Chapter 55 - Environmental Pollution Control

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL AND PREVENTION

Jerry Spiegel and Lucien Y. Maystre

Over the course of the twentieth century, growing recognition of the environmental and public health impacts
associated with anthropogenic activities (discussed in the chapter Environmental Health Hazards) has
prompted the development and application of methods and technologies to reduce the effects of pollution. In
this context, governments have adopted regulatory and other policy measures (discussed in the chapter
Environmental Policy) to minimize negative effects and ensure that environmental quality standards are
achieved.

The objective of this chapter is to provide an orientation to the methods that are applied to control and prevent
environmental pollution. The basic principles followed for eliminating negative impacts on the quality of
water, air or land will be introduced; the shifting emphasis from control to prevention will be considered; and
the limitations of building solutions for individual environmental media will be examined. It is not enough,
for example, to protect air by removing trace metals from a flue gas only to transfer these contaminants to
land through improper solid waste management practices. Integrated multimedia solutions are required.

The Pollution Control Approach

The environmental consequences of rapid industrialization have resulted in countless incidents of land, air and
water resources sites being contaminated with toxic materials and other pollutants, threatening humans and
ecosystems with serious health risks. More extensive and intensive use of materials and energy has created
cumulative pressures on the quality of local, regional and global ecosystems.

Before there was a concerted effort to restrict the impact of pollution, environmental management extended
little beyond laissez-faire tolerance, tempered by disposal of wastes to avoid disruptive local nuisance
conceived of in a short-term perspective. The need for remediation was recognized, by exception, in instances
where damage was determined to be unacceptable. As the pace of industrial activity intensified and the
understanding of cumulative effects grew, a pollution control paradigm became the dominant approach to
environmental management.

Two specific concepts served as the basis for the control approach:

the assimilative capacity concept, which asserts the existence of a specified level of emissions into the
environment which does not lead to unacceptable environmental or human health effects

the principle of control concept, which assumes that environmental damage can be avoided by controlling
the manner, time and rate at which pollutants enter the environment

Under the pollution control approach, attempts to protect the environment have especially relied on isolating
contaminants from the environment and using end-of-pipe filters and scrubbers. These solutions have tended
to focus on media-specific environmental quality objectives or emission limits, and have been primarily
directed at point source discharges into specific environmental media (air, water, soil).

Applying Pollution Control Technologies

Application of pollution control methods has demonstrated considerable effectiveness in controlling pollution
problems - particularly those of a local character. Application of appropriate technologies is based on a
systematic analysis of the source and nature of the emission or discharge in question, of its interaction with
the ecosystem and the ambient pollution problem to be addressed, and the development of appropriate
technologies to mitigate and monitor pollution impacts.

In their article on air pollution control, Dietrich Schwela and Berenice Goelzer explain the importance and
implications of taking a comprehensive approach to assessment and control of point sources and non-point
sources of air pollution. They also highlight the challenges - and opportunities - that are being addressed in
countries that are undergoing rapid industrialization without having had a strong pollution control component
accompanying earlier development.

Marion Wichman-Fiebig explains the methods that are applied to model air pollutant dispersion to determine
and characterize the nature of pollution problems. This forms the basis for understanding the controls that are
to be put into effect and for evaluating their effectiveness. As the understanding of potential impacts has
deepened, appreciation of effects has expanded from the local to the regional to the global scale.

Hans-Ulrich Pfeffer and Peter Bruckmann provide an introduction to the equipment and methods that are used
to monitor air quality so that potential pollution problems can be assessed and the effectiveness of control and
prevention interventions can be evaluated.

John Elias provides an overview of the types of air pollution controls that can be applied and the issues that
must be addressed in selecting appropriate pollution control management options.

The challenge of water pollution control is addressed by Herbert Preul in an article which explains the basis
whereby the earths natural waters may become polluted from point, non-point and intermittent sources; the
basis for regulating water pollution; and the different criteria that can be applied in determining control
programmes. Preul explains the manner in which discharges are received in water bodies, and may be
analysed and evaluated to assess and manage risks. Finally, an overview is provided of the techniques that are
applied for large-scale wastewater treatment and water pollution control.

A case study provides a vivid example of how wastewater can be reused - a topic of considerable significance
in the search for ways that environmental resources can be used effectively, especially in circumstances of
scarcity. Alexander Donagi provides a summary of the approach that has been pursued for the treatment and
groundwater recharge of municipal wastewater for a population of 1.5 million in Israel.

Comprehensive Waste Management

Under the pollution control perspective, waste is regarded as an undesirable by-product of the production
process which is to be contained so as to ensure that soil, water and air resources are not contaminated beyond
levels deemed to be acceptable. Lucien Maystre provides an overview of the issues that must be addressed in
managing waste, providing a conceptual link to the increasingly important roles of recycling and pollution
prevention.
In response to extensive evidence of the serious contamination associated with unrestricted management of
waste, governments have established standards for acceptable practices for collection, handling and disposal
to ensure environmental protection. Particular attention has been paid to the criteria for environmentally safe
disposal through sanitary landfills, incineration and hazardous-waste treatment.

To avoid the potential environmental burden and costs associated with the disposal of waste and promote a
more thorough stewardship of scarce resources, waste minimization and recycling have received growing
attention. Niels Hahn and Poul Lauridsen provide a summary of the issues that are addressed in pursuing
recycling as a preferred waste management strategy, and consider the potential worker exposure implications
of this.

Shifting Emphasis to Pollution Prevention

End-of-pipe abatement risks transferring pollution from one medium to another, where it may either cause
equally serious environmental problems, or even end up as an indirect source of pollution to the same
medium. While not as expensive as remediation, end-of-pipe abatement can contribute significantly to the
costs of production processes without contributing any value. It also typically is associated with regulatory
regimes which add other sets of costs associated with enforcing compliance.

While the pollution control approach has achieved considerable success in producing short-term
improvements for local pollution problems, it has been less effective in addressing cumulative problems that
are increasingly recognized on regional (e.g., acid rain) or global (e.g., ozone depletion) levels.

The aim of a health-oriented environmental pollution control programme is to promote a better quality of life
by reducing pollution to the lowest level possible. Environmental pollution control programmes and policies,
whose implications and priorities vary from country to country, cover all aspects of pollution (air, water, land
and so on) and involve coordination among areas such as industrial development, city planning, water
resources development and transportation policies.

Thomas Tseng, Victor Shantora and Ian Smith provide a case study example of the multimedia impact that
pollution has had on a vulnerable ecosystem subjected to many stresses - the North American Great Lakes.
The limited effectiveness of the pollution control model in dealing with persistent toxins that dissipate through
the environment is particularly examined. By focusing on the approach being pursued in one country and the
implications that this has for international action, the implications for actions that address prevention as well
as control are illustrated.

As environmental pollution control technologies have become more sophisticated and more expensive, there
has been a growing interest in ways to incorporate prevention in the design of industrial processes - with the
objective of eliminating harmful environmental effects while promoting the competitiveness of industries.
Among the benefits of pollution prevention approaches, clean technologies and toxic use reduction is the
potential for eliminating worker exposure to health risks.

David Bennett provides an overview of why pollution prevention is emerging as a preferred strategy and how
it relates to other environmental management methods. This approach is central to implementing the shift to
sustainable development which has been widely endorsed since the release of the United Nations Commission
on Trade and Development in 1987 and reiterated at the Rio United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) Conference in 1992.
The pollution prevention approach focuses directly on the use of processes, practices, materials and energy
that avoid or minimize the creation of pollutants and wastes at source, and not on add-on abatement
measures. While corporate commitment plays a critical role in the decision to pursue pollution prevention (see
Bringer and Zoesel in Environmental policy), Bennett draws attention to the societal benefits in reducing risks
to ecosystem and human healthand the health of workers in particular. He identifies principles that can be
usefully applied in assessing opportunities for pursuing this approach.

AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT

Dietrich Schwela and Berenice Goelzer

Air pollution management aims at the elimination, or reduction to acceptable levels, of airborne gaseous
pollutants, suspended particulate matter and physical and, to a certain extent, biological agents whose
presence in the atmosphere can cause adverse effects on human health (e.g., irritation, increase of incidence or
prevalence of respiratory diseases, morbidity, cancer, excess mortality) or welfare (e.g., sensory effects,
reduction of visibility), deleterious effects on animal or plant life, damage to materials of economic value to
society and damage to the environment (e.g., climatic modifications). The serious hazards associated with
radioactive pollutants, as well as the special procedures required for their control and disposal, also deserve
careful attention.

The importance of efficient management of outdoor and indoor air pollution cannot be overemphasized.
Unless there is adequate control, the multiplication of pollution sources in the modern world may lead to
irreparable damage to the environment and mankind.

The objective of this article is to give a general overview of the possible approaches to the management of
ambient air pollution from motor vehicle and industrial sources. However, it is to be emphasized from the
very beginning that indoor air pollution (in particular, in developing countries) might play an even larger role
than outdoor air pollution due to the observation that indoor air pollutant concentrations are often substantially
higher than outdoor concentrations.

Beyond considerations of emissions from fixed or mobile sources, air pollution management involves
consideration of additional factors (such as topography and meteorology, and community and government
participation, among many others) all of which must be integrated into a comprehensive programme. For
example, meteorological conditions can greatly affect the ground-level concentrations resulting from the same
pollutant emission. Air pollution sources may be scattered over a community or a region and their effects may
be felt by, or their control may involve, more than one administration. Furthermore, air pollution does not
respect any boundaries, and emissions from one region may induce effects in another region by long-distance
transport.

Air pollution management, therefore, requires a multidisciplinary approach as well as a joint effort by private
and governmental entities.

Sources of Air Pollution

The sources of man-made air pollution (or emission sources) are of basically two types:

stationary, which can be subdivided into area sources such as agricultural production, mining and
quarrying, industrial, point and area sources such as manufacturing of chemicals, nonmetallic mineral
products, basic metal industries, power generation and community sources (e.g., heating of homes and
buildings, municipal waste and sewage sludge incinerators, fireplaces, cooking facilities, laundry services and
cleaning plants)

mobile, comprising any form of combustion-engine vehicles (e.g., light-duty gasoline powered cars, light-
and heavy-duty diesel powered vehicles, motorcycles, aircraft, including line sources with emissions of gases
and particulate matter from vehicle traffic).

In addition, there are also natural sources of pollution (e.g., eroded areas, volcanoes, certain plants which
release great amounts of pollen, sources of bacteria, spores and viruses). Natural sources are not discussed in
this article.

Types of Air Pollutants

Air pollutants are usually classified into suspended particulate matter (dusts, fumes, mists, smokes), gaseous
pollutants (gases and vapours) and odours. Some examples of usual pollutants are presented below:

Suspended particulate matter (SPM, PM-10) includes diesel exhaust, coal fly-ash, mineral dusts (e.g., coal,
asbestos, limestone, cement), metal dusts and fumes (e.g., zinc, copper, iron, lead) and acid mists (e.g.,
sulphuric acid), fluorides, paint pigments, pesticide mists, carbon black and oil smoke. Suspended particulate
pollutants, besides their effects of provoking respiratory diseases, cancers, corrosion, destruction of plant life
and so on, can also constitute a nuisance (e.g., accumulation of dirt), interfere with sunlight (e.g., formation of
smog and haze due to light scattering) and act as catalytic surfaces for reaction of adsorbed chemicals.

Gaseous pollutants include sulphur compounds (e.g., sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3)),
carbon monoxide, nitrogen compounds (e.g., nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia), organic
compounds (e.g., hydrocarbons (HC), volatile organic compounds (VOC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH), aldehydes), halogen compounds and halogen derivatives (e.g., HF and HCl), hydrogen sulphide,
carbon disulphide and mercaptans (odours).

Secondary pollutants may be formed by thermal, chemical or photochemical reactions. For example, by
thermal action sulphur dioxide can oxidize to sulphur trioxide which, dissolved in water, gives rise to the
formation of sulphuric acid mist (catalysed by manganese and iron oxides). Photochemical reactions between
nitrogen oxides and reactive hydrocarbons can produce ozone (O3), formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN); reactions between HCl and formaldehyde can form bis-chloromethyl ether.

