct calculations of
thermal bridges are introduced. It is especially thermal
bridges in the walls around doors and windows, which
increase the overall transmission loss.
During the last years, attention has been given to thermal
bridges in windows. By reducing the width of the window
frames and improving their insulation the total U-values of
windows have been improved by 10–30%.
7
Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark
The intention further to reduce the energy consumption in
the building sector puts more focus on the thermal bridges.
Calculations show that when no attention is given to
thermal bridges in low energy buildings, the thermal
bridges can amount up to more than 60% of the total
transmission losses.
This report shows the large influence of thermal bridges,
but it also shows that there are good possibilities to reduce
the amount of them and at the same time improve
the thermal comfort in the buildings.
OPET CZECH REPUBLIC – OPET CR
3. THE BUILDING REGULATIONS,
STANDARDS AND REPORTS
3.1. The Danish Building Regulations
The Danish Building Regulations consist of 2 parts:
· one for smaller houses as one family houses and row
houses (BR98-S)
· one overall part covering all other buildings (BR95)
Both are divided into chapters covering the different areas
of a building project. In chapter 8 "Thermal insulation"
the following about thermal bridges is pointed out:
8.1.2: External building parts, including windows and
doors, are due to the risk of condensation only allowed to
have an unessential amount of thermal bridges. The ener-
3.2. Standards
3.2.1. European standards
A number of European standards are published to provide
ways of calculation and measuring heat losses. Thermal
bridges are an important part of these standards.
One calculation system is described in EN ISO 14683.
It divides the transmission heat loss from a building into
Figure 1: Surface, line and point elements
gy related influence of the thermal bridges must be taken
into the calculation of the thermal transmittance (U value) –
for the individual building parts.
8.1.3: Buildings and parts of buildings, including windows
and doors, must be done in a way ensuring that the heat
losses are not essentially increased due to moisture, wind
or unintended penetration of air.
In 8.1.6 the Building Regulations refer to DS 418 (Danish
guidelines for calculation of heat loss).
one part with undisturbed construction with one-
dimensional loss, another part with linear thermal bridges
taking two dimensional heat flow into consideration and
a third part with point thermal bridges taking three
dimensional thermal heat flow into consideration.
8

