Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
array data,” Geophysics,vol. 39, pp. 843-851, Dec. 1974. vol. 64, pp. 239-212, Feb. 1976.
[ 101 W. R. King, “Maximum entropy spectral analysis in the spatial [ 191 0.L. Frost, “An algorithm for linearly constrained adaptive array
domain,” Naval Res. Lab. Rep. 8298, Mar. 1979. processing,”Proc. IEEE, vol. 60, pp. 926-935, Aug. 1912.
[ 111 L. J.Griffiths,“Rapidmeasurement of digitalinstantaneous [ 2 0 ] S.P. Applebaum and D. J.Chapman, “Adaptive arrays with main-
frequency,” IEEE Trans.Acoust.,Speech, Signal Processing, beam constraints,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-24,
vol. ASSP-23, pp. 207-222, Apr. 1975. pp. 650-662, Sept. 1976.
[12] D. R. Morgan and S. E. Craig, “Real-timeadaptivelinearpre- [ 2 l ] G . V. Borgiotti and L. J. Kaplan,“Superresolution of uncorrelated
diction using the leastmeansquaregradientalgorithm,” IEEE interference sources by using adaptive array techniques,” IEEE
Trans. Acoust. Speech, Signal Processing, vol. ASSP-24, pp. 494- Trans. Antennas Propagat.,vol. AP-27, pp. 842-845, Nov. 1979.
507, Dec. 1976. 1221 M. A. A l a m , “Orthonormallatticefiiter-Amultistage,multi-
[ 13 1 M. A. Alam,“Adaptivespectralestimation,”in Prm. 1977 channel estimation technique,” Geophysics, vol. 4 3 , pp. 1368-
Joint Automatic Control Con$, June 1971. 1383, Dec. 1978.
[ 141 A. Van den Bos, “Alternative interpretation of maximum entropy [ 2 3 ] B. D. Steinberg, Pnnciples of Aperture & A m y System Design
spectralanalysis,” IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory, vol. IT-17, pp New York: Wiley, 1976, reference ch. 10.
493-494, July 1971. I241 h o c . RADCSpectnrm Estimcltion Workshop (Rome Air Develop-
[ 151 P. W. Howells, “Explorations in fixed and adaptive resolution at ment Center) Griff= AFB, NY, Oct. 1979.
GE and SURC,”IEEE Trans. AntennasPropagat., vol. AP-24, pp. I251 J. E.Evans, “Aperture sampling techniques forprecision direction
575-584, Sept. 1976. finding,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst., vol. AES-15, pp.
[la] S. P. Applebaum,“Adaptivearrays,” IEEE Trans. Antennas 891-895, Nov. 1919. See also pp. 899-903.
Propagat.,vol. AP-24, pp. 585-598, Sept. 1976. I261 W. D. White, “Angular spectra in radar applications,”IEEE Trans.
[17] I. S. Reed, J. 0. Mallett, and L. E. Brennan, “Rapid convergence Aerosp. Electron. Syst.,vol. AES-15, pp. 895-899, Nov. 1979.
rate in adaptive arrays,”IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst.,vol. [ 2 7 ] L. E. Brennan, J. D. Mallett, and I. S. Reed, “Adaptive arrays in
AES-10, PP. 853-863, NOV.1974. airborne MTI radar,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-
[ 181 W. F. Gabriel, “Adaptive arrays-An introduction,” Proc. IEEE, 24, pp. 601-615, Sept. 1916.
Invited Paper
@ 1980 IEEE
0018-9219/80/0600-0666$00.75
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MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILE MEASUREMENTS FOR FIBERS 661
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668 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 68, NO. 6 , JUNE 1980
I STEP INDEX
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MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILE MEASUREMENTS FOR FIBERS 669
LAYER
H0.5mm
Fig. 4. Slice of MCVD fabricatedpreform having a linear refractive-
index profrle as observed by optical microscopy.
Fig. 5. Slice of fiber pulled from preform shown in Fig. 4. The GeO,
dopant was increased in 10 steps.
k=- 271
h
( h is the vacuum wavelengthof the light). Finally, A is de-
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610 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 68, NO. 6 , JUNE 1980
I
P
The upper limit n k of Pur is approached by the modes with
the lowest possible values of Y and p. The lower value n z k is
the cutoff value which is approached by the modes of highest
order. Waves with flu,, < n z k are the aforementionedleaky
modes.
1
Before discussing the various measurementprocedures it
would be helpful to consider the ideal profile, that one would
like to be measuring in graded-index fibers, and how accurately
this profile need be measured. Modal delay distortion occurs
in multimode optical fibers because the many different modes,
as discussed above, travel at different group velocities, spread-
ing an impulse over a time interval that is equal t o the differ-
9 ence of the arrival times of the slowest andfastestmodes.
fig. 7. Relationship of propagation vector and propagation constant. This pulse spreading is accompanied by a reduction of the
signal bandwidth.