While some odours are known to be caused by specific chemical agents such as hydrogen sulphide (H 2S),
carbon disulphide (CS2) and mercaptans (R-SH or R1-S-R2) others are difficult to define chemically.

Examples of the main pollutants associated with some industrial air pollution sources are presented in table
55.1 (Economopoulos 1993).

Table 55.1 Common atmospheric pollutants and their sources

Category Source Emitted pollutants

Agriculture Open burning SPM, CO, VOC
Mining Coal mining SPM, SO2, NOx, VOC
and quarrying
 Crude petroleum and natural SO2
gas production
Non-ferrous ore mining SPM, Pb
Stone quarrying SPM
Manufacturing Food, beverages and tobacco SPM, CO, VOC, H2S
Textiles and leather industries SPM, VOC
Wood products SPM, VOC
Paper products, printing SPM, SO2, CO, VOC, H2S, R-
SH
Manufacture of Phthalic anhydride SPM, SO2, CO, VOC
chemicals
Chlor-alkali Cl2
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Hydrofluoric acid HF, SiF4
Sulphuric acid SO2, SO3
Nitric acid NOx
Phosphoric acid SPM, F2
Lead oxide and pigments SPM, Pb
Ammonia SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, NH3
Sodium carbonate SPM, NH3
Calcium carbide SPM
Adipic acid SPM, NOx, CO, VOC
Alkyl lead Pb
Maleic anhydride CO, VOC
and terephthalic acid
Fertilizer and pesticide SPM, NH3
production
Ammonium nitrate SPM, NH3, HNO3
Ammonium sulphate VOC
Synthetic resins, SPM, VOC, H2S, CS2
plastic materials, fibres
Paints, varnishes, lacquers SPM, VOC
Soap SPM
Carbon black and printing ink SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, H2S
Trinitrotoluene SPM, SO2, NOx, SO3, HNO3
Petroleum refineries Miscellaneous products of SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC
petroleum and coal
Non-metallic Glass products SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, F
mineral products
manufacture
Structural clay products SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, F2
Cement, lime and plaster SPM, SO2, NOx, CO
Basic metal industries Iron and steel SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, Pb
Non-ferrous industries SPM, SO2, F, Pb
Power generation Electricity, gas and steam SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, SO3,
Pb
Wholesale and retail Fuel storage, filling operations VOC
trade
Transport SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, Pb
Community services Municipal incinerators SPM, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC, Pb

Source: Economopoulos 1993

Clean Air Implementation Plans

Air quality management aims at the preservation of environmental quality by prescribing the tolerated degree
of pollution, leaving it to the local authorities and polluters to devise and implement actions to ensure that this
degree of pollution will not be exceeded. An example of legislation within this approach is the adoption of
ambient air quality standards based, very often, on air quality guidelines (WHO 1987) for different pollutants;
these are accepted maximum levels of pollutants (or indicators) in the target area (e.g., at ground level at a
specified point in a community) and can be either primary or secondary standards. Primary standards (WHO
1980) are the maximum levels consistent with an adequate safety margin and with the preservation of public
health, and must be complied with within a specific time limit; secondary standards are those judged to be
necessary for protection against known or anticipated adverse effects other than health hazards (mainly on
vegetation) and must be complied within a reasonable time. Air quality standards are short-, medium- or
long-term values valid for 24 hours per day, 7 days per week, and for monthly, seasonal or annual exposure of
all living subjects (including sensitive subgroups such as children, the elderly and the sick) as well as non-
living objects; this is in contrast to maximum permissible levels for occupational exposure, which are for a
partial weekly exposure (e.g., 8 hours per day, 5 days per week) of adult and supposedly healthy workers.

Typical measures in air quality management are control measures at the source, for example, enforcement of
the use of catalytic converters in vehicles or of emission standards in incinerators, land-use planning and shut-
down of factories or reduction of traffic during unfavourable weather conditions. The best air quality
management stresses that the air pollutant emissions should be kept to a minimum; this is basically defined
through emission standards for single sources of air pollution and could be achieved for industrial sources, for
example, through closed systems and high-efficiency collectors. An emission standard is a limit on the
amount or concentration of a pollutant emitted from a source. This type of legislation requires a decision, for
each industry, on the best means of controlling its emissions (i.e., fixing emission standards).
The basic aim of air pollution management is to derive a clean air implementation plan (or air pollution
abatement plan) (Schwela and Kth-Jahr 1994) which consists of the following elements:

description of area with respect to topography, meteorology and socioeconomy

emissions inventory

comparison with emission standards

air pollutant concentrations inventory

simulated air pollutant concentrations

comparison with air quality standards

inventory of effects on public health and the environment

causal analysis

control measures

cost of control measures

cost of public health and environmental effects

cost-benefit analysis (costs of control vs. costs of efforts)

transportation and land-use planning

enforcement plan; resource commitment

projections for the future on population, traffic, industries and fuel consumption

strategies for follow-up.

Some of these issues will be described below.

Emissions Inventory; Comparison with Emission Standards

The emissions inventory is a most complete listing of sources in a given area and of their individual
emissions, estimated as accurately as possible from all emitting point, line and area (diffuse) sources. When
these emissions are compared with emission standards set for a particular source, first hints on possible
control measures are given if emission standards are not complied with. The emissions inventory also serves
to assess a priority list of important sources according to the amount of pollutants emitted, and indicates the
relative influence of different sourcesfor example, traffic as compared to industrial or residential sources.
The emissions inventory also allows an estimate of air pollutant concentrations for those pollutants for which
ambient concentration measurements are difficult or too expensive to perform.
Air Pollutant Concentrations Inventory; Comparison with Air Quality Standards

The air pollutant concentrations inventory summarizes the results of the monitoring of ambient air pollutants
in terms of annual means, percentiles and trends of these quantities. Compounds measured for such an
inventory include the following:

sulphur dioxide

nitrogen oxides

suspended particulate matter

carbon monoxide

ozone

heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni, Cu, Fe, As, Be)

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(e)pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene,

dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, benzoghi)perylene, coronen

volatile organic compounds: n-hexane, benzene, 3-methyl-hexane, n-heptane, toluene, octane, ethyl-
benzene xylene (o-,m-,p-), n-nonane, isopropylbenzene, propylbenezene, n-2-/3-/4-ethyltoluene, 1,2,4-/1,3,5-
trimethylbenzene, trichloromethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, tetrachloromethane, tri-/tetrachloroethene.

Comparison of air pollutant concentrations with air quality standards or guidelines, if they exist, indicates
problem areas for which a causal analysis has to be performed in order to find out which sources are
responsible for the non-compliance. Dispersion modelling has to be used in performing this causal analysis
(see Air pollution: Modelling of air pollutant dispersion). Devices and procedures used in todays ambient
air pollution monitoring are described in Air quality monitoring.

Simulated Air Pollutant Concentrations; Comparison with Air Quality Standards

Starting from the emissions inventory, with its thousands of compounds which cannot all be monitored in the
ambient air for economy reasons, use of dispersion modelling can help to estimate the concentrations of more
exotic compounds. Using appropriate meteorology parameters in a suitable dispersion model, annual
averages and percentiles can be estimated and compared to air quality standards or guidelines, if they exist.

Inventory of Effects on Public Health and the Environment; Causal Analysis

Another important source of information is the effects inventory (Ministerium fr Umwelt 1993), which
consists of results of epidemiological studies in the given area and of effects of air pollution observed in
biological and material receptors such as, for example, plants, animals and construction metals and building
stones. Observed effects attributed to air pollution have to be causally analysed with respect to the component
responsible for a particular effectfor example, increased prevalence of chronic bronchitis in a polluted area.
If the compound or compounds have been fixed in a causal analysis (compound-causal analysis), a second
analysis has to be performed to find out the responsible sources (source-causal analysis).

Control Measures; Cost of Control Measures

Control measures for industrial facilities include adequate, well-designed, well-installed, efficiently operated
and maintained air cleaning devices, also called separators or collectors. A separator or collector can be
defined as an apparatus for separating any one or more of the following from a gaseous medium in which
they are suspended or mixed: solid particles (filter and dust separators), liquid particles (filter and droplet
separator) and gases (gas purifier). The basic types of air pollution control equipment (discussed further in
Air pollution control) are the following:

for particulate matter: inertial separators (e.g., cyclones); fabric filters (baghouses); electrostatic
precipitators; wet collectors (scrubbers)

for gaseous pollutants: wet collectors (scrubbers); adsorption units (e.g., adsorption beds); afterburners,
which can be direct-fired (thermal incineration) or catalytic (catalytic combustion).

Wet collectors (scrubbers) can be used to collect, at the same time, gaseous pollutants and particulate matter.
Also, certain types of combustion devices can burn combustible gases and vapours as well as certain
combustible aerosols. Depending on the type of effluent, one or a combination of more than one collector can
be used.

The control of odours that are chemically identifiable relies on the control of the chemical agent(s) from
which they emanate (e.g., by absorption, by incineration). However, when an odour is not defined chemically
or the producing agent is found at extremely low levels, other techniques may be used, such as masking (by a
stronger, more agreeable and harmless agent) or counteraction (by an additive which counteracts or partially
neutralizes the offensive odour).

It should be kept in mind that adequate operation and maintenance are indispensable to ensure the expected
efficiency from a collector. This should be ensured at the planning stage, both from the know-how and
financial points of view. Energy requirements must not be overlooked. Whenever selecting an air cleaning
device, not only the initial cost but also operational and maintenance costs should be considered. Whenever
dealing with high-toxicity pollutants, high efficiency should be ensured, as well as special procedures for
maintenance and disposal of waste materials.

The fundamental control measures in industrial facilities are the following:

Substitution of materials. Examples: substitution of less toxic solvents for highly toxic ones used in certain
industrial processes; use of fuels with lower sulphur content (e.g., washed coal), therefore giving rise to less
sulphur compounds and so on.

Modification or change of the industrial process or equipment. Examples: in the steel industry, a change from
raw ore to pelleted sintered ore (to reduce the dust released during ore handling); use of closed systems
instead of open ones; change of fuel heating systems to steam, hot water or electrical systems; use of
catalysers at the exhaust air outlets (combustion processes) and so on.

Modifications in processes, as well as in plant layout, may also facilitate and/or improve the conditions for
dispersion and collection of pollutants. For example, a different plant layout may facilitate the installation of a
local exhaust system; the performance of a process at a lower rate may allow the use of a certain collector
(with volume limitations but otherwise adequate). Process modifications that concentrate different effluent
sources are closely related to the volume of effluent handled, and the efficiency of some air-cleaning
equipment increases with the concentration of pollutants in the effluent. Both the substitution of materials and
the modification of processes may have technical and/or economic limitations, and these should be
considered.

Adequate housekeeping and storage. Examples: strict sanitation in food and animal product processing;
avoidance of open storage of chemicals (e.g., sulphur piles) or dusty materials (e.g., sand), or, failing this,
spraying of the piles of loose particulate with water (if possible) or application of surface coatings (e.g.,
wetting agents, plastic) to piles of materials likely to give off pollutants.

Adequate disposal of wastes. Examples: avoidance of simply piling up chemical wastes (such as scraps from
polymerization reactors), as well as of dumping pollutant materials (solid or liquid) in water streams. The
latter practice not only causes water pollution but can also create a secondary source of air pollution, as in the
case of liquid wastes from sulphite process pulp mills, which release offensive odorous gaseous pollutants.

Maintenance. Example: well maintained and well-tuned internal combustion engines produce less carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons.

Work practices. Example: taking into account meteorological conditions, particularly winds, when spraying
pesticides.

By analogy with adequate practices at the workplace, good practices at the community level can contribute to
air pollution control - for example, changes in the use of motor vehicles (more collective transportation, small
cars and so on) and control of heating facilities (better insulation of buildings in order to require less heating,
better fuels and so on).