Large emphasis is laid on setting up calculation models to
do calculations with sufficient accuracy (EN ISO 10211-1
and 2).
The standards leave different options to apply different sets
of dimension systems. The dimension system and also the
definition have influence on the numerical value of the
thermal bridge. The two principal types are external and
internal dimensions. Applying external dimensions for ex-
ternal edges will lead to significant smaller linear thermal
transmittances than if internal dimensions are used. For
external edges the value can in some cases even be
negative. In these cases the value is assumed to be zero.
In one standard (EN ISO 14683) a set of default values is
given. The values are general and do not include many
details. The values of the linear thermal transmittance
include the total heat loss through the thermal bridges but
subtracted the one dimensional heat loss corresponding to
the undisturbed part of the construction.
3.2.2. Danish standard "Rules for calculation of Heat loss from Buildings"
The Danish standard DS 418 "Rules for calculation of Heat
Loss from Buildings" /4/, provides a simple and practical
method for assessing heat loss. It is the key-standard for
the calculation of heat losses from buildings to check if the
transmission loss observes the Danish building regulations.
A revised 6th edition of DS 418 is expected to be available
May 2002. The standard has adopted the new EN-stan-
dards. This is made in a way to reduce the amount of
written pieces of information which the user has to go
through to be able to apply the standard. Furthermore
the standard is supplemented with a number of default
values for the most important construction types in typical
Danish buildings.
The standard is primarily used as a basis for the calculation
of the annual energy performance of buildings, while the
calculation of the losses for the design of the heating
system is expected to be covered by other standards.
Below parts of DS 418, which might be of special interest
to other countries, are summed up.
The dimension system is changed to primarily external
dimensions. The advantage is that in a number of cases
the heat loss will be on the safe side, i.e. the losses will be
larger than if a more accurate calculation was made.
The standard has a number of tables with the linear thermal
transmittance for thermal bridges. The values are based on
9
Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark
One of the standards covers heat loss through
the foundation (EN ISO 13370). The method is based on
a dynamic analytical method and takes the size of the floor
into consideration. The standard assumes that the heat
flows through the floor, the soil to the exterior ground
surface. By doing numerical calculation in combination with
the method, it is possible to apply the method also to
special foundation constructions. But very few default
values for the joint floor-wall are given in this standard. So
the user will often have difficulties in achieving accurate
values without doing detailed calculations.
The CEN standards have given the general guidelines for
estimating the effect of thermal bridges, but have not given
a comprehensive set of values for the different thermal
bridges.
the total heat loss through the construction with the thermal
bridge but after subtraction of the different (local) one
dimensional heat losses. These one dimensional losses
come from both the undisturbed part of the construction
and from parts where thermal bridges occur. This method
is slightly different from the tables in the EN-standards,
where there are bigger differences between tabulated
values due to another definition of the construction parts.
Tables of the linear thermal transmittances in the window-
wall joint are organised in dependence of the materials of
the walls and the thickness of the thermal break.
The calculation of the thermal loss through the ground is
based on a calculation of the dynamic loss through the
ground. The external temperature is assumed to be varying
sinusoidal corresponding to the annual variation. A model
of the floor construction is set up including a part of the
ground. The heat loss through the construction is calcu-
lated until quasi-stationary equlibrium is obtained typically
after a number of sinusoidal periods. The linear thermal
transmittance of the foundation is calculated as the total
heat loss in the heating season subtracted by the one
dimensional heat loss through the different construction
parts. The one dimensional heat flow through the floor is
defined to be the same for the whole floor as the heat flow
in the centre of the building. In the standard, linear thermal
transmittance is given for typical Danish foundation details.
OPET CZECH REPUBLIC – OPET CR
3.3. Reports
In Denmark different reports dealing with thermal bridges
are elaborated.
The aim of the NKB /1/ report is to introduce the concept of
thermal bridges and outline the consequences of including
thermal bridges in the calculation of heat loss from
buildings. Different thermal bridges are defined. This is
described in a later chapter 5. The calculation principles
and guidelines on calculation of thermal bridges are des-
cribed. The contribution of thermal bridges to heat loss is
compared with the total transmission loss from typical
Nordic Buildings. In the report different default values of
thermal bridges are suggested. The effect of thermal brid-
ges can be estimated by different accuracy. Simplified
3.3.1. NKB
In an example of a calculation which demonstrates
the significance of thermal bridges in typical Nordic
Buildings it is shown that the transmission loss is likely to
increase by 10–50 %, if thermal bridge calculations are
introduced in conformity with the CEN standards.
The thermal bridge increment to a high degree will depend
on how well the thermal bridges are detailed, and how well
insulated the buildings are. In particularly it is the thermal
bridges in the walls around windows and doors and through
foundations, which make a large contribution to the aggre-
gate heat loss. On the other hand, thermal bridges through
vertical junctions between walls normally make only a small
contribution.
It is considered that EN standards can be used for thermal
bridge calculations, but that there is a need to modify and
adapt them, so they should not be too complicated for the
use by designers.
The actual calculations of thermal bridges should not be
particularly time consuming for the designers, when they
make use of tabulated values for thermal bridges.
methods give normally the lowest accuracy, if the values do
not cover the actual type of construction.
Another report /3/ contains an overview of 12 different
external post insulation systems. The different systems are
evaluated regarding construction, thermal insulation,
durability and economy.
The third report /2/ is concerning design of new low energy
houses. The report contains information on how to take
a number of aspects into consideration in order to obtain
a low energy house. In the field of thermal bridges it is
especially air tightening of buildings which are of interest.
The tabulated values prepared by CEN are not well suited
for the structures used in the Nordic types of structures.
Where special structures are used, either tables with
values on the safe side can be used or two-dimensional
calculations can be performed for the structure concerned.
These two-dimensional calculations involve additional
work, but there are computerised catalogues available
which should make this work a lot easier.
Calculations for three dimensional thermal bridges are
normally not necessary.
It is necessary to establish a dimension system, as the EN
standards are optional in this respect.
Application of EN standards will necessitate guidelines and
information activities, since calculations for thermal bridges
will be a new approach for most consultants.
10