It is well known that the fiber bandwidth can be maximized
by optimizing the shape of the refractive index distribution
of the fibercore [SI, [ 61. Near optimumbandwidth is
achieved with a power-law index profile of the form
n ( r ) = nl [ 1 - (r/aIg AI
s" 1.8 -
FLEMING - -- -- in which g is the exponent of the power law.' In the absence
1,6 - PRESBY - KAMINOW - - of chromatic dispersion the bandwidth is maximized for
SLAMN. PAYNE et rl---
12
1.4 I I I I I I g=2--A.
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 5
1 (pm)
The optimum value of g also depends on chromatic dispersion
Ftg. 8. Optimum profile constant g versus wavelength for G e 0 , - S O ,
fibem as determined by several investigators. which arises from the wavelength dependence of the refractive
index of the dopant material [ 6 ] ,[401 ;it is shown for germa-
nium in Fig. 8, based on measurements by various authors in
In graded-index fibers the number of guided modes also de- both fibers (Presby and Kaminow [401, Sladen 141I , and bulk
pends on V z but, in addition, depends on the shape of the (Fleming [421) samples.
index profile. For parabolic index profiles thenumber of
Thetheoreticalbandwidththat can be realized with an
guided modes is half that of the step index fiber [SI . Typi- optimum profile is about 8500 MHz * kmforafiberwith
cally, this number is on the orderof one thousand. n l - n z = 0.02. Fig. 9, shows that a departure of only 0.05
In addition to guided modes the fiber supports leaky modes from the optimum g-valueof 2-2.4A is sufficient t o reduce
which continuously radiate power fromthe core intothe the fiber performance by more than one order of magnitude.
cladding [ 371. But the radiation losses of some of these leaky Clearly, techniques to determine g t o betterthan0.05 are
modes can be quite low. Modes are characterized by two num- required if meaningful correlation between fiber performance
bers, the radial mode number p, which is a measure of the and index profiles is to be obtained.
number of zero crossings of the electric field as a function of An appreciation of the sensitivity required in index profiling
radius, and the azimuthal mode number v, which describes the to achieve this accuracy in g can be gained from Fig. 10, which
azimuthal variation of the mode field. The radiation losses of shows various gprofilesnormalized t o the same maximum
leaky modes decrease with increasing azimuthal mode number
[381.
An important parameter,characterizing guided modes, is 'At the suggestion of S. E. Miller, the commonly used symbol u has
the propagation constant &,,. Each mode can be represented been replaced by g t o avoid confusion with the attenuation constant.
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MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILE MEASUREMENTS FOR FIBERS 671
0.2 -
2 3 0 ” ” ” ” ’ I
index value and radius. Notice that the difference between the
g = 2 curve and the g = 2.05 curve is barely distinguishable on
this scale. In order to determine g accurate to 0.05, the preci-
sion required in the measurement of An(r) must be about 1
part in i o 4 .
It is also important to note that even very slight local dis-
tortions of the refractive indexprofilefromitsoptimum
shape decreases the fiber bandwidthmarkedly [8],[43], [44].
Consider, forexample, asinusoidal indexdistortionon an
optimum profile
n ( r ) = n l [ l - ( r / a ) g A l + A sin [2nNr/a].
Let there be 10 sinusoidal periods, N = 10, in the radius 0 < Fig. 1 1 . Experimental setup for reflected power measurement.
r < a . If the amplitudefactor is A = 2 X corresponding
to a distortion of 1 percent, the bandwidth is reduced from its into indexmatchingliquid to eliminatereflectedrays. The
maximum of about 8500 MHz * km to about 150 MHz km! variation of reflectedpower is measured by adifferential
An amplitude factor of A = 5 X lo-’, corresponding to a dis- amplifier relative to the incidentpower.The laser beam is
tortion of only 0.25 percent, reduces the bandwidth to about focused on the fiber’s faceby a 40X objective lens, and the
550 MHz * km (see Fig. 43 for the effect of these distortions beam spot is less than 0.5 pm.
on the bandwidthspectrum).The precision of the An(r) The reflection coefficient is defiied as the ratio of reflected
measurement must again be about 1 part in lo4 to detect even light power P, t o incident light power 4. For illumination at
the 1 -percent distortion. right angles to the reflecting surface we have the relationship
B. Reflection Method [301, [461
Conceptually, the reflection method is one of the simplest
ways of determiningthe refractive index profile of optical
fibers [ 121, [ 4 5 ] . It is only necessary to observe the amount
of light that is reflected from the endface of the fiber when a On the other hand, we obtain the following relation between
collimatedbeam is incident parallel to thefiber axis. The the ratio of power PC reflectedfrom the claddingregion to
experiment canbe performed by observing the fiber endface incident light power
underamicroscopewith top illumination.Theamount of
reflectedlight can be observed in the microscope image by
means of a moveable diode detector, by a diode array or by
a video camera. It is also possible to scan the fiber end past
the focal spotandrecordthe reflectedpowerwithafixed Next we take the ratio of the two equations, introduce the
detector as shown in Fig. 11. abbreviation
In this embodiment of the technique the prism and the h/4
plate are used to collect the reflected beam from the sample’s
surfaceeffectivelyand to eliminate the reflectedlightfrom
all other surfaces. The far end of the fiber sample is dipped and obtain, after same rearrangements, for the difference be-
672 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 68, NO. 6, JUNE 1980
Once the ratio F of light power reflected from the core relative
to the cladding has been measured the refractive index distri-
bution of the core can be calculated from (9).