Control measures in vehicle emissions are adequate and efficient mandatory inspection and maintenance
programmes which are enforced for the existing car fleet, programmes of enforcement of the use of catalytic
converters in new cars, aggressive substitution of solar/battery-powered cars for fuel-powered ones, regulation
of road traffic, and transportation and land use planning concepts.

Motor vehicle emissions are controlled by controlling emissions per vehicle mile travelled (VMT) and by
controlling VMT itself (Walsh 1992). Emissions per VMT can be reduced by controlling vehicle performance
- hardware, maintenance - for both new and in-use cars. Fuel composition of leaded gasoline may be
controlled by reducing lead or sulphur content, which also has a beneficial effect on decreasing HC emissions
from vehicles. Lowering the levels of sulphur in diesel fuel as a means to lower diesel particulate emission has
the additional beneficial effect of increasing the potential for catalytic control of diesel particulate and organic
HC emissions.

Another important management tool for reducing vehicle evaporative and refuelling emissions is the control
of gasoline volatility. Control of fuel volatility can greatly lower vehicle evaporative HC emissions. Use of
oxygenated additives in gasoline lowers HC and CO exhaust as long as fuel volatility is not increased.

Reduction of VMT is an additional means of controlling vehicle emissions by control strategies such as

use of more efficient transportation modes

increasing the average number of passengers per car

spreading congested peak traffic loads

 reducing travel demand.

While such approaches promote fuel conservation, they are not yet accepted by the general population, and
governments have not seriously tried to implement them.

All these technological and political solutions to the motor vehicle problem except substitution of electrical
cars are increasingly offset by growth in the vehicle population. The vehicle problem can be solved only if the
growth problem is addressed in an appropriate way.

Cost of Public Health and Environmental Effects; Cost-Benefit Analysis

The estimation of the costs of public health and environmental effects is the most difficult part of a clean air
implementation plan, as it is very difficult to estimate the value of lifetime reduction of disabling illnesses,
hospital admission rates and hours of work lost. However, this estimation and a comparison with the cost of
control measures is absolutely necessary in order to balance the costs of control measures versus the costs of
no such measure undertaken, in terms of public health and environmental effects.

Transportation and Land-Use Planning

The pollution problem is intimately connected to land-use and transportation, including issues such as
community planning, road design, traffic control and mass transportation; to concerns of demography,
topography and economy; and to social concerns (Venzia 1977). In general, the rapidly growing urban
aggregations have severe pollution problems due to poor land-use and transportation practices. Transportation
planning for air pollution control includes transportation controls, transportation policies, mass transit and
highway congestion costs. Transportation controls have an important impact on the general public in terms of
equity, repressiveness and social and economic disruption - in particular, direct transportation controls such as
motor vehicle constraints, gasoline limitations and motor vehicle emission reductions. Emission reductions
due to direct controls can be reliably estimated and verified. Indirect transportation controls such as reduction
of vehicle miles travelled by improvement of mass transit systems, traffic flow improvement regulations,
regulations on parking lots, road and gasoline taxes, car-use permissions and incentives for voluntary
approaches are mostly based on past trial-and-error experience, and include many uncertainties when trying to
develop a viable transportation plan.

National action plans incurring indirect transportation controls can affect transportation and land-use planning
with regard to highways, parking lots and shopping centres. Long-term planning for the transportation system
and the area influenced by it will prevent significant deterioration of air quality and provide for compliance
with air quality standards. Mass transit is consistently considered as a potential solution for urban air pollution
problems. Selection of a mass transit system to serve an area and different modal splits between highway use
and bus or rail service will ultimately alter land-use patterns. There is an optimum split that will minimize air
pollution; however, this may not be acceptable when non-environmental factors are considered.

The automobile has been called the greatest generator of economic externalities ever known. Some of these,
such as jobs and mobility, are positive, but the negative ones, such as air pollution, accidents resulting in
death and injury, property damage, noise, loss of time, and aggravation, lead to the conclusion that
transportation is not a decreasing cost industry in urbanized areas. Highway congestion costs are another
externality; lost time and congestion costs, however, are difficult to determine. A true evaluation of competing
transportation modes, such as mass transportation, cannot be obtained if travel costs for work trips do not
include congestion costs.
Land-use planning for air pollution control includes zoning codes and performance standards, land-use
controls, housing and land development, and land-use planning policies. Land-use zoning was the initial
attempt to accomplish protection of the people, their property and their economic opportunity. However, the
ubiquitous nature of air pollutants required more than physical separation of industries and residential areas to
protect the individual. For this reason, performance standards based initially on aesthetics or qualitative
decisions were introduced into some zoning codes in an attempt to quantify criteria for identifying potential
problems.

The limitations of the assimilative capacity of the environment must be identified for long-term land-use
planning. Then, land-use controls can be developed that will prorate the capacity equitably among desired
local activities. Land-use controls include permit systems for review of new stationary sources, zoning
regulation between industrial and residential areas, restriction by easement or purchase of land, receptor
location control, emission-density zoning and emission allocation regulations.

Housing policies aimed at making home ownership available to many who could otherwise not afford it (such
as tax incentives and mortgage policies) stimulate urban sprawl and indirectly discourage higher-density
residential development. These policies have now proven to be environmentally disastrous, as no
consideration was given to the simultaneous development of efficient transportation systems to serve the
needs of the multitude of new communities being developed. The lesson learnt from this development is that
programmes impacting on the environment should be coordinated, and comprehensive planning undertaken at
the level where the problem occurs and on a scale large enough to include the entire system.

Land-use planning must be examined at national, provincial or state, regional and local levels to adequately
ensure long-term protection of the environment. Governmental programmes usually start with power plant
siting, mineral extraction sites, coastal zoning and desert, mountain or other recreational development. As the
multiplicity of local governments in a given region cannot adequately deal with regional environmental
problems, regional governments or agencies should coordinate land development and density patterns by
supervising the spatial arrangement and location of new construction and use, and transportation facilities.
Land-use and transportation planning must be interrelated with enforcement of regulations to maintain the
desired air quality. Ideally, air pollution control should be planned for by the same regional agency that does
land-use planning because of the overlapping externalities associated with both issues.

Enforcement Plan, Resource Commitment

The clean air implementation plan should always contain an enforcement plan which indicates how the
control measures can be enforced. This implies also a resource commitment which, according to a polluter
pays principle, will state what the polluter has to implement and how the government will help the polluter in
fulfilling the commitment.

Projections for the Future

In the sense of a precautionary plan, the clean air implementation plan should also include estimates of the
trends in population, traffic, industries and fuel consumption in order to assess responses to future problems.
This will avoid future stresses by enforcing measures well in advance of imagined problems.

Strategies for Follow-up

A strategy for follow-up of air quality management consists of plans and policies on how to implement future
clean air implementation plans.
Role of Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is the process of providing a detailed statement by the responsible
agency on the environmental impact of a proposed action significantly affecting the quality of the human
environment (Lee 1993). EIA is an instrument of prevention aiming at consideration of the human
environment at an early stage of the development of a programme or project.

EIA is particularly important for countries which develop projects in the framework of economic reorientation
and restructuring. EIA has become legislation in many developed countries and is now increasingly applied in
developing countries and economies in transition.

EIA is integrative in the sense of comprehensive environmental planning and management considering the
interactions between different environmental media. On the other hand, EIA integrates the estimation of
environmental consequences into the planning process and thereby becomes an instrument of sustainable
development. EIA also combines technical and participative properties as it collects, analyses and applies
scientific and technical data with consideration of quality control and quality assurance, and stresses the
importance of consultations prior to licensing procedures between environmental agencies and the public
which could be affected by particular projects. A clean air implementation plan can be considered as a part of
the EIA procedure with reference to the air.

AIR POLLUTION: MODELLING OF AIR POLLUTANT DISPERSION

Marion Wichmann-Fiebig

International Monitoring Programmes

International agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) have instituted
monitoring and research projects in order to clarify the issues involved in air pollution and to
promote measures to prevent further deterioration of public health and environmental and
climatic conditions.

The Global Environmental Monitoring System GEMS/Air (WHO/ UNEP 1993) is organized and
sponsored by WHO and UNEP and has developed a comprehensive programme for providing
the instruments of rational air pollution management (see figure 55.1. The kernel of this
programme is a global database of urban air pollutant concentrations of sulphur dioxides,
suspended particulate matter, lead, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and ozone. As important
as this database, however, is the provision of management tools such as guides for rapid
emission inventories, programmes for dispersion modelling, population exposure estimates,
control measures, and cost-benefit analysis. In this respect, GEMS/Air provides methodology
review handbooks (WHO/UNEP 1994, 1995), conducts global assessments of air quality,
facilitates review and validation of assessments, acts as a data/information broker, produces
technical documents in support of all aspects of air quality management, facilitates the
establishment of monitoring, conducts and widely distributes annual reviews, and establishes or
identifies regional collaboration centres and/or experts to coordinate and support activities
according to the needs of the regions. (WHO/UNEP 1992, 1993, 1995)

The Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW) programme (Miller and Soudine 1994) provides data
and other information on the chemical composition and related physical characteristics of the
atmosphere, and their trends, with the objective of understanding the relationship between
changing atmospheric composition and changes of global and regional climate, the long-range
atmospheric transport and deposition of potentially harmful substances over terrestrial, fresh-
water and marine ecosystems, and the natural cycling of chemical elements in the global
atmosphere/ocean/biosphere system, and anthropogenic impacts thereon. The GAW programme
consists of four activity areas: the Global Ozone Observing System (GO3OS), global monitoring
of background atmospheric composition, including the Background Air Pollution Monitoring
Network (BAPMoN); dispersion, transport, chemical transformation and deposition of
atmospheric pollutants over land and sea on different time and space scales; exchange of
pollutants between the atmosphere and other environmental compartments; and integrated
monitoring. One of the most important aspects of the GAW is the establishment of Quality
Assurance Science Activity Centres to oversee the quality of the data produced under GAW.

Figure 55.1 Global Environmental Monitoring System/Air pollution management

The aim of air pollution modelling is the estimation of outdoor pollutant concentrations caused, for instance,
by industrial production processes, accidental releases or traffic. Air pollution modelling is used to ascertain
the total concentration of a pollutant, as well as to find the cause of extraordinary high levels. For projects in
the planning stage, the additional contribution to the existing burden can be estimated in advance, and
emission conditions may be optimized.

Depending on the air quality standards defined for the pollutant in question, annual mean values or short-time
peak concentrations are of interest. Usually concentrations have to be determined where people are active -
that is, near the surface at a height of about two metres above the ground.

Parameters Influencing Pollutant Dispersion

Two types of parameters influence pollutant dispersion: source parameters and meteorological parameters.
For source parameters, concentrations are proportional to the amount of pollutant which is emitted. If dust is
concerned, the particle diameter has to be known to determine sedimentation and deposition of the material
(VDI 1992). As surface concentrations are lower with greater stack height, this parameter also has to be
known. In addition, concentrations depend on the total amount of the exhaust gas, as well as on its
temperature and velocity. If the temperature of the exhaust gas exceeds the temperature of the surrounding air,
the gas will be subject to thermal buoyancy. Its exhaust velocity, which can be calculated from the inner stack
diameter and the exhaust gas volume, will cause a dynamic momentum buoyancy. Empirical formulae may be
used to describe these features (VDI 1985; Venkatram and Wyngaard 1988). It has to be stressed that it is not
the mass of the pollutant in question but that of the total gas that is responsible for the thermal and dynamic
momentum buoyancy.

Meteorological parameters which influence pollutant dispersion are wind speed and direction, as well as
vertical thermal stratification. The pollutant concentration is proportional to the reciprocal of wind speed. This
is mainly due to the accelerated transport. Moreover, turbulent mixing increases with growing wind speed. As
so-called inversions (i.e., situations where temperature is increasing with height) hinder turbulent mixing,
maximum surface concentrations are observed during highly stable stratification. On the contrary, convective
situations intensify vertical mixing and therefore show the lowest concentration values.