4. TYPES OF RESIDENTIAL
BUILDINGS IN DENMARK
4.1. Typical designs of residential buildings
The following building designs used in Denmark are covered
by the Building Regulations for Small Houses (BR 98-S):
· Single-family houses
· Double houses (beside each others)
· Row houses
The Building Regulations (BR 95) comprises:
· Two-storey houses with one apartment above the other
· Multi-storey apartment blocks
In the year 2001 a total of 17,400 dwellings were built in
Denmark – 6,000 as private single family houses, 4,000 as
4.2. Typical residential houses according
to material of periphery walls
In Denmark many different combinations of constructions
are used for houses in the residential sector. Traditional
buildings from before 1950 are typically made out of
masonry. For many years as cavity walls, but in the be-
ginning without insulation in the cavity. Many of these have
later been supplementary insulated by injection of gra-
nulated insulation.
A number of dwellings are made of concrete structures,
especially in the 70s and 80s, with insulation sandwiched in
the structure. The external part was often made of concrete
covered with tiles. Later constructions are often made with
11
Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark
private or social double/row houses and 7,400 as private or
social apartments in blocks.
Traditionally houses in Denmark are made out of bricks
which are manufactured from clay, which is found in
the underground. One important reason for that is fire
protection.
A minor part – mostly smaller, newer ones – are made in
a Swedish style out of wood. Experiments have been
carried out with wooden constructions in bigger houses.
an inner wall to which insulation and external cladding are
added.
During the last 20–30 years the inner walls are made out of
lightweight concrete – either of autoclaved aerated concrete
or concrete with aggregate of expanded clay. The insulation
material used in walls is typically of mineral wool.
The cladding can be bricks, wood or many types of boards.
The insulation thickness in the constructions has increased
during the years according to the different building
regulations.
OPET CZECH REPUBLIC – OPET CR

5. THERMAL-TECHNICAL DEFECTS
– THERMAL BRIDGES
Thermal bridges come from the design and building phase. On the following pages types 1–4 are described in details.
In this project mainly the design based thermal bridges are The most common reasons for thermal bridges are
mentioned. explained. A combination of different types of thermal brid-
ges occurs very often in the same building component.
1. Geometrical thermal bridges
2. Structural thermal bridges
3. Systematic thermal bridges
4. Convective thermal bridges
5. Air tightness problems

5.1. Geometrical thermal bridges

Geometrical thermal bridges are found where there is envelope or where the thickness of these surfaces is locally
a change in the direction of the surfaces forming the building reduced. Examples are heat loss at edges and corners.

Figure 2: Examples of geometrical thermal bridges. Corner and step in surface

At the corners and edges of a building, a thermal bridge building surfaces. Geometrical thermal bridges can be
occurs at the junction between wall and ceiling, wall and approximately taken into consideration in calculations if, at
wall, and wall and floor. At these places the geometrical external edges, the external dimensions are used instead
thermal bridges are due to changes in the direction of the of internal dimensions.

5.2. Structural thermal bridges

Structural thermal bridges are due to deliberate penetrations services between the cold and warm sides and junctions
of the building envelope. Examples are penetrations for between different building components.

12
 Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark

Figure 3: Examples of structural thermal bridges. Junction between wall and balcony slab and
penetration for services

Typical examples of structural thermal bridges are:
· Points where e.g. projecting beams and slabs pass
through the building envelope between the cold and
warm side of the building.
· Openings in walls for windows and doors.
· Penetrations for various services such as water pipes,
chimneys, ventilation ducts and cables.
· In many cases structural thermal bridges are not taken
into consideration, when the heat losses from
the buildings are calculated.

5.3. Systematic thermal bridges

Systematic thermal bridges are a special type of structural that the structure can be designed for purposes of heat loss
thermal bridge. These are repeated in a specific pattern, so as a structure with one dimensional heat flow.

Figure 4: Examples of systematic thermal bridges.

Wall ties and timbers in stud walls.

Systematic thermal bridges occur in many building bridges is normally allowed for in a simplified manner in
components. They may be due to wall ties or joints in calculating heat losses from buildings.
masonry, or to timbers in stud walls. This type of thermal

13
OPET CZECH REPUBLIC – OPET CR

5.4. Convective thermal bridges

Air movements inside the construction cause convective possible for heat losses to increase if outside air can be
thermal bridges. blown through the insulation.

The term convective thermal bridges is used here to denote
places in structures where unintended air movements
occur inside the structure. These may be due to natural
convection in gaps, through gaps or in the insulation itself,
or between gaps on each side of the insulation. It is also
Finally room air may also pass into the structure. This air
stream gives rise to a heat loss which is included in the
ventilation loss. But the air stream will also cause moisture
to accumulate in the outer part of the building envelope,
with a reduction in insulation performance as a result.

Figure 5: Examples of convective thermal bridges. Natural convection around

the insulation and penetration of outside air into the attic.

These types of thermal bridges are at present allowed for
by way of general increment of either conductivity or thermal
transmittance.
Convective thermal bridges are not given detailed
treatment in the standard EN ISO 6946.
There is only limited knowledge regarding the extent of this
type of thermal bridge in practice. In some cases there is
a additional heat loss where outside air can penetrate
below the roof insulation. Convective thermal bridges can
be greatly reduced by proper design and workmanship.