The reflection method is simple in concept.Inpractice it
requires that the amount of reflected light must be measured
to very high accuracy because the amount of light reflected
from the coreand cladding regions is almost the same. If a
digitial measuring system is to be used, the resolution of the
digitizer must be high. A digitizer with256 quantization
levels would limit the accuracy of the refractive index mea-
surement to approximately A n = lo-'. The success of the
reflection method is also critically dependent on the condition
of the fiber endface [321. Adsorption of thin films of foreign
material such as water vapor can easily give misleading results, I b
/
as can compaction of the surface layer density by polishing. Y
I ,
C. Near-Field Method
The near-field method determines the refractive index dis-
tribution of the fiber core from the measured light intensity in
the near field at the end of the fiber [ 101. It utilizes the fact X J
that the power carried by all the guided modes is proportional Fig. 12. Element of solid angle du&uY cos 8.
to the excess of core over cladding index provided that all
modes carry equal amounts of power [SI. Excitation of the p d e f i e d as [301
fiber with an incoherent source, such as a light emitting diode
butted against one endface of the fiber, assures equal excitation p = nu. (1 2)
of all the modes. We can derive the relationbetween light
We need these quantities to express the element of solid angle
intensity distribution inthe near field and refractive index
into which a bundle of light rays is pointing.
by a simple geometricoptics picture provided we account
Consider the unit vector u shown in Fig. 12 which is directed
properly for the cutoff conditionof guided modes.
tangentially to a ray that is not shown in the figure. The ray
We have mentioned earlier that the propagation constant
with vector u is a member of a ray bundle, the unit vectors of
of guided modes is bounded by the relation (5). We also know
that the direction of trapped light rays relative to the fiber the other neighboring rays can be expressed in the form u + du.
We can now define the element of solid angle into which the
axis (the z-axis) is given by the angle e ,
rays are pointing as the ratio of an infinitesimal element of
area dux duy cos 6 divided by the square of the distance from
the origin, which is unity in thecase of unit vectors. The cosine
factor is needed to provide the projection of the area element
The maximum angle 8 = e, occurs for P = n 2 k and is defined as dux du, on the area element normalto the vector u.
Using p instead of u we get the following expression for the
element of solid angle
1
dSl = ;;? dp, dpy cos 8.
This is the maximum angle relative to the fiber axis at which a
ray will s t i l l be trapped if it enters the fiber at a radius r . A
rayenteringwitha larger angle (measured inside the fiber) We introduce the power density S(e) (per unit area and unit
escapes into the cladding. This angle is typically on the order solid angle). The infinitesimal amount of powerflowing
of 10". through the area element dx dy into the solid angle dS2 is
Thenextstepinour derivation of the near-field power cos e
density requires us to trace a uniform power distribution from dP = S(6) d x d yd a = S(e) -n2
dW
outside the fiber intothe core. Before we can handle this
problem we digress t o some fundamental properties of ray with
optics. dW
dpy
dp,dy
= dx (15)
Aray is described mathematically by avector r ( s ) whose
endpoint lies on the ray. The parameter s is the length of the dW is the volume element in phase space which has the impor-
ray measured from an arbitrary, convenient point on the ray. tant property of being conserved along every ray bundle. This
The derivative u = dr/ds is a unit vector that points in the conservation property is one version of Liouville's theorem
direction tangential to theray at locations. Another important which is derived and discussed in [30]. The volume element
quantity describing a ray is its generalized momentum vector dW is defined by the positions and directions of a ray bundle.
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MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEXPROFILEMEASUREMENTSFORFIBERS 673
UMBERTlAN
y UGHT SOURCE FIBER CORE
\
DETECTOR
Fig. 13. Setup for implementation of near-field method.
, HIGHLY FOCUSED
LIGHT SOURCE FIBER CORE /
7-
FIBER CORE
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MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILE MEASUREMENTSFOR FIBERS 675
-7
t /- t
Fig. 17. Schematic view of slab cut out of fiber for use as sample in
the interferometric slab method.
VIDICON
CAMERA
1 . 1
- DISUY
MONl TOR
A. X=O.Sum lC
@)
Fig. 19. Field of view of interference microscope (a) without and (b)
with graded-index slab sample.
are tilted very slightly so that the phase fronts in the twoa r m s
are tilted relative to each other, forming parallel bands of inter-
ference fringes. This fringe pattern is shown in Fig. 19(a).
The dark bands are regions where the two tilted phase fronts
interfere destructively. When the balance of the interference
microscope is upset by replacing one of the homogenous slabs
with the fiber slab sample,distortions of the fringe pattern 8 D
appear as shown in Fig. 19(b). The shift S of a fringe depends Fig. 21. Monitor display of graded-index slab sample observed at a
on its position in the fiber core S = S(r). For simplicity, we wavelength of 0.9 pm.
neglect the slight deflectionwhich the lightrayssuffer in
passing through the slab. This deflection depends on the maxi- ference microscope directly. The video camera looks into the
mum index difference between the cladding and the core and interference microscope, its electrical output signal is sent to a
on the radius of the core [ 531. In practice the sample is made digitizer, which functions as an analog-to-digital converter of
so thin that thiseffect is negligible [ 541. From the fringe shift 8 bit accuracy after addressing specific, preselected points in
S ( r ) and the fringe spacing D we can calculate the refractive the video field. The selection of these points is controlled by
index. This calculation is based on the fact that the distance the computer. The equipment shown in Fig. 20 also includes
D between adjacent straight fringes corresponds to a relative a video monitor which allows viewing of the picture as seen by
phase shift 2n between the two light beams of the interfer- the video camera and a plotter for recording of the processed
ometer. The fringe shift S(r), on the other hand, corresponds information-the refractive index profile. The microscope
to the relative phase difference J/ = k [ n ( r ) - n2] d between picture, thatis displayed on the monitor,is shown in Fig. 21.
the phase retardations in the fiber slab and the reference slab.