Air quality standards - for example, annual mean values or 98 percentiles - are usually based on statistics.
Hence, time series data for the relevant meteorological parameters are needed. Ideally, statistics should be
based on ten years of observation. If only shorter time series are available, it should be ascertained that they
are representative for a longer period. This can be done, for example, by analysis of longer time series from
other observations sites.

The meteorological time series used also has to be representative of the site considered - that is, it must reflect
the local characteristics. This is specially important concerning air quality standards based on peak fractions
of the distribution, like 98 percentiles. If no such time series is at hand, a meteorological flow model may be
used to calculate one from other data, as will be described below.

Concepts of Air Pollution Modelling

As mentioned above, dispersion of pollutants is dependent on emission conditions, transport and turbulent
mixing. Using the full equation which describes these features is called Eulerian dispersion modelling (Pielke
1984). By this approach, gains and losses of the pollutant in question have to be determined at every point on
an imaginary spatial grid and in distinct time steps. As this method is very complex and computer time
consuming, it usually cannot be handled routinely. However, for many applications, it may be simplified
using the following assumptions:

no change of emission conditions with time

no change of meteorological conditions during transport

wind speeds above 1 m/s.

In this case, the equation mentioned above can be solved analytically. The resulting formula describes a
plume with Gaussian concentration distribution, the so called Gaussian plume model (VDI 1992). The
distribution parameters depend on meteorological conditions and downwind distance as well as on stack
height. They have to be determined empirically (Venkatram and Wyngaard 1988). Situations where emissions
and/or meteorological parameters vary by a considerable amount in time and/or space may be described by
the Gaussian puff model (VDI 1994). Under this approach, distinct puffs are emitted in fixed time steps, each
following its own path according to the current meteorological conditions. On its way, each puff grows
according to turbulent mixing. Parameters describing this growth, again, have to be determined from
empirical data (Venkatram and Wyngaard 1988). It has to be stressed, however, that to achieve this objective,
input parameters must be available with the necessary resolution in time and/or space.

Concerning accidental releases or single case studies, a Lagrangian or particle model (VDI Guideline 3945,
Part 3) is recommended. The concept thereby is to calculate the paths of many particles, each of which
represents a fixed amount of the pollutant in question. The individual paths are composed of transport by the
mean wind and of stochastic disturbances. Due to the stochastic part, the paths do not fully agree, but depict
the mixture by turbulence. In principle, Lagrangian models are capable of considering complex
meteorological conditions - in particular, wind and turbulence; fields calculated by flow models described
below can be used for Lagrangian dispersion modelling.

Dispersion Modelling in Complex Terrain

If pollutant concentrations have to be determined in structured terrain, it may be necessary to include

topographic effects on pollutant dispersion in modelling. Such effects are, for example, transport following
the topographic structure, or thermal wind systems like sea breezes or mountain winds, which change wind
direction in the course of the day.

If such effects take place on a scale much larger than the model area, the influence may be considered by
using meteorological data which reflect the local characteristics. If no such data are available, the three-
dimensional structure impressed on the flow by topography can be obtained by using a corresponding flow
model. Based on these data, dispersion modelling itself may be carried out assuming horizontal homogeneity
as described above in the case of the Gaussian plume model. However, in situations where wind conditions
change significantly inside the model area, dispersion modelling itself has to consider the three-dimensional
flow affected by the topographic structure. As mentioned above, this may be done by using a Gaussian puff or
a Lagrangian model. Another way is to perform the more complex Eulerian modelling.

To determine wind direction in accord with the topographically structured terrain, mass consistent or
diagnostic flow modelling may be used (Pielke 1984). Using this approach, the flow is fitted to topography by
varying the initial values as little as possible and by keeping its mass consistent. As this is an approach which
leads to quick results, it may also be used to calculate wind statistics for a certain site if no observations are
available. To do this, geostrophic wind statistics (i.e., upper air data from rawinsondes) are used.

If, however, thermal wind systems have to be considered in more detail, so called prognostic models have to
be used. Depending on the scale and the steepness of the model area, a hydrostatic, or the even more complex
non-hydrostatic, approach is suitable (VDI 1981). Models of this type need much computer power, as well as
much experience in application. Determination of concentrations based on annual means, in general, are not
possible with these models. Instead, worst case studies can be performed by considering only one wind
direction and those wind speed and stratification parameters which result in the highest surface concentration
values. If those worst case values do not exceed air quality standards, more detailed studies are not necessary.

Figure 55.2, figure 55.3 and figure 55.4 demonstrate how the transport and dispension of pollutants can be
presented in relation to the influence of terrain and wind climatologies derived from consideration of surface
and geostrophic wind frequencies.
Figure 55.2 Topographic structure of a model region

Figure 55.3 Surface frequency distributions as determined from geostrophic frequency distribution
Figure 55.4 Annual mean pollutant concentrations for a hypothetical region calculated from the
geostrophic frequency distribution for heterogeneous wind fields
Dispersion Modelling in Case of Low Sources

Considering air pollution caused by low sources (i.e., stack heights on the order of building height or
emissions of road traffic) the influence of the surrounding buildings has to be considered. Road traffic
emissions will be trapped to a certain amount in street canyons. Empirical formulations have been found to
describe this (Yamartino and Wiegand 1986).

Pollutants emitted from a low stack situated on a building will be captured in the circulation on the lee side of
the building. The extent of this lee circulation depends on the height and width of the building, as well as on
wind speed. Therefore, simplified approaches to describe pollutant dispersion in such a case, based solely on
the height of a building, are not generally valid. The vertical and horizontal extent of the lee circulation has
been obtained from wind tunnel studies (Hosker 1985) and can be implemented in mass consistent diagnostic
models. As soon as the flow field has been determined, it can be used to calculate the transport and turbulent
mixing of the pollutant emitted. This can be done by Lagrangian or Eulerian dispersion modelling.

More detailed studies - concerning accidental releases, for instance - can be performed only by using non-
hydrostatic flow and dispersion models instead of a diagnostic approach. As this, in general, demands high
computer power, a worst case approach as described above is recommended in advance of a complete
statistical modelling.
AIR QUALITY MONITORING

Hans-Ulrich Pfeffer and Peter Bruckmann

Air quality monitoring means the systematic measurement of ambient air pollutants in order to be able to
assess the exposure of vulnerable receptors (e.g., people, animals, plants and art works) on the basis of
standards and guidelines derived from observed effects, and/or to establish the source of the air pollution
(causal analysis).

Ambient air pollutant concentrations are influenced by the spatial or time variance of emissions of hazardous
substances and the dynamics of their dispersion in the air. As a consequence, marked daily and annual
variations of concentrations occur. It is practically impossible to determine in a unified way all these different
variations of air quality (in statistical language, the population of air quality states). Thus, ambient air
pollutant concentrations measurements always have the character of random spatial or time samples.

Measurement Planning

The first step in measurement planning is to formulate the purpose of the measurement as precisely as
possible. Important questions and fields of operation for air quality monitoring include:

Area measurement:

representative determination of exposure in one area (general air monitoring)

representative measurement of pre-existing pollution in the area of a planned facility (permit, TA Luft
(Technical instruction, air))

smog warning (winter smog, high ozone concentrations)

measurements in hot spots of air pollution to estimate maximum exposure of receptors (EU-NO2
guideline, measurements in street canyons, in accordance with the German Federal Immission Control Act)

checking the results of pollution abatement measures and trends over time

screening measurements

scientific investigations - for example, the transport of air pollution, chemical conversions, calibrating
dispersion calculations.

Facility measurement:

measurements in response to complaints

ascertaining sources of emissions, causal analysis

measurements in cases of fires and accidental releases

checking success of reduction measures

 monitoring factory fugitive emissions.

The goal of measurement planning is to use adequate measurement and assessment procedures to answer
specific questions with sufficient certainty and at minimum possible expense.

An example of the parameters that should be used for measurement planning is presented in table 55.2 , in
relation to an assessment of air pollution in the area of a planned industrial facility. Recognizing that formal
requirements vary by jurisdiction, it should be noted that specific reference here is made to German licensing
procedures for industrial facilities.

Table 55.2 Parameters for measurement planning in measuring ambient air pollution
concentrations (with example of application)

Parameter Example of application: Licensing procedure

Statement of the question
Area of measurement
Assessment standards (place and
time dependent): characteristic
values to be obtained from
measurement data
Ordering, choice and density
measurement sites
Measurement time period
Measurement height
Measurement frequency
Duration of each measurement
Measurement time
Measured object
Measurement procedure
Necessary certainty of measurement High
for industrial facilities in Germany
Measurement of prior pollution in the licensing
procedure; representative random probe
measurement
Circle around location with radius 30 times actual
chimney height (simplified)
Threshold limits IW1 (arithmetic mean) and IW2
(98th percentile) of TA Luft (Technical
instruction, air); calculation of I1 (arithmetic
mean) and I2 (98th percentile) from
measurements taken for 1 km2 (assessment
surface) to be compared with IW1 and IW2
of Regular scan of 1km2, resulting in random
choice of measurement sites
1 year, at least 6 months
1.5 to 4 metres above ground
52 (104) measurements per assessment area for
gaseous pollutants, depending on the height of the
pollution
1/2 hour for gaseous pollutants,
24 hours for suspended dust,
1 month for dust precipitation
Random choice
Air pollution emitted from the planned facility
National standard measurement procedure (VDI
guidelines)
results
Quality requirements, VDI guidelines
quality control, calibration,
maintenance
Recording of measurement Calculation of quantity of data I1V and I2V for
data, validation, archiving, every assessment area
assessment
Costs Depend on measurement area and objectives

The example in table 55.2 shows the case of a measurement network that is supposed to monitor the air
quality in a specific area as representatively as possible, to compare with designated air quality limits. The
idea behind this approach is that a random choice of measurement sites is made in order to cover equally
locations in an area with varying air quality (e.g., living areas, streets, industrial zones, parks, city centres,
suburbs). This approach may be very costly in large areas due to the number of measurement sites necessary.

Another conception for a measurement network therefore starts with measurement sites that are
representatively selected. If measurements of differing air quality are conducted in the most important
locations, and the length of time that the protected objects remain in these microenvironments is known,
then the exposure can be determined. This approach can be extended to other microenvironments (e.g.,
interior rooms, cars) in order to estimate the total exposure. Diffusion modelling or screening measurements
can help in choosing the right measurement sites.

A third approach is to measure at the points of presumed highest exposure (e.g., for NO2 and benzene in street
canyons). If assessment standards are met at this site, there is sufficient probability that this will also be the
case for all other sites. This approach, by focusing on critical points, requires relatively few measurement
sites, but these must be chosen with particular care. This particular method risks overestimating real exposure.

The parameters of measurement time period, assessment of the measurement data and measurement frequency
are essentially given in the definition of the assessment standards (limits) and the desired level of certainty of
the results. Threshold limits and the peripheral conditions to be considered in measurement planning are
related. By using continuous measurement procedures, a resolution that is temporally almost seamless can be
achieved. But this is necessary only in monitoring peak values and/or for smog warnings; for monitoring
annual mean values, for example, discontinuous measurements are adequate.

The following section is dedicated to describing the capabilities of measurement procedures and quality
control as a further parameter important to measurement planning.

Quality Assurance

Measurements of ambient air pollutant concentrations can be costly to conduct, and results can affect
significant decisions with serious economic or ecological implications. Therefore, quality assurance measures
are an integral part of the measurement process. Two areas should be distinguished here.

Procedure-oriented measures
Every complete measurement procedure consists of several steps: sampling, sample preparation and clean-up;
separation, detection (final analytical step); and data collection and assessment. In some cases, especially with
continuous measurement of inorganic gases, some steps of the procedure can be left out (e.g., separation).
Comprehensive adherence to procedures should be strived for in conducting measurements. Procedures that
are standardized and thus comprehensively documented should be followed, in the form of DIN/ISO
standards, CEN standards or VDI guidelines.

User-oriented measures

Using standardized and proven equipment and procedures for ambient air pollutant concentration
measurement cannot alone ensure acceptable quality if the user does not employ adequate methods of quality
control. The standards series DIN/EN/ISO 9000 (Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards), EN
45000 (which defines the requirements for testing laboratories) and ISO Guide 25 (General Requirements for
the Competence of Calibration and Testing Laboratories) are important for user-oriented measures to ensure
quality.