Figure 6: Thermographic picture showing a convective thermal

bridge due to air infiltration below the insulation (joint between
the roof and wall)

14

6. NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES
OF THERMAL-TECHNICAL DEFECTS
6.1. Energy related consequences
Low energy constructions are sensible to thermal bridges.
To illustrate the proportion of the total transmission loss
through the building envelope, which is due to thermal
bridges, calculations have been made /1/. Ventilation
losses are not included in these calculations.
The thermal bridges are divided into 3 groups:
· low value – if great care is taken to reduce heat losses
· medium value – typical design
· high value – when a structure is built with a large thermal
bridge, e. g. a solid construction between the front and
rear leaves of a wall
In the same way as for the structural details, three levels of
transmission loss (U-values) are set out:
· low value – typical for low energy constructions
· medium value – corresponds to the Danish building
regulations
· high value – represents a substantially larger heat loss
than the medium value (as the 1970s)
In this way 2 buildings have been calculated – one single
storey building (floor area 120 m2 – windows + doors
21,6 m2) and one 3-storey building (floor area 432 m2 –
windows + doors 265 m2). The most important results show
that:
· Thermal bridges around the windows (not the panes) give
the largest individual contribution (31–48%).
6.2. Other consequences
Besides the additional heat costs caused by thermal
bridges, there are consequences for the following items:
1. Health
2. Maintenance
3. Comfort
Thermal insulation normally has the greatest relative
significance for heat loss in new buildings. When the
insulation is very thick, thermal bridges have a great
relative significance for the total heat loss. In new buildings
15
Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark
· The heat loss from the junctions of the external walls is in
the low end (1–3%).
· The heat loss through the windows gives the biggest
contribution to the total heat loss.
· In older Danish buildings (high value) with average
thermal bridges the proportion of heat loss from thermal
bridges for both building types is 19–20%.
· With a modern Danish insulation standard (medium
value), but unchanged (medium value) thermal bridges,
their contribution will rise to 30–32%. With heavy thermal
bridges (high value) the contribution will be 58%. With
minimum thermal bridges their contribution will be
reduced to 13%.
· In low energy buildings (low value) with average thermal
bridges the proportion of heat loss from thermal bridges
for both building types is 48–51%. With a modern
insulation standard (medium value) but unchanged
thermal bridges, their contribution will amount to
30–32%.
It is evident that it is important to assess linear thermal
bridges where there are a lot of these around windows and
along horizontal lines, while the contribution due to external
vertical edges on walls is normally moderate.
low temperatures occur mostly around windows and at
penetrations for services.
Thermal bridges also have considerable significance in
existing buildings. When supplementary insulation is
installed, it is generally easier to reduce the extent of
thermal bridges, if the insulation is applied on the outside,
than if fitted on the inside.
Generally speaking, supplementary insulation applied on
the outside will always raise the surface temperature on the
inside. If supplementary insulation is fitted on the inside,
OPET CZECH REPUBLIC – OPET CR
there will often be isolated areas on the inside of
the building envelope, where the surface temperature is
lower than before supplementary insulation.
In order to avoid condensation in buildings with severe
thermal bridges, it is necessary to ensure that relative
humidity in the room is sufficiently low. This is achieved by
making sure that production of moisture is low, and that
there is a sufficiently large rate of air change. In the case of
supplementary insulation on the inside, there may also be
a risk that the air change rate has to be increased; this may
give rise to increased energy consumption.
In existing buildings there are a number of problems at
present due to a level of humidity that is too high in relation
to moisture production, air change rate and the class of
thermal bridge. If the surface temperatures were higher,
these problems would be more limited in scope.
Maintenance and health
The consequences of condensation or a very high relative
humidity at the surfaces are that the maintenance
requirement is increased, because surface treatment has
to be applied more frequently.
Another problem with condensation is the risk for mould
growth causing allergy and other health problems.
Comfort
Thermal bridges can also cause thermal comfort problems.
If there is large poorly insulated or uninsulated areas of the
walls, the surfaces will be cold in the winter which can
cause cold draughts. Leakages in the building envelope
can also lead to draughts. The cold draughts will cause low
floor temperatures. The cold draughts and low surface
temperatures can both give thermal comfort problems.
16
 Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark

7. EXAMPLES OF SOLUTIONS
OF DEFECTS
The measures mentioned are normally used on existing buildings.

7.1. Additional insulation on the outside

Two examples of systems are shown.

The first one is produced by Rockwool and is a system

where the insulation is mounted by bolts. The insulation is
covered by a layer of 7 mm of plaster.

The second example is produced by Danogips. The insu-

lation is mounted in a set of metal profiles which are sliced
in order to reduce the thermal loss. A number of different
materials can be used as external cladding.