Data acquisition proceeds as follows. The computer directs
We can thus formulate thefollowing equation the digitizer to collect light-intensity information on successive
vidicon scan lines such that the sample points fall on a vertical
(33) line. The monitor photograph, shown in Fig. 21, shows a ver-
tical line near the center of the core along which the digitizer
samples the light-intensity information. On the rightside of
Using k = 2n/h we can express the difference between the re- the picture we see a wavy line bracketed by two straight verti-
fractive indices of coreand cladding in terms of the fringe cal lines. This wavy line is the light intensity sampled along
shift S ( r ) , the fringe spacing D,the vacuum wavelength of light the central sample line. The computer determines the fringe
h and the slab thickness d positions by searching for the minimum light level whose
location it pinpoints by least mean square fittingof a parabola
using a number of points in the vicinity of the minimum.
(34) The computer directs the vertical sample line t o collect infor-
mation on either side of the core which is then used to deter-
The evaluation of the fringe shift information can be done in mine the fringe spacing and to compensate for a tilt of the en-
manydifferent ways. The fringe shift can, for example, be tire fringe pattern. After that is accomplished it advances the
measured with a reticle in the eye piece of the microscope and sample line in small increments, moving it through the core
theindexcomputedfrom(34),orthe fringe shift can be region, measuring the displacement of the fringe which goes
measured on a photograph of the microscopic image [ 131, through the core center. The fringe displacement is recorded
[ 51 1. We describe here briefly an automated setup [ 141 which as a function of the radial coordinate r measured from the core
uses a video camera, a digitizer, and desk computer as shown center, the resulting function S ( r ) is used to compute n ( r ) - n2
schematically in Fig. 20, to process the output of the inter- according to (34). The index distribution is finally sent to the
MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEXPROFILEMEASUREMENTSFORFIBERS 677
An m.02247
n(r) - n2 = n l [ 1 - A ( r / ~ ) ~ l . (35)
Fig. 23. Details of fiber immersed in matching oil for transverse inter-
The parameter g is the exponent of the power law, n l is the ferometric method.
on-axis value of the refractive index and A is the relative in-
dex difference, A = ( n l - n 2 ) / n l . The power-law index dis-
tribution (35) is used for comparisonwithmeasured index returns to the objective. The reference leg of the microscope
profiles because of itstheoreticalimportance.Multimode contains a matched objective and a plane mirror located at
fibers achieve low intermodal dispersion if their index profiles the objective focal plane.
correspond to apower lawwhose optimum exponent value In a different and simpler approach 1571, which utilizes a
depends on material dispersion, but which is usually near 2, conventional reflected light microscope, the sample is placed
as described previously. betweentwoflat glass plateswithapartiallytransmitting
Fig. 22 shows a slight dip in the center of the index profce. mirror coating on one face of each plate. When this structure
Actually, this dipis very much deeper than shown in thisfigure is viewed in monochromatic light and a tilt added to the top
[35I . The true depth of the dip is hard to measure with the mirror, fringes are formed by reflection from the bottom sur-
slab method on fibersamples because thedip is so sharply face of the top mirrorand the top surface of thebottom
localized. It will be shown later thatbased on preform measure- mirror. The resultant interference pattern is that of a wedge,
ments the dip actually goes all the way down to the cladding modified by the refractive index variation of the fiber. Sample
index level. The index depression is caused by evaporation of preparation is even more difficult in this technique, however,
dopant material from the center of the preform tube while it since the effective thickness of the sample is twice as great as
is being collapsed.According to its depth, the dip tends to for the Mach-Zehnder transmission method, requiring much
give a large fringe displacement,but because of itsnarrow thinner slabs to reduce difficulties due to ray bending. Typical
width the fringe moves away from the core center and out of thickness values are 10-30 pm depending on the sample.
reach of the dipbefore its fullshift can bedisplayed.The
transverse interferometric method gives better pictures of the F. Transverse Interferornelnc Method
full depth of the centraldip. Aside fromdifficultieswith The slab method has the advantage of being highly accurate
respresentingsharplylocalizedfeatures in the index profile, (except for displaying small features) and of being simple in
the slab method is highly aceurate. In practice its accuracy is concept. Its biggestdisadvantage is the need for cutting the
usually limited by the accuracy with which the slab thickness fiber and preparing a polished sample. By using light illumina-
can bemeasured. Accuracies betterthan 1 partin lo4 are tion at right angles, transverse to the fiber axis nondestructive
realizable, and special electronic fringe countingtechniques profile measurements becomepossible [ 151 , [ 161 , [ 581 - [ 601 .