Important aspects of user quality control measures include:

acceptance and practice of the content of the measures in the sense of good laboratory practice (GLP)

correct maintenance of measurement equipment, qualified measures to eliminate disruptions and ensure
repairs

carrying out calibrations and regular checking to ensure proper functioning

carrying out interlaboratory testing.

Measurement Procedures

Measurement procedures for inorganic gases

A wealth of measurement procedures exists for the broad range of inorganic gases. We will differentiate
between manual and automatic methods.

Manual procedures

In the case of manual measurement procedures for inorganic gases, the substance to be measured is normally
adsorbed during the sampling in a solution or solid material. In most cases a photometric determination is
made after an appropriate colour reaction. Several manual measurement procedures have special significance
as reference procedures. Because of the relatively high personnel cost, these manual procedures are conducted
only rarely for field measurements today, when alternative automatic procedures are available. The most
important procedures are briefly sketched in table 55.3 .

Table 55.3 Manual measurement procedures for inorganic gases

Material Procedure Execution Comments

SO2 TCM procedure Absorption in tetrachloromercurate solution EU-reference measurement
(wash bottle); reaction with formaldehyde and procedure; DL = 0.2 g SO2; s
 pararosaniline to red-violet sulphonic acid; = 0.03 mg/m3 at 0.5 mg/m3
photometric determination
SO2 Silica gel procedure Removal of interfering substances by DL = 0.3 g SO2;
concentrated H3PO4; adsorption on silica gel; s = 0.03 mg/m3 at 0.5 mg/m3
thermal desorption in H2-stream and reduction
to H2S; reaction to molybdenum-blue;
photometric determination
NO2 Saltzman procedure Absorption in reaction solution while forming a Calibration with sodium nitrite;
red azo dye (wash bottle); photometric DL = 3 g/m3
determination
O3 Potassium Formation of iodine from aqueous potassium DL = 20 g/m3;
iodide procedure iodide solution (wash bottle); photometric rel. s = 3.5% at 390 g/m3
determination
F- Silver bead Sampling with dust preseparator; enrichment of Inclusion of an undetermined
procedure; variant 1 F- on sodium carbonate-coated silver beads; portion of particulate fluoride
elution and measurement with ion-sensitive immissions
lanthanum fluoride-electrode chain
F- Silver bead Sampling with heated membrane filter; Danger of lower findings due to
procedure; variant 2 enrichment of F- on sodium carbonate-coated partial sorption of gaseous
silver beads; determination by electrochemical fluoride immissions on
(variant 1) or photometric (alizarin- membrane filter; DL = 0.5
complexone) procedure g/m3
Cl- Mercury Absorption in 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution DL = 9 g/m3
rhodanide procedure (wash bottle); reaction with mercury rhodanide
and Fe(III) ions to iron thiocyanato complex;
photometric determination
Cl2 Methyl-orange Bleaching reaction with methyl-orange solution DL = 0.015 mg/m3
procedure (wash bottle); photometric determination
NH3 Indophenol Absorption in dilute H2SO4 (Impinger/wash DL = 3 g/m3 (impinger);
procedure bottle); conversion with phenol and partial inclusion of compounds
hypochlorite to indophenol dye; and amines
photometric determination
NH3 Nessler procedure Absorption in dilute H2SO4 (Impinger/wash DL = 2.5 g/m3 (impinger);
bottle); distillation and reaction with Nesslers partial inclusion of NH4+-
reagent, photometric determination compounds and amines
H2S Molybdenum- Absorption as silver sulphide on glass beads DL = 0.4 g/m3
blue procedure treated with silver sulphate and potassium
hydrogen sulphate (sorption tube); released as
hydrogen sulphide and conversion
to molybdenum blue; photometric
determination
H2S Methylene blue Absorption in cadmium hydroxide suspension DL = 0.3 g/m3
procedure while forming CdS; conversion to methylene
 blue; photometric determination

DL = detection limit; s = standard deviation; rel. s = relative s.

A special sampling variant, used primarily in connection with manual measurement procedures, is the
diffusion separation tube (denuder). The denuder technique is aimed at separating the gas and particle phases
by using their different diffusion rates. Thus, it is often used on difficult separation problems (e.g., ammonia
and ammonium compounds; nitrogen oxides, nitric acid and nitrates; sulphur oxides, sulphuric acid and
sulphates or hydrogen halides/halides). In the classic denuder technique, the test air is sucked through a glass
tube with a special coating, depending on the material(s) to be collected. The denuder technique has been
further developed in many variations and also partially automated. It has greatly expanded the possibilities of
differentiated sampling, but, depending on the variant, it can be very laborious, and proper utilization requires
a great deal of experience.

Automated procedures

There are numerous different continuous measuring monitors on the market for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide and ozone. For the most part they are used particularly in measurement networks.
The most important features of the individual methods are collected in table 55.4 .

Table 55.4 Automated measurement procedures for inorganic gases

Material Measuring principle Comments

SO2 Conductometry reaction of SO2 with Exclusion of interferences with
H2O2 in dilute H2SO4; measurement selective filter (KHSO4/AgNO3)
of increased conductivity
SO2 UV fluorescence; excitation of SO2 Interferences, e.g., by
molecules with UV radiation (190 hydrocarbons, must be eliminated
230 nm); measurement of with appropriate filter systems
fluorescence radiation
NO/NO2 Chemiluminescence; reaction of NO NO2 only indirectly measurable; use
with O3 to NO2; detection of of converters for reduction of NO2 to
chemiluminescence radiation with NO; measurement of NO and
photomultiplier NOx (=NO+NO2) in separate
channels
CO Non-dispersive infrared Reference: (a) cell with N2;
absorption; measurement of IR (b) ambient air after removal of
absorption with specific detector CO; (c) optical removal of CO
against reference cell absorption (gas filter correlation)
O3 UV absorption; low-pressure Hg lamp Reference: ambient air after removal
as radiation source (253.7 nm); of ozone (e.g., Cu/MnO2)
registration of UV absorption in
accordance with Lambert-Beers law;
detector: vacuum photodiode,
photosensitive valve
O3 Chemiluminescence; reaction of O3 Good selectivity; ethylene necessary
with ethene to formaldehyde; as reagent gas
detection of chemiluminescence
radiation with photomultiplier

It should be emphasized here that all automatic measurement procedures based on chemical-physical
principles must be calibrated using (manual) reference procedures. Since automatic equipment in
measurement networks often runs for extended periods of time (e.g., several weeks) without direct human
supervision, it is indispensable that their correct functioning is regularly and automatically checked. This
generally is done using zero and test gases that can be produced by several methods (preparation of ambient
air; pressurized gas cylinders; permeation; diffusion; static and dynamic dilution).

Measurement procedures for dust-forming air pollutants and its composition

Among particulate air pollutants, dustfall and suspended particulate matter (SPM) are differentiated. Dustfall
consists of larger particles, which sink to the ground because of their size and thickness. SPM includes the
particle fraction that is dispersed in the atmosphere in a quasi-stable and quasi-homogenous manner and
therefore remains suspended for a certain time.

Measurement of suspended particulate matter and metallic compounds in SPM

As is the case with measurements of gaseous air pollutants, continuous and discontinuous measurement
procedures for SPM can be differentiated. As a rule, SPM is first separated on glass fibre or membrane filters.
It follows a gravimetric or radiometric determination. Depending on the sampling, a distinction can be made
between a procedure to measure the total SPM without fractionation according to the size of the particles and
a fractionation procedure to measure the fine dust.

The advantages and disadvantages of fractionated suspended dust measurements are disputed internationally.
In Germany, for example, all threshold limits and assessment standards are based on total suspended
particulates. This means that, for the most part, only total SPM measurements are performed. In the United
States, on the contrary, the so-called PM-10 procedure (particulate matter 10mm) is very common. In this
procedure, only particles with an aerodynamic diameter up to 10 mm are included (50 per cent inclusion
portion), which are inhalable and can enter the lungs. The plan is to introduce the PM-10 procedure into the
European Union as a reference procedure. The cost for fractionated SPM measurements is considerably higher
than for measuring total suspended dust, because the measuring devices must be fitted with special,
expensively constructed sampling heads that require costly maintenance. Table 55.5 contains details on the
most important SPM measurement procedures.

Table 55.5 Measurement procedures for suspended particulate matter (SPM)

Procedure Measuring principle Comments

Small filter device Non-fractionated sampling; air Easy handling; control
flow rate 2.72.8 m3/h; filter clock; device operable with
diameter 50 mm; gravimetric PM-10 preseparator
analysis
LIB device Non-fractionated sampling; air Separation of large
 flow rate 15-16 m3/h; filter dust quantities; advantageous
diameter 120 mm; gravimetric for analysis of dust
analysis components; control clock
High-Volume-Sampler Inclusion of particles up Separation of large
to approx. 30 m diameter; air dust quantities, advantageous
flow rate approx. 100 for analysis of dust
m3/h; filter diameter 257 components; relatively high
mm; gravimetric analysis noise level
FH 62 I Continuous, radiometric Gravimetric calibration by
dust measuring device; non- dusting of single filters; device
fractionating sampling; air also operable with PM-10
flow rate 1 or 3 m3/h; preseparator
registration of dust mass
separated on a filter band by
measuring attenuation of -
radiation (krypton 85)
in passage through exposed
filter (ionization chamber)
BETA dust meter F Continuous, radiometric Gravimetric calibration by
703 dust measuring device; non- dusting of single filters; device
fractionated sampling; air also operable with PM-10
flow rate 3 m3/h; registration preseparator
of dust mass separated on a
filter band by measuring
attenuation of -radiation
(carbon 14) in passage through
exposed filter (Geiger Mller
counter tube)
TEOM 1400 Continuous dust Relationship between
measuring device; non- frequency lowering and dust
fractionated sampling; air flow mass must be established
rate 1 m3/h; dust collected on a through calibration
filter, which is part of a self-
resonating, vibrating system,
in side stream (3 l/min);
registration of the frequency
lowering by increased dust
load on the filter

Recently, automatic filter changers have also been developed that hold a larger number of filters and supply
them to the sampler, one after another, at timed intervals. The exposed filters are stored in a magazine. The
detection limits for filter procedures lie between 5 and 10 g/m3 of dust, as a rule.

Finally, the black smoke procedure for SPM measurements has to be mentioned. Coming from Britain, it has
been incorporated into EU guidelines for SO2 and suspended dust. In this procedure, the blackening of the
coated filter is measured with a reflex photometer after the sampling. The black smoke values that are thus
photometrically obtained are converted into gravimetric units (g/m3) with the help of a calibration curve.
Since this calibration function depends to a high degree on the composition of the dust, especially its soot
content, the conversion into gravimetric units is problematic.

Today, metal compounds are often routinely determined in suspended dust immission samples. In general, the
collection of the suspended dust on filters is followed by a chemical dissolution of the separated dusts, since
the most common final analytical steps presuppose converting the metallic and metalloid compounds in an
aqueous solution. In practice, the most important methods by far are atom absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and
spectroscopy with plasma excitation (ICP-OES). Other procedures for determining metallic compounds in
suspended dust are x-ray fluorescence analysis, polarography and neutron activation analysis. Although
metallic compounds have been measured for more than a decade now as a component of SPM in outside air at
certain measurement sites, important unanswered questions remain. Thus the conventional sampling by
separating the suspended dust on filters assumes that the separation of the heavy metal compounds on the
filter is complete. However, earlier indications have been found in the literature questioning this. The results
are very heterogeneous.

A further problem lies in the fact that different compound forms, or single compounds of the respective
elements, cannot be distinguished in the analysis of metallic compounds in suspended dust using the
conventional measurement procedures. While in many cases adequate total determinations can be made, a
more thorough differentiation would be desirable with certain especially carcinogenic metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni,
Co, Be). There are often big differences in the carcinogenic effects of elements and their individual
compounds (e.g., chromium compounds in oxidation levels III and VI - only those in level VI are
carcinogenic). In such cases a specific measurement of the individual compounds (species analysis) would be
desirable. Despite the significance of this problem, only first attempts at species analysis are being made in
measurement technique.