In a list of 12 different insulation systems /3/ the results

show, due to variation of the system for mounting, the
thermal resistance with 100 mm insulation can vary Figure 7: Examples of insulation on the outside
between 2,0 and 2,65 m2K/W.

7.2. Cavity wall insulation

Insulation of cavities in brick walls in existing buildings is The insulation is injected by such a high density that
common as a supplementary insulation. The insulation type settings are eliminated. A control scheme during the years
is normally of mineral wool or granulated polystyrene. has secured and shown high quality of the work.

7.3. Additional insulation on the inside

Internally placed supplementary insulation /5/ has the
advantage of not changing the appearance of the exterior
facade and being relative easy to apply. The interior
surface does not need to be able to withstand the same
climatic exposure as at the exterior. This means that it in
principle will be able to provide this type of insulation at a
lower cost.
The drawbacks are the increased risk of condensation
problems, the reduced area for living space and the lower
efficiency of the installation due to thermal bridges from
projecting inner walls and floors. The thermal bridges both
can be from conduction in the wall/floor and from
a convective thermal bridge e. g. external air penetrating
the existing exterior wall.
The increased risk of condensation is due to the lower
surface temperatures of the existing surfaces, which are
not covered by the internal insulation. In some cases it is
necessary to increase the ventilation rate to decrease
the humidity in the air.

17
OPET CZECH REPUBLIC – OPET CR

Figure 8: Examples of insulation on the inside

7.4. Other measures

7.4.1. Air tightening
It is possible to tighten air leaks in the building envelope. In
many cases it is difficult, e. g. that electric installations are
not designed to be airtight. By careful planning of
the placement of the plane of tightness in the construction
it will be possible to reduce the penetrations of the building
envelope /2/. The drawback is that the building might be too
airtight leading to a high relative humidity indoors.

18

8. REFERENCES
1] The significance of thermal bridges for heat loss from
buildings. L. Olsen, G. Jóhannesson. Nordic Committee
on Building Regulations, NKB, Energy Committee,
NKB Committee and Work Reports, 1996: 10E.
2] Design of low energy buildings, A collection of
experiences from low energy buildings. (in Danish),
L. Olsen. Byggeteknisk Institut, Dansk Teknologisk
Institut, Laboratoriet for Varmeisolering, Danmarks
Tekniske Hojskole, Energiteknologi, Dansk Teknologisk
institut. September 1993.
3] Catalogue of supplementary insulation systems.
An overview and comparison of supplementary insula-
tion systems with possible product developments.
(in Danish), Institut for Bygninger og Energi, Danmarks
Tekniske Universitet. Rapport R-21, 1998.
4] DS 418, Rules for calculation of Heat Loss from
Buildings, (in Danish), 6. Edition. Dansk Standard.
Expected to be published. May 2002.
5] Interior supplementary insulation. Moisture- and
temperature conditions of joist ends placed in masonry
(in Danish). H. J. Krebs, P. F. Collet, Byggeteknik,
Teknologisk Institut. 1982.
6] Outdoor Postinsulation of Facades, General descrip-
tion, A. Damsgard Olsen, H. Samuelsen. Building
Technology. The Technological Institute of Copen-
hagen. 1984.
7] Outdoor Postinsulation of Facades, Catalogue, P. An-
dersen. Building Technology. The Technological Institu-
te of Copenhagen. 1984.
19
Thermal bridges in residential buildings in Denmark
EN ISO 6946, Building components and elements –
Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance – Calcu-
lation method. (ISO 6946).
EN ISO 10211-1, Thermal bridges in building construction
– Heat flow and surface temperatures, Part 1. General
calculation methods (ISO 10211-1).
EN ISO 10211-2, Thermal bridges in building construction
– Calculation of heat flows and surface temperatures, Part
2. Linear thermal bridges – (ISO 10211-2).
EN ISO 13788, Hygrothermal performance of building
components and building elements – Internal surface
temperature to avoid critical surface humidity and
interstitial condensation (ISO 13788).
EN ISO 13789, Thermal performance of buildings –
Transmission heat loss coefficient – Calculation method
(ISO 13789).
prEN ISO 13790 Thermal performance of buildings –
Calculation of energy use for heating (former EN 832).
EN ISO 14683:1999 + AC, Thermal bridges in building
construction – Linear thermal transmittance. – Simplified
methods and default values. (ISO 14683).
EN ISO 13370, Thermal performance of buildings – Heat
transfer via the ground – Calculation methods
(ISO 13370: 1998).
ISBN – 80-902689-6-X