have gone even further [55]. This high accuracymakes it In transverse illumination the light is refracted primarily by
possible to use this method for studying profile changes as a the outer cladding boundary, the additional phase shift and
function ofwavelength-profile dispersion-from which opti- refractive contribution of the core act only as a small perturba-
mal index distributions can be deduced for a given operating tion [ 6 1I . This makes it difficult to achieve accurate core
wavelength [ 401 . profiles and indicates the necessity for removing the influence
In another embodiment of the interferometric slab method of theouter claddingboundarybyimmersing the fiber in
one side of the sample is aluminized to act as a mirror in a matchingoilwith the same refractive index n2 as the fiber
micro-Michelson-interferometric opticalconfiguration [ 56 1 . cladding. In the slab method, neglecting the slight deflection
Lightfrom the sampleobjective of the microscope passes suffered by the light ray as it passes through the slab of Fig. 17,
through the slab, is reflected by the aluminum surfaces, and each light ray moves through a region of constant refractive
618 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 68, NO. 6 , JUNE 1980
r24 15F309B
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MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILEMEASUREMENTSFORFIBERS 679
Y
of thefiber cross section.Thedotted curveis symmetrical
around r = 0 since it was just folded over; circular symmetry is t
a crucial assumption entering the mathematical evaluation of
the refractiveindexprofileaccording to (40). Theindex
evaluation of the slab method is not based on any Q priori
assumptions of symmetry, it mayresult inanasymmetric
refractive index profile if the fiber lacks symmetry. A further
source of discrepancy may be the fact that the slab was cut
from a different section of fiber than the one used for index
profiling with transverse illumination. The reproducibility of
the transverse profile method is about 1 percent andwhen auto-
matedwiththe use of acomputer-controlled video-analysis
system the complete index distributioncan be obtained within
minutes of fiber fabrication [ 151, [ 161 . Rg. 26. Geometry of focusing method for refractive-index profiling o f
optical fibers and preforms.
LIGHT INTENSITY
WAVEFORM 7
10.020
Fig. 27.
SAMPLE LINE
Monitordisplay
’1 BLACK REF
DIGITIZED 255
DIGITIZED 0
~0.025
1
I 4
10 20 30 40 50
CORE RADIUS ( r m )
Fig. 28. Normalizedlightintensity pcV) andintermediatefunctions
+)/y and [+)-y]/y, obtained in focusing analysis.
from the matching oil into air. In this case the formula (48)
is replaced by
The observation plane must not be inside the fiber core (except
J!;
-30
I
-20
;
-10
1
0
0.005
10
CORE RADIUS ( p m )
; ; ‘ a ;
20 30
in special cases to be discussed later) and it must not be placed Fig. 30. Profde obtained from the focusing method by placing the ob-
so far away that rays have already crossed over after leaving servation plane within the core radius t o bring out more of the fine
the core. Ray crossover destroys the uniquecorrespondence structure. Thebrokencurve was obtainedbytheinterferometric
whole fiber method.
between y and t expressed by (49). We have found that good
results are obtained when the observation plane is placed just
outside of the core L = Q. From our derivation it may appear while differentiation aggravates a noisy signal. Secondly, even
as though the analysis breaks down in this limit. But it can be though the integrand of (48) does have apole at t = r , its
shown that the crossover point, that results when the input contribution to the error does not blow up at r = 0 because
and- exit directions of the ray are extended linearly back into t - y ( t ) also goes to zero atthispoint.Theerror of the
the core, is located very near x = 0 (see Fig. 26). The distance focusing method is also largest on the fiber axis but it remains
of the crossover point fromx = 0 is on the orderof (nl - n z ) a . finite.
It is thus permissible to letL = a without violating the assump- The computer controlled measuring set, with video camera
tions made in deriving (48) or (50). and digitizer described in the section on the slab method [ 141,
The integral (SO), used t o compute the index distribution can be used almostunchanged for measuring index profiles
n(r), looks similar t o the integral (40) for the transverse inter- with the focusing method. Instead of the interference micro-
ferometric method. But there are two important differences. scope, only an ordinary microscope is now required. Fig. 27
In the focusing method the raw data (the light power density shows a picture of the microscopic image of a fiber picked up
P( y )) is being integrated according to (49)-not differentiated. by the video camera and displayed on the video monitor. The
This is a very considerable advantage since integration tends to microscope is focused such that the observation plane distance
smooth random fluctuations caused by instrumentation noise is equal t o the radius L = a . On the right of the figure we see
MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILEMEASUREMENTSFORFIBERS 681
D(spLAY MoNrroR
PLOmR
PREFORM
CORE \
LIGHT INTENSITY
WAVEFORM
I 2.500 i
ZOO0 NORYC+IZED LIGHT
1.500
/[W - Y]/Y
the light intensity distribution collected along the sample line .:. .:!$:...._._.
,,__,,,(_...........(._..~
:$ ........,.,.
also shown in the figure. The solid line in Fig. 28 shows the . . ,
index profile of the same fiber obtained by the interferometric compute proffie of preform in focusing method.
slab method.
Comparison of Figs. 25 and 29 shows that the central dip is The mainadvantage of thefocusingmethod is itsready
not well resolved by the focusing method if the observation applicability to preforms [ 21 I . Some othermethodsthat
plane distance is L = u. This loss of resolution is caused by have been used to obtain index profiles of preforms are the
the fact that the central dip represents a tiny but strong lens. interferometric slab technique utilizing samples from the tip
Rays passing through the dip have already crossed over before of the preform 1251, a shearinginterferometric approach[621,
reaching the observation plane. The solid line shown in Fig. and ray tracing of an incident narrow laser beam either in the
30 was also obtained by the focusing method, but in this case forward or backward scattering geometries [ 631, [ 641. These
the observation plane was located at L = 16 pm, well inside and additional preform diagnostic techniques wiU be discussed
the core of radius u = 28 pm. The solid curve in Fig. 30 shows in a forthcoming review paper devoted to that subject.