Measurement of dustfall and metallic compounds in dustfall

Two fundamentally different methods are used to collect dustfall:

sampling in collecting vessels

sampling on adhesive surfaces.

A popular procedure for measuring dustfall (deposited dust) is the so-called Bergerhoff procedure. In this
procedure the entire atmospheric precipitation (dry and wet depositions) is collected over 30 2 days in
vessels about 1.5 to 2.0 metres above the ground (bulk deposition). Then the collecting vessels are taken to the
lab and prepared (filtered, water evaporated, dried, weighed). The result is calculated on the basis of the
surface area of the collecting vessel and exposure time in grams per square meter and day (g/m2d). The
relative detection limit is 0.035 g/m2d.

Additional procedures for collecting dustfall include the Liesegang-Lbner device and methods which collect
the deposited dust on adhesive foils.

All measurement results for dustfall are relative values that depend on the apparatus used, as the dust
separation is influenced by the flow conditions at the device and other parameters. The differences in the
measurement values obtained with the different procedures can reach 50 per cent.
Also important is the composition of the deposited dust, such as the content of lead, cadmium and other
metallic compounds. The analytical procedures used for this are basically the same as those used for
suspended dust.

Measuring special materials in dust form

Special materials in dust form include asbestos and soot. Collecting fibres as air pollutants is important since
asbestos has been classified as a confirmed carcinogenic material. Fibres with a diameter of D 3mm and a
length of L 5mm, where L:D 3, are considered carcinogenic. Measurement procedures for fibrous
materials consist of counting, under the microscope, fibres that have been separated on filters. Only electron
microscopic procedures can be considered for outside air measurements. The fibres are separated on gold-
coated porous filters. Prior to assessment in an electron scan microscope, the sample is freed of organic
substances through plasma incineration right on the filter. The fibres are counted on part of the filter surface,
randomly chosen and classified by geometry and type of fibre. With the help of energy dispersive x-ray
analysis (EDXA), asbestos fibres, calcium sulphate fibres and other inorganic fibres can be differentiated on
the basis of elemental composition. The entire procedure is extremely expensive and requires the greatest care
to achieve reliable results.

Soot in the form of particles emitted by diesel motors has become relevant since diesel soot was also
classified as carcinogenic. Because of its changing and complex composition and because of the fact that
various constituents are also emitted from other sources, there is no measurement procedure specific to diesel
soot. Nevertheless, in order to say something concrete about the concentrations in ambient air, soot is
conventionally defined as elemental carbon, as a part of total carbon. It is measured after sampling and an
extraction step and/or thermal desorption. Determination of the carbon content ensues through burning in an
oxygen stream and coulometric titration or non-dispersive IR detection of the carbon dioxide formed in the
process.

The so-called aethalometer and the photoelectric aerosol sensor are also used for measuring soot, in principle.

Measuring Wet Depositions

Together with dry deposition, wet deposition in rain, snow, fog and dew constitute the most important means
by which harmful materials enter the ground, water or plant surfaces from the air.

In order to clearly distinguish the wet deposition in rain and snow (fog and dew present special problems)
from the measurement of total deposition (bulk deposition, see section Measurement of dustfall and metallic
compounds above) and dry deposition, rain catchers, whose collection opening is covered when there is no
rain (wet-only sampler), are used for sampling. With rain sensors, which mostly work on the principle of
conductivity changes, the cover is opened when it starts to rain and closed again when the rain stops.

The samples are transferred through a funnel (open area approx. 500 cm2 and more) into a darkened and if
possible insulated collection container (of glass or polyethylene for inorganic components only).

In general, analysing the collected water for inorganic components can be done without sample preparation.
The water should be centrifuged or filtered if it is visibly cloudy. The conductivity, pH value and important
anions (NO3 , SO42 , Cl) and cations (Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, Na+, NH4+ and so on) are routinely measured.
Unstable trace compounds and intermediate states like H2O2 or HSO3 are also measured for research
purposes.
For analysis, procedures are used that are generally available for aqueous solutions such as conductometry for
conductivity, electrodes for pH values, atom adsorption spectroscopy for cations (see section Measuring
special materials in dust form, above) and, increasingly, ion exchange chromatography with conductivity
detection for anions.

Organic compounds are extracted from rain water with, for example, dichloromethane, or blown out with
argon and adsorbed with Tenax tubes (only highly volatile materials). The materials are then subjected to a
gas chromatographic analysis (see Measurement procedures for organic air pollutants, below).

Dry deposition correlates directly with ambient air concentrations. The concentration differences of airborne
harmful materials in rain, however, are relatively small, so that for measuring wet deposition, wide-mesh
measuring networks are adequate. Examples include the European EMEP measurement network, in which the
entry of sulphate and nitrate ions, certain cations and precipitation pH values are collected in approximately
90 stations. There are also extensive measurement networks in North America.

Optical Long-Distance Measurement Procedures

Whereas the procedures described up to now catch air pollution at one point, optical long-distance measuring
procedures measure in an integrated manner over light paths of several kilometres or they determine the
spatial distribution. They use the absorption characteristics of gases in the atmosphere in the UV, visible or IR
spectral range and are based on the Lambert-Beer law, according to which the product of light path and
concentration are proportional to the measured extinction. If the sender and receiver of the measuring
installation change the wavelength, several components can be measured in parallel or sequentially with one
device.

In practice, the measurement systems identified in table 55.6 play the biggest role.

Table 55.6 Long-distance measurement procedures

Procedure Application Advantages,

disadvantages
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy IR range (approx. 700 + Multi-
(FTIR) 3,000 cm1), several component
hundred metres light system
path. Monitors diffuse + dl a few ppb
surface Expensive
sources (optical
fence), measures
individual organic
compounds
Differential optical absorption spectrometry Light path to several + Easy to handle
(DOAS) km; measures SO2, + Successful
NO2, benzene, HNO3; performance test
monitors linear and + Multi-
surface sources, used component
in measuring networks system
High dl under
 conditions of poor
visibility (e.g.fog)
Long-distance laser absorption spectroscopy Research area, in low- + High sensitivity
(TDLAS) pressure cuvettes for (to ppt)
OH- + Measures
unstable trace
compounds
High cost
Difficult to
handle
Differential Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) Monitors surface + Measurements
sources, large surface of spatial
immission distribution
measurements + Measures
inaccessible
places (e.g.,
smoke gas trails)
Expensive
Limited
component
spectrum (SO2,
O3, NO2)

LIDAR = Light detection and ranging; DIAL = differential absorption LIDAR.

Measurement Procedures for Organic Air Pollutants

The measurement of air pollution containing organic components is complicated primarily by the range of
materials in this class of compounds. Several hundred individual components with very different
toxicological, chemical and physical characteristics are covered under the general title organic air pollutants
in the emissions registers and air quality plans of congested areas.

Especially due to the great differences in potential impact, collecting relevant individual components has more
and more taken the place of previously used summation procedures (e.g., Flame Ionization Detector, total
carbon procedure), the results of which cannot be assessed toxicologically. The FID method, however, has
retained a certain significance in connection with a short separation column to separate out methane, which is
photochemically not very reactive, and for collecting the precursor volatile organic compounds (VOC) for the
formation of photo-oxidants.

The frequent necessity of separating the complex mixtures of the organic compounds into relevant individual
components makes measuring it virtually an exercise in applied chromatography. Chromatographic
procedures are the methods of choice when the organic compounds are sufficiently stable, thermally and
chemically. For organic materials with reactive functional groups, separate procedures that use the functional
groups physical characteristics or chemical reactions for detection continue to hold their ground.
Examples include using amines to convert aldehydes to hydrazones, with subsequent photometric
measurement; derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine and separation of the 2,4-hydrazone that is
formed; or forming azo-dyes with p-nitroaniline for detecting phenols and cresols.

Among chromatographic procedures, gas chromatography (GC) and high-pressure liquid chromatography
(HPLC) are most frequently employed for separating the often complex mixtures. For gas chromatography,
separation columns with very narrow diameters (approx. 0.2 to 0.3 mm, and approx. 30 to 100 m long), so-
called high-resolution capillary columns (HRGC), are almost exclusively utilized today. A series of detectors
are available for finding the individual components after the separation column, such as the above-mentioned
FID, the ECD (electron capture detector, specifically for electrophilic substitutes such as halogen), the PID
(photo-ionization detector, which is especially sensitive to aromatic hydrocarbons and other -electron
systems), and the NPD (thermo-ionic detector specifically for nitrogen and phosphorus compounds). The
HPLC uses special through-flow detectors which, for example, are designed as the through-flow cuvette of a
UV spectrometer.

Especially effective, but also especially expensive, is the use of a mass spectrometer as a detector. Really
certain identification, especially with unknown mixtures of compounds, is often possible only through the
mass spectrum of the organic compound. The qualitative information of the so-called retention time (time the
material remains in the column) that is contained in the chromatogram with conventional detectors is
supplemented with the specific detection of the individual components by mass fragmentograms with high
detection sensitivity.

Sampling must be considered before the actual analysis. The choice of sampling method is determined
primarily by volatility, but also by expected concentration range, polarity and chemical stability. Furthermore,
with non-volatile compounds, a choice must be made between concentration and deposition measurements.

Table 55.7 provides an overview of common procedures in air monitoring for active enrichment and
chromatographic analysis of organic compounds, with examples of applications.

Table 55.7 Overview of common chromatographic air quality measurement procedures of organic
compounds (with examples of applications)

Material group Concentration range Sampling, preparation Final analytical step

Hydrocarbons C1-C9 g/m3 Gas mice (rapid sampling), gas-tight GC/FID
syringe, cold trapping in front of
capillary column (focusing), thermal
desorption
Low-boiling ng/m3-g/m3 Evacuated, passivated high-grade steel GC/FID/ECD/PID
hydrocarbons, cylinder (also for clean air
highly volatile measurements) Sampling dispatch
halogenated through gas loops, cold
hydrocarbons trapping, thermal desorption
Organic compounds g/m3 Adsorption on activated carbon, (a) Capillary GC/FID
in boiling desorption with CS2
point range C6-C30 (b) desorption with solvents
(60-350 C) (c) headspace analysis
Organic compounds ng/m3-g/m3 Adsorption on organic polymers (e.g., Capillary GC/FID/ECD/MS
in boiling Tenax) or molecular carbon sieve
point range 20-300 (carbopack), thermal desorption
C with cold trapping in front of capillary
column (focusing) or solvent
extraction
Modification for ng/m3-g/m3 Adsorption on cooled polymers (e.g. Capillary GC/FID/ECD/MS
low- thermogradient tube), cooled to -120
boiling compounds C, use of carbopack
(from -120 C)
High boiling organic fg/m3-ng/m3 Sampling on filters (e.g., small filter Capillary GC-
compounds partially device or high volume sampler) with GCMS (PCDD/PCDF),
attached to subsequent polyurethane cartridges for capillary GC-FID or MS
particles (esp. PAH, gaseous portion, solvent desorption of (PAH),
PCB, filter and polyurethane, HPLC fluorescence detector
PCDD/PCDF), high various purification and preparatory (PAH)
sampling volume steps, for PAH also sublimation
High boiling organic fg/m3-ng/m3 Adsorption on organic polymers (e.g., HRGC/ECD
compounds, esp. polyurethane foam cylinder) with prior
PCDD, PCDF, filters (e.g., glass fibre) or inorg.
PBDD, PBDF, low adsorp. (e.g., silica gel), extraction
sampling volume with solvents, various purification and
preparatory steps, (including
multicolumn chromatography),
derivatizing for chlorophenols
High boiling organic ng/m3 Separation of aerosols on glass fibre HRGC/MS HPLC (for
compounds bound ng-g/g aerosol filters (e.g., high or low volume PAHs)
to particles, e.g., pg-ng/m2 day sampler) or dust collection on
components of standardized surfaces, extraction with
organic aerosols, solvents (for deposition also of
deposition samples remaining filtered water), various
purification and preparation steps

GC = gas chromatography;

GCMS = GC/mass spectroscopy;

FID = flame ionization detector

HRGC/ECD = high resolution GC/ECD;

ECD = electron capture detector

HPLC = high performance liquid chromatography.

PID = photo-ionization detector.

Deposition measurements of organic compounds with low volatility (e.g., dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans
(PCDD/PCDF), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)) are gaining in importance from the perspective of
environmental impact. Since food is the main source of human intake, airborne material transferred onto food
plants is of great significance. There is, however, evidence that material transfer by way of particulate
deposition is less important than dry deposition of quasi-gaseous compounds.

For measuring total deposition, standardized devices for dust precipitation are used (e.g., Bergerhoff
procedure), which have been slightly modified by darkening as a protection against the entry of strong light.
Important technical measurement problems, such as the resuspension of already separated particles,
evaporation or possible photolytic decomposition, are now being systematically researched in order to
improve the less-than-optimal sampling procedures for organic compounds.

Olfactometric Investigations

Olfactometric immission investigations are used in monitoring to quantify odour complaints and to determine
baseline pollution in licensing procedures. They serve primarily to assess whether existing or anticipated
odours should be classified as significant.

In principle, three methodological approaches can be differentiated:

measurement of the emission concentration (number of odour units) with an olfactometer and subsequent
dispersion modelling

measurement of individual components (e.g., NH3) or mixtures of compounds (e.g., gas chromatography
of gases from landfills), if these adequately characterize the odour

odour determinations by means of inspections.

The first possibility combines emission measurement with modelling and, strictly speaking, cannot be
classified under the term air quality monitoring. In the third method, the human nose is used as the detector
with significantly reduced precision as compared to physical-chemical methods.

Details of inspections, measurement plans and assessing the results are contained, for example, in the
environmental protection regulations of some German states.

Screening Measurement Procedures

Simplified measurement procedures are sometimes used for preparatory studies (screening). Examples include
passive samplers, test tubes and biological procedures. With passive (diffusive) samplers, the material to be
tested is collected with freely flowing processes such as diffusion, permeation or adsorption in simple forms
of collectors (tubes, plaques) and enriched in impregnated filters, meshes or other adsorption media. So-called
active sampling (sucking the sample air through a pump) thus does not occur. The enriched quantity of
material, analytically determined according to definite exposure time, is converted into concentration units on
the basis of physical laws (e.g., of diffusion) with the help of collection time and the collectors geometric
parameters. The methodology stems from the field of occupational health (personal sampling) and indoor air
measurement, but it is increasingly being used for ambient air pollutant concentration measurements. An
overview can be found in Brown 1993.
Detector tubes are often used for sampling and quick preparatory analysis of gases. A certain test air volume
is sucked through a glass tube that is filled with an adsorptive reagent that corresponds with the test objective.
The contents of the tube change colour depending on the concentration of the material to be determined that is
present in the test air. Small testing tubes are often used in the field of workplace monitoring or as a quick
procedure in cases of accidents, such as fires. They are not used for routine ambient air pollutant
concentration measurements due to the generally too high detection limits and too limited selectivity. Detector
testing tubes are available for numerous materials in various concentration ranges.

Among the biological procedures, two methods have become accepted in routine monitoring. With the
standardized lichen exposure procedure, the mortality rate of the lichen is determined over the exposure time
of 300 days. In another procedure, French pasture grass is exposed for 141 days. Then the amount of growth
is determined. Both procedures serve as summary determinations of air pollutant concentration effects.

Air Quality Monitoring Networks

Around the world, the most varied types of air quality networks are utilized. A distinction should be drawn
between measurement networks, consisting of automatic, computer-controlled measuring stations
(measurement containers), and virtual measurement networks, which only define the measurement locations
for various types of air pollutant concentration measurements in the form of a preset grid. Tasks and
conceptions of measurement networks were discussed above.

Continuous monitoring networks

Continuously operating measurement networks are based on automatic measuring stations, and serve
primarily for air quality monitoring of urban areas. Measured are air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO 2),
dust, nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), and to an extent
also the sum of the hydrocarbons (free methane, CnHm) or individual organic components (e.g., benzene,
toluene, xylenes). In addition, depending on need, meteorological parameters such as wind direction, wind
speed, air temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, global radiation or radiation balance are included.

The measuring equipment operated in measurement stations generally consists of an analyser, a calibration
unit, and control and steering electronics, which monitors the whole measuring equipment and contains a
standardized interface for data collection. In addition to the measurement values, the measuring equipment
supplies so-called status signals on errors and the operating status. The calibration of the devices is
automatically checked by computer at regular intervals.

As a rule, the measurement stations are connected with fixed data lines, dial connections or other data transfer
systems to a computer (process computer, workstation or PC, depending on the scope of the system) in which
the measurement results are entered, processed and displayed. The measurement network computers and, if
necessary, specially trained personnel monitor continuously whether various threshold limits are exceeded. In
this manner critical air quality situations can be recognized at any time. This is very important, especially for
monitoring critical smog situations in winter and summer (photo-oxidants) and for current public information.

Measurement networks for random sample measurements

Beyond the telemetric measurement network, other measuring systems for monitoring air quality are used to
varying extents. Examples include (occasionally partially automated) measurement networks to determine:

dust deposition and its components

 suspended dust (SPM) and its components

hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons

low volatile organic materials (dioxins, furans, polychlorinated biphenyls).

A series of substances measured in this manner have been classified as carcinogens, such as cadmium
compounds, PAHs or benzene. Monitoring them is therefore particularly important.

To provide an example of a comprehensive programme, table 55.8 summarizes the air quality monitoring that
is systematically conducted in North Rhine-Westphalia, which with 18 million inhabitants is the most
populous state in Germany.

Table 55.8 Systematic air quality monitoring in North-Rhine-Westphalia (Germany)

Continuous Partially Discontinuous

measuring system automated measuring measuring system/Multi-
system component measurements
Sulphur dioxide SPM composition: Benzene and other
Nitrogen monoxide Lead hydrocarbons
Nitrogen dioxide Cadmium Halogenated hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide Nickel Dust deposition and material
Suspended particulate matter Copper composition
(SPM) Iron Soot
Ozone Arsenic Polychlorinated biphenyls
Hydrocarbons Beryllium Polyhalogenated
Wind direction Benzo[a]pyrene dibenzodioxins and
Wind speed Benzo[e]pyrene dibenzofurans
Air temperature Benzo[a]anthracene (PCDD/PCDF)
Air pressure Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene
Relative humidity Benzo[ghi)perylene
Radiation balance Coronene
Precipitation

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

John Elias

Management of Air Pollution

The objective of a manager of an air pollution control system is to ensure that excessive concentrations of air
pollutants do not reach a susceptible target. Targets could include people, plants, animals and materials. In all
cases we should be concerned with the most sensitive of each of these groups. Air pollutants could include
gases, vapours, aerosols and, in some cases, biohazardous materials. A well designed system will prevent a
target from receiving a harmful concentration of a pollutant.
Most air pollution control systems involve a combination of several control techniques, usually a combination
of technological controls and administrative controls, and in larger or more complex sources there may be
more than one type of technological control.

Ideally, the selection of the appropriate controls will be made in the context of the problem to be solved.

What is emitted, in what concentration?

What are the targets? What is the most susceptible target?

What are acceptable short-term exposure levels?

What are acceptable long-term exposure levels?

What combination of controls must be selected to ensure that the short-term and long-term exposure
levels are not exceeded?

Table 55.9 describes the steps in this process.

Table 55.9 Steps in selecting pollution controls

Step 1: The first part is to determine what will be released from the stack. All
Define emissions. potentially harmful emissions must be listed. The second part is to
estimate how much of each material will be released. Without this
information, the manager cannot begin to design a control programme.

Step 2: All susceptible targets should be identified. This includes people,

Define target groups. animals, plants and materials. In each case, the most susceptible
member of each group must be identified. For example, asthmatics
near a plant that emits isocyanates.

Step 3: An acceptable level of exposure for the most sensitive target group
Determine acceptable must be established. If the pollutant is a material that has cumulative
exposure levels.* effects, such as a carcinogen, then long-term exposure levels (annual)
must be set. If the pollutant has short-term effects, such as an irritant
or a sensitizer, a short-term or perhaps peak exposure level must be
set.**

Step 4: Step 1 identifies the emissions, and Step 3 determines the acceptable
Select controls. level. In this step, each pollutant is checked to ensure that it does not
exceed the acceptable level. If it exceeds the acceptable level,
additional controls must be added, and the exposure levels checked
again. This process continues until all exposures are at or below the
acceptable level. Dispersion modelling can be used to estimate
exposures for new plants or to test alternative solutions for existing
facilities.
* When setting exposure levels in Step 3, it must be remembered that these exposures are total exposures, not
just those from the plant. Once the acceptable level has been established, background levels, and contributions
from other plants must be subtracted to determine the maximum amount that the plant can emit without
exceeding the acceptable exposure level. If this is not done, and three plants are allowed to emit at the
maximum, the target groups will be exposed to three times the acceptable level.

** Some materials such as carcinogens do not have a threshold below which no harmful effects will occur.
Therefore, as long as some of the material is allowed to escape to the environment, there will be some risk to
the target populations. In this case a no effect level cannot be set (other than zero). Instead, an acceptable level
of risk must be established. Usually this is set in the range of 1 adverse outcome in 100,000 to 1,000,000
exposed persons.

Some jurisdictions have done some of the work by setting standards based on the maximum concentration of a
contaminant that a susceptible target can receive. With this type of standard, the manager does not have to
carry out Steps 2 and 3, since the regulating agency has already done this. Under this system, the manager
must establish only the uncontrolled emission standards for each pollutant (Step 1), and then determine what
controls are necessary to meet the standard (Step 4).

By having air quality standards, regulators can measure individual exposures and thus determine whether
anyone is exposed to potentially harmful levels. It is assumed that the standards set under these conditions are
low enough to protect the most susceptible target group. This is not always a safe assumption. As shown in
table 55.10, there can be a wide variation in common air quality standards. Air quality standards for sulphur
dioxide range from 30 to 140 g/m3. For less commonly regulated materials this variation can be even larger
(1.2 to 1,718 g/m3), as shown in table 55.11 for benzene. This is not surprising given that economics can
play as large a role in standard setting as does toxicology. If a standard is not set low enough to protect
susceptible populations, no one is well served. Exposed populations have a feeling of false confidence, and
can unknowingly be put at risk. The emitter may at first feel that they have benefited from a lenient standard,
but if effects in the community require the company to redesign their controls, or install new controls, costs
could be higher than doing it correctly the first time.

Table 55.10 Range of air quality standards for a commonly controlled air contaminant (sulphur
dioxide)

Countries and territories Long-term sulphur dioxide air

quality standards (g/m3)
Australia 50
Canada 30
Finland 40
Germany 140
Hungary 70
Taiwan 133

Table 55.11 Range of air quality standards for a less commonly controlled air contaminant (benzene)
City/State 24-hour air quality standard
for benzene (g/m3)
Connecticut 53.4
Massachusetts 1.2
Michigan 2.4
North Carolina 2.1
Nevada 254
New York 1,718
Philadelphia 1,327
Virginia 300

The levels were standardized to an averaging time of 24 hours to assist in the comparisons.

(Adapted from Calabrese and Kenyon 1991.)

Sometimes this stepwise approach to selecting air pollution controls is short circuited, and the regulators and
designers go directly to a universal solution. One such method is best available control technology (BACT).
It is assumed that by using the best combination of scrubbers, filters and good work practices on an emission
source, a level of emissions low enough to protect the most susceptible target group would be achieved.
Frequently, the resulting emission level will be below the minimum required to protect the most susceptible
targets. This way all unnecessary exposures should be eliminated. Examples of BACT are shown in table
55.12 .