that the central dip is beginning to develop as the observation Fig 31 showstheautomatic measuring setupappliedto
plane is moved inside the core. However, the index profile is preformprofilemeasurements.The preform is immersedin
now no longer faithfully reproduced. In particular, its level is matching oil and is directly observed with the video camera
depressed. We compensated for this reduction in index level whose lens must have an aperture that is large enough to admit
by multiplyingthewholecurvewithaconstantcorrection all the light that has passed through the preform. The picture
factor to bring it upto the level of the dotted curve which was seen by the camera is shown in Fig. 32. The figure shows only
obtainedwiththetransverseinterferometricmethod.The part of the preform since it suffices if the light intensity is
shape of the curve is s t i l l fairly well preserved, but the observa- scanned from outside of the core to its center. As always, the
tion plane is not yet deep inside the core and the dip is not observationplane is placed at L = u. Theprominent dark
yet fully developed. Fig. 30 was intended to show a trend and horizontal line in Fig. 32 is the central dip which, as a strong
to point out that it is possible to resolve .particular, sharply negative lens, disperses light and causes depletion of the light-
localized features with the focusing method if the observation powerdensityattheobservationplane.The succession of
plane is placed near them, albeit at the expenseof losing other darkandbright lines, observable throughoutthepreform
information. core, butmoststronglynearitscenter,arethedeposition
682 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 6 8 , NO. 6 , JUNE 1980
0.025
I
CORE RADIUS lmm)
layers of the MCVD process that was used for its production.
Also shown in Fig 32 is the vertical sample h e and, on the
right of the figure, a trace of the light intensity as it appears
alongthesampleline. Fig. 33 shows the powerdensity dis-
tribution, from a similar preform, as the jagged solid line. The
symmetry of the plot around r = 0 is an artifact, the plot from
r = 0 to a radial coordinate beyond the core radius was simply
folded over into the negative radial range. The dashed line is
the function r ( y ) / y [see (49)l and the dotted lineis the func- Fig. 35. Comparbon of preformobservations by(a) interferometric
tion [ t ( y )- y l / y that is necessary for computing the index slab technique and (b) focusing method.
distributionfrom (50). The jagged lightpowerdensity dis-
tribution looks formidable. However, observe how much this
function is smoothed by integration as seeninthe curves the preform.Onedistinction to keep in mind,however, is
tCv)/y and [ r ( y )- y l / y . The area under the wild oscillations that the preform profile, if measured yith sufficient resolu-
is, fortunately, very small. tion, will display the individual layer structure throughout the
The refractive index distribution that is computed from a core whereas in the fiber this structure will be washed out as
power density distribution of this type is shown in Fig. 34 as its size approaches the wavelengthof the measuring light.
the solid line. The central dip is almost fully developed. It is
remarkable what a smooth refractive index distribution is ob-
m.
MISCELLANEOUSPROFILE MWREMENT hkTHODS
tained from the jagged power density curve. The power den- There are several additional methods which, while notgiving
sity is very sensitive to theslightest refractive index fluctuations.detailed information about the entire profie,do give sufficient
The dotted curvein Fig 34 was obtained with the inter- quantitative information about the maximum index difference;
ferometric slab method applied not to the preform itself but the concentration of specific dopants or qualitative informa
to a slab h a t was cut out of the preform tip. When the fiber is tion about the layer structure, to be useful in their own right
drawn, the preform tapers down fromits full width of perhaps and some mention of them will therefore be made.
1- to 2cm diameter to the 0.1-mm diameter of the outer di-
mensions of the fiber. We used a portion of the preform tip, A. Immersion Method
which is s t i l l much larger than the fiber but muchsmaller than The technique is based on the fact that the contrast of the
the preform, t o prepare a slab sample whose interferogram is edgesof a microscopic picture of a fiber disappears if it is
shown in Fig. 35(a). The corresponding view of the preform, dipped in oil whose index matches that of the fiber. In one
as seen by the focusing method, is shown in Fig 35(b). The embodiment for unclad fibers[ 6 5 ] ,the sample is mounted in a
agreement between these very different methods is gratifying hot stage refractometer and the temperature of the liquid is
It was, of course, necessary to transform the radial scale ofthe read by means of a thermocouple. From the known tempera-
slab index profile to the larger dimension of the preform, but ture coefficient of the liquid, the refractive index is determined
thevertical scale remainedunchanged.Note, in passing, a by reading the temperatureat which the fiber disappears.
pointmentioned earlier, thattheindexexhibitsavariation In the case of stepindex fibers [66],the index of the match-
witbin each deposition layer. This is manifested by the modu- ing liquid is gradually increased until the boundary between
lation of the fringes seen inFig 35(a). the core and the cladding, as observed in a microscope with
The index profiie of the preform maintains its shape, except transverseillumination, is no longer visible. This happens
for the radial scale transformation, as the fiber is drawn. It is when the oil has a refractive index, intermediate between the
thus possible to obtain a faithful picture of the refractive in- coreandcladding values, whichdepends also onthefiber
dex distribution of the fiber by measuring the index profile of geometry. Then, knowing the refractive index of the cladding
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MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILE
FIBERS
MEASUREMENTS
FOR 683
glass and the radii of the core and the cladding, the refractive other elements present. Profiles obtained in this manner are in
index of the core can be calculated [ 661. An accuracy greater reasonably good agreement with those measured by interfer-
than one part in lo4 is reported. Application to graded-index ence microscopy [ 781.
fibers has also been reported [671 by combining this method
with interferometric observations. E. Single-Mode Fiber Measurements
While the bulk of this paper has been devoted to profile mea-
B. Far-Field Radiation Pattern Measurements
surements in multimode opticalfibers, the increased interest in
Measurements of the far-field radiation pattern of an optical single-mode waveguides warrentssome mention of profiling
fiber is useful in determining the fibersnumericalaperture. techniquesapplicable to them.Due to their small core size
The experimental arrangement is similar to the near field setup and low indexdifference singlemode fibers are challenging
(Fig. 13) except for the omission of the imagefocusing ob- objects forindex profiling.
jectives, and the use of very long fiber lengths. The numerical Some of the previously described techniques have been uti-
aperture is obtained from a measurement of the distance from lized to provide limited information on the profile, Le., the
the flat fiber end to the detector and the extent of the radia- value of the maximum index difference An, between the core
tionpattern. This techniquehasbeenrefined to the point and the cladding and the value of the core radius a . One of
where it is capable of determining the dispersive material con- these [79] is based on observations of the far-field radiation
stants of a fiber by measuring the numerical aperture as a func- pattern of the HEll mode. From measurements of the half-
tion of wavelength 1681, [69]. power width of the main lobe of the pattern and the width of
the f i i t minimum,the core radius and a meanvalue of An can
C. Scattering Methods be calculated.
Therefractive-indexprofile of an optical fiber can be d e The forward-scatteringpattern method has been utilized to
termined from an analysis of the scatteringpattern generated measureindexprofiles of single-modefiberswith a resolu-
when a laser beam is incident at right angle t o the fiber axis tion of0.2 pm [ 801. As inthemultimode fiber case, the
1171, [181. sampleisimmersedinmatching oil and 1500 points in the
In one approach [ 701 , the fiber is immersed in matching oil scattered light distribution are sampled andcomputer analyzed.
and the forwardfar-fieldscattering pattern is detectedasa The resulting profile, however, is not in complete agreement
function of thescattering angle.The method islimited to with that measured from the corresponding preform rod.
cases where the product of core radius and maximum index The reflection method can be used for profiling the single
difference is relatively small. A 5-percent error is introduced mode geometry [ 81 1, however, the reflected power distribu-
if this product is about 0.04 pm. The method is also difficult tion does not indicate the refractiveindexcorrectly, which
to implement in that large
a number of points must be sampled must be calculated using a correction factor for finite beam
(typically 1000) andconsiderable computer analysismust size.
follow. The profile can be measured accurately with single-pass in-
Inanotherapproachthe backscatteredfringe pattern has terference microscopy on slab samples [ 821 but this requires,
been used [ 7 1I . This pattern is localized in a rangeof angular again, time-consuming
a and difficultsamplepreparation
deviation onthe order of+25’ from theincident direction procedure.
and the sharp cutoff of the pattern, for unclad fibers, depends Transverse interferrometry on wholefiber samples is limited
only on the index of refraction and not the diameter of the in applicability to relatively high An’s, due to the large error
fiber. The method has been used to determine the variations on axis. Values of An around 0.01 can be measured [ 831.
of refractive index with wavelength [72] and its applicability A very successful technique for profiling both single-mode
demonstrated for measuring index distributions of stepindex fibersandpreforms is thefocusing method [831. As in the
[ 731 and graded-index profiles [ 741, [ 751. multimode case, the fiber or preform is immersed in matching
oil and collimated light is passed transversely through it. The
D. Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray intensity distribution of the transmitted light is detect$.with
Microprobe Techniques a video camera and processed as previously described-with, a
Thescanningelectronmicroscope,due to its high spatial computer-controlled video-analysis system.Theprofile, mea-
resolution and great depth of fieldcanprovidedetailed in- sured with a repeatability of better than 1% and with a resolu-
formation on the structural features of optical fibers. Profile tion of better than 1 pm, is obtained within a few minutes.
information could in principle be obtained by etching the end This technique was used successfully to measure index profiles
face of a fiber and making use of the fact that the etch rate is of boron-dopedandgermanium-dopedfibers and preforms
dependentonthelocalcomposition of the glass. Sucha with maximum An’s varying from 0.0006 to 0.012 and core
sample is shown in Fig. 6. Deducing the profie is complicated radii as small as 3 pm. The profiles obtained are in good agree
by the fact that the etch rate may not be a linear function of ment with those measured on the corresponding slab samples.
concentration and by the various dopants that may exist, each Fig. 36(a) depicts a germanium-doped fiber as observed by the
having a different etch rate. focusing method. The power distribution and resulting index
If the scanningelectronmicroscope is equippedwith an profile are shown in b and c of the same figure. The fluctua-
energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer, quantitative information tions of the profile curve just outside the core give an indica-
vs compositionvariationscan be obtained [76], [ 771. By tion of the measurement accuracy which is on the order of a
comparing the characteristic X-ray intensities of thefiber few parts in lo5.
againstthose of astandardsample,thecomposition of the
fiber can be determined. This techniquecannotdetect ele F. Computation of Bandwidth from Index Profiles
ments lighter than Be, so, for example, boron concentrations We now turn to the question: what can be learned from the
cannot be measured except by differentiating from data on all measured refractive index profiles of fibers. The fiber is fully
684 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 68, NO. 6 , JUNE 1980
n T g.1.5
It I
"l
i
-9xlo-3 -3xio-3 0 3xIO-3 9xIO-3
1'
-4x,d
I
-2~0-4
O.*
o
I I
~ X I O - ~4x400'4
Fig. 37. Impulse response of fiber having a g value of 1.S. The time Fig. 39. Same as Fig. 37 but for g = 2.
origin was chosen t o coincide with the arrival of the mode of lowest
order.
- 4.0
1'1.958
g-2.5 '" T n
-- 0.8
W
In
-- 0.6 $
Y
+l
w
-- 0.4 Y 9
n
- 0.2
-- 0.2
Ge02 -doped
4- ArF0.02
g=1.9071
Zr N=10
c= 3 -
2 -
2
---
-THEORY
PROGRAM
-
s
IOh i.4 36
i8 20 2.2 2.4 26
e
A km)
Fig. 41. r m s pulsewidthtimesvelocity of light as a functionof the
power law exponent g. The dash-dot curve takes profile dispersion Fig. 43. Bandwidth spectrum of GeO,-doped fiberwith g = 1.9071
into account for a TiO, dopant. and effects of sinusoidal perturbation.
500
114968
A = 0.0435
I
x
id
8 :
c I
6 -
;
E
I
;-
-
m 2 -
6 -
:
0
4- i 5 IO 15
3-
U
2 -
Fig. 44. Bandwidth as a function of the number of periods of a sinu-
soidal perturbation addedt o an ideal index profde..
io2
1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.4
2.2 2.6
a
Fig. 42. Bandwidth of fiber as a function ofg, with no profile dispersion.
E
a germanium-doped fiber with a pure power-law profile whose f 800
exponent is g = 1.9071. Phosphorus-doped fibers have band- E
width spectra that aremorethantwice as wide, but highly z5
1600
doped phosphorus fibers are much harder to produce and are 2400
therefore not popular at the moment. s 200
We have seen that slight departures from the optimum index
profilelead toadramatic decrease of thefiberbandwidth. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
This is true not only for departures of the optimum exponent
GERMANIUM-DOPED FIBERS
value of a pure power law profile, but it happens whenever the
Fig. 45. Comparison of predicted (shaded bars) and measured (solid
idealprofile is distorted in any way [43]. Sinusoidal per- bars) impulse responses of GeO, -dopedfiber.
turbations of the ideal power law profile as mentioned earlier,
forexample,causeasubstantialdecrease of thebandwidth
[ 81, [43]. This effect is shown in Fig. 44 where bandwidth is predict the performance of a fiber before it is put into acable
plotted as a function of the number of periods N of a sinu- or, if the prediction is based on the preform, even before the
soidal perturbation of the ideal index profile, up to N = 10. fiber is drawn. Fig. 45 demonstratesthatmeaningfulband-
The amplitude of the sinusoidal distortion is 1 percent of the width predictions of real fibers are possible. The blackbars
difference between the maximum core index and the cladding represent the results of direct bandwidth measurements [ 9 ] .
value. The effect on the ideal bandwidth spectrumof a N = 10 [87], [88]. The shaded bars are calculated using index pro-
perturbation for two different amplitudes is shown in Fig 43. files obtainedfromeitherend of thefiberbythe focusing
The main value of a computer program capableof computing method.Thefibersusedfor this comparisondidnot have
fiber bandwidth from refractiveindex profiles is its ability to plastic jackets. This is important since jackets tendto increase
MARCUSE AND PRESBY: INDEX PROFILE MEASUREMENTS FOR FIBERS 687
fiber bandwidths by introducing microscopically small bends AppL Opt.,vol. 18,pp. 671-677,Mar. 1,1979.
(microbends) that couple-guided modes and thus improve the [22] P. L. Chu, “Nondestructive measurement of index profile of an
optical-fibrepreform,”Electron.Lett., vol. 13, pp. 736-738,
impulseresponse of the fibers. This improvedimpulseper- Nov. 24,1977.
formancedue to microbending of thefiber is one of the I231 C.A. Burrus and R.D. Standley, “Viewing refractive-index pro-
files and small-scale inhomogeneities in glass optical fibers: Some
reasons why bandwidthpredictions based on indexprofile techniques,”AppL Opt.,vol. 13,p. 2365, 1974.
measurements tend to come out low. Bandwidth calculations [24] T. D. McKinley, K. F. J. Heimich,and D. B. Wittry, Eds, The
from index profiles may thus be regarded as estimates of the [25] Electron Microprobe. New York: Wiley, 1966.
H. M. Presby, R. D. Standley, J. B. MacChesney, and P. B.
lowerlimit of expected fiber bandwidth, actual bandwidths O’Connor, “Material structure of germanium-doped optical fibers
are almost always higher. In addition to bandwidth improve- and preforms,”BenSyst Tech. J.,vol. 54,p. 1681,1975.
[26] M. D. Rigterink, “Materials systemsand fiber fabricationprocesses
ments due to microbending of the fiber, delay compensations in the USA,” in Tech. Dig. , Topical Meet. Optical Fiber Trans-
occur if the index profile changes gradually along the length mission (January 7-9,1975,Wfiamsburg, VA), 1975.
J. B. MacChesney, P.B. O’Connor,and H. M. Presby,“Anew
of the fiber. Such gradual changes do not cause mode coupling [27] technique for the preparation of low-loss and graded-index opti-
but they can be responsible for partial compensation of differ- cal fibers,”Roc. IEEE,vol. 62,pp. 1280-1281,Sept. 1974.
ential time delays of the different modes [ 891. [28] D.N. Payne and W.A. Gambling, “New silica-based low-loss op-
tical fibre,”Electron. Lett., vol. 10,pp. 289-290,July 25, 1974.
[29] W.G. French, A. D. Pearson, G.W. Tasker,and J. B. MacChesney,
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