Table 55.12 Selected examples of best available control technology (BACT) showing the control method
used and estimated efficiency

Process Pollutant Control method Estimated

efficiency
Soil remediation Hydrocarbons Thermal oxidizer 99
Kraft pulp Particulates Electrostatic precipitator 99.68
mill recovery boiler
Production of Carbon monoxide Good practice 50
fumed silica
Automobile painting Hydrocarbons Oven afterburner 90
Electric arc furnace Particulates Baghouse 100
Petroleum Respirable Cyclone + 93
refinery, catalytic particulates Venturi scrubber
cracking
Medical incinerator Hydrogen chloride Wet scrubber + 97.5
 dry scrubber
Coal-fired boiler Sulphur dioxide Spray dryer + absorber 90
Waste disposal Particulates Cyclone + condenser + 95
by dehydration Venturi scrubber + wet
and incineration scrubber
Asphalt plant Hydrocarbons Thermal oxidizer 99

BACT by itself does not ensure adequate control levels. Although this is the best control system based on gas
cleaning controls and good operating practices, BACT may not be good enough if the source is a large plant,
or if it is located next to a sensitive target. Best available control technology should be tested to ensure that it
is indeed good enough. The resulting emission standards should be checked to determine whether or not they
may still be harmful even with the best gas cleaning controls. If emission standards are still harmful, other
basic controls, such as selecting safer processes or materials, or relocating in a less sensitive area, may have to
be considered.

Another universal solution that bypasses some of the steps is source performance standards. Many
jurisdictions establish emission standards that cannot be exceeded. Emission standards are based on emissions
at the source. Usually this works well, but like BACT they can be unreliable. The levels should be low enough
to maintain the maximum emissions low enough to protect susceptible target populations from typical
emissions. However, as with best available control technology, this may not be good enough to protect
everyone where there are large emission sources or nearby susceptible populations. If this is the case, other
procedures must be used to ensure the safety of all target groups.

Both BACT and emission standards have a basic fault. They assume that if certain criteria are met at the plant,
the target groups will be automatically protected. This is not necessarily so, but once such a system is passed
into law, effects on the target become secondary to compliance with the law.

BACT and source emission standards or design criteria should be used as minimum criteria for controls. If
BACT or emission criteria will protect the susceptible targets, then they can be used as intended, otherwise
other administrative controls must be used.

Control Measures

Controls can be divided into two basic types of controls - technological and administrative. Technological
controls are defined here as the hardware put on an emission source to reduce contaminants in the gas stream
to a level that is acceptable to the community and that will protect the most sensitive target. Administrative
controls are defined here as other control measures.

Technological controls

Gas cleaning systems are placed at the source, before the stack, to remove contaminants from the gas stream
before releasing it to the environment. Table 55.13 shows a brief summary of the different classes of gas
cleaning system.

Table 55.13 Gas cleaning methods for removing harmful gases, vapours and particulates
from industrial process emissions
Control method Examples Description Efficiency
Gases/Vapours
Condensation Contact condensers The vapour is cooled and condensed to a liquid. 80+% whe
Surface condensers This is inefficient and is used as a preconditioner ppm
to other methods
Absorption Wet scrubbers The gas or vapour is collected in a liquid. 8295% w
(packed or plate ppm 9599
absorbers) >100 ppm
Adsorption Carbon The gas or vapour is collected on a solid. 90+% whe
Alumina ppm 95+%
Silica gel >1,000 ppm
Molecular sieve
Incineration Flares An organic gas or vapour is oxidized by heating it Not
Incinerator to a high temperature and holding it at that when con
Catalytic incinerator temperature for a sufficient time period. 80+% whe
ppm
Particulates
Inertialseparators Cyclones Particle-laden gases are forced to change 7090%
direction. The inertia of the particle causes them to
separate from the gas stream. This is inefficient
and is used as a preconditioner to other methods.
Wet scrubbers Venturi Liquid droplets (water) collect the particles by For 5 m
Wetted filter impaction, interception and diffusion. The droplets w.g.; 99
Tray or sieve and their particles are then separated from the gas For 1 m p
scrubber stream. 99.95 at 50
Electrostatic precipitators Plate-wire Electrical forces are used to move the particles out 9599.5%
Flat-plate of the gas stream onto collection plates 99.2599.9+
Tubular
Wet
Filters Baghouse A porous fabric removes particulates from the gas 99.9% fo
stream. The porous dust cake that forms on the 99.5% for 1
fabric then actually does the filtration.

The gas cleaner is part of a complex system consisting of hoods, ductwork, fans, cleaners and stacks. The
design, performance and maintenance of each part affects the performance of all other parts, and the system as
a whole.

It should be noted that system efficiency varies widely for each type of cleaner, depending on its design,
energy input and the characteristics of the gas stream and the contaminant. As a result, the sample efficiencies
in table 55.13 are only approximations. The variation in efficiencies is demonstrated with wet scrubbers in
table 55.13 . Wet scrubber collection efficiency goes from 98.5 per cent for 5 m particles to 45 per cent for 1
m particles at the same pressure drop across the scrubber (6.8 in. water gauge (w.g.)). For the same size
particle, 1 m, efficiency goes from 45 per cent efficiency at 6.8 w.g. to 99.95 at 50 w.g. As a result, gas
cleaners must be matched to the specific gas stream in question. The use of generic devices is not
recommended.

Waste disposal

When selecting and designing gas cleaning systems, careful consideration must be given to the safe disposal
of the collected material. As shown in table 55.14 , some processes produce large amounts of contaminants. If
most of the contaminants are collected by the gas cleaning equipment there can be a hazardous waste disposal
problem.

Table 55.14 Sample uncontrolled emission rates for selected industrial processes

Industrial source Emission rate

100 ton electric furnace 257 tons/year particulates
1,500 MM BTU/hr oil/gas turbine 444 lb/hr SO2
41.7 ton/hr incinerator 208 lb/hr NOx
100 trucks/day clear coat 3,795 lb/week organics

In some cases the wastes may contain valuable products that can be recycled, such as heavy metals from a
smelter, or solvent from a painting line. The wastes can be used as a raw material for another industrial
process - for example, sulphur dioxide collected as sulphuric acid can be used in the manufacture of
fertilizers.

Where the wastes cannot be recycled or reused, disposal may not be simple. Not only can the volume be a
problem, but they may be hazardous themselves. For example, if the sulphuric acid captured from a boiler or
smelter cannot be reused, it will have to be further treated to neutralize it before disposal.

Dispersion

Dispersion can reduce the concentration of a pollutant at a target. However, it must be remembered that
dispersion does not reduce the total amount of material leaving a plant. A tall stack only allows the plume to
spread out and be diluted before it reaches ground level, where susceptible targets are likely to exist. If the
pollutant is primarily a nuisance, such as an odour, dispersion may be acceptable. However if the material is
persistent or cumulative, such as heavy metals, dilution may not be an answer to an air pollution problem.

Dispersion should be used with caution. Local meteorological and ground surface conditions must be taken
into consideration. For example, in colder climates, particularly with snow cover, there can be frequent
temperature inversions that can trap pollutants close to the ground, resulting in unexpectedly high exposures.
Similarly, if a plant is located in a valley, the plumes may move up and down the valley, or be blocked by
surrounding hills so that they do not spread out and disperse as expected.

Administrative controls

In addition to the technological systems, there is another group of controls that must be considered in the
overall design of an air pollution control system. For the large part, they come from the basic tools of
industrial hygiene.
Substitution

One of the preferred occupational hygiene methods for controlling environmental hazards in the workplace is
to substitute a safer material or process. If a safer process or material can be used, and harmful emissions
avoided, the type or efficacy of controls becomes academic. It is better to avoid the problem than it is to try to
correct a bad first decision. Examples of substitution include the use of cleaner fuels, covers for bulk storage
and reduced temperatures in dryers.

This applies to minor purchases as well as the major design criteria for the plant. If only environmentally safe
products or processes are purchased, there will be no risk to the environment, indoors or out. If the wrong
purchase is made, the remainder of the programme consists of trying to compensate for that first decision. If a
low-cost but hazardous product or process is purchased it may need special handling procedures and
equipment, and special disposal methods. As a result, the low-cost item may have only a low purchase price,
but a high price to use and dispose of it. Perhaps a safer but more expensive material or process would have
been less costly in the long run.

Local ventilation

Controls are required for all the identified problems that cannot be avoided by substituting safer materials or
methods. Emissions start at the individual worksite, not the stack. A ventilation system that captures and
controls emissions at the source will help protect the community if it is properly designed. The hoods and
ducts of the ventilation system are part of the total air pollution control system.

A local ventilation system is preferred. It does not dilute the contaminants, and provides a concentrated gas
stream that is easier to clean before release to the environment. Gas cleaning equipment is more efficient
when cleaning air with higher concentrations of contaminants. For example, a capture hood over the pouring
spout of a metal furnace will prevent contaminants from getting into the environment, and deliver the fumes
to the gas cleaning system. In table 55.13 it can be seen that cleaning efficiencies for absorption and
adsorption cleaners increase with the concentration of the contaminant, and condensation cleaners are not
recommended for low levels (<2,000 ppm) of contaminants.

If pollutants are not caught at the source and are allowed to escape through windows and ventilation openings,
they become uncontrolled fugitive emissions. In some cases, these uncontrolled fugitive emissions can have a
significant impact on the immediate neighbourhood.

Isolation

Isolation - locating the plant away from susceptible targets - can be a major control method when engineering
controls are inadequate by themselves. This may be the only means of achieving an acceptable level of control
when best available control technology (BACT) must be relied on. If, after applying the best available
controls, a target group is still at risk, consideration must be given to finding an alternate site where sensitive
populations are not present.

Isolation, as presented above, is a means of separating an individual plant from susceptible targets. Another
isolation system is where local authorities use zoning to separate classes of industries from susceptible targets.
Once industries have been separated from target populations, the population should not be allowed to relocate
next to the facility. Although this seems like common sense, it isnt employed as often as it should be.

Work procedures
Work procedures must be developed to ensure that equipment is used properly and safely, without risk to
workers or the environment. Complex air pollution systems must be properly maintained and operated if they
are to do their job as intended. An important factor in this is staff training. Staff must be trained in how to use
and maintain the equipment to reduce or eliminate the amount of hazardous materials emitted to the
workplace or the community. In some cases BACT relies on good practice to ensure acceptable results.

Real time monitoring

A system based on real time monitoring is not popular, and is not commonly used. In this case, continuous
emission and meteorological monitoring can be combined with dispersion modelling to predict downwind
exposures. When the predicted exposures approach the acceptable levels, the information is used to reduce
production rates and emissions. This is an inefficient method, but may be an acceptable interim control
method for an existing facility.

The converse of this to announce warnings to the public when conditions are such that excessive
concentrations of contaminants may exist, so that the public can take appropriate action. For example, if a
warning is sent out that atmospheric conditions are such that sulphur dioxide levels downwind of a smelter are
excessive, susceptible populations such as asthmatics would know not to go outside. Again, this may be an
acceptable interim control until permanent controls are installed.

Real time atmospheric and meteorological monitoring is sometimes used to avoid or reduce major air
pollution events where multiple sources may exist. When it becomes evident that excessive air pollution
levels are likely, the personal use of cars may be restricted and major emitting industries shut down.

Maintenance/housekeeping

In all cases the effectiveness of the controls depends on proper maintenance; the equipment has to operate as
intended. Not only must the air pollution controls be maintained and used as intended, but the processes
generating potential emissions must be maintained and operated properly. An example of an industrial process
is a wood chip dryer with a failing temperature controller; if the dryer is operated at too high a temperature, it
will emit more materials, and perhaps a different type of material, from the drying wood. An example of gas
cleaner maintenance affecting emissions would be a poorly maintained baghouse with broken bags, which
would allow particulates to pass through the filter.

Housekeeping also plays an important part in controlling total emissions. Dusts that are not quickly cleaned
up inside the plant can become re-entrained and present a hazard to staff. If the dusts are carried outside of the
plant, they are a community hazard. Poor housekeeping in the plant yard could present a significant risk to the
community. Uncovered bulk materials, plant wastes or vehicle-raised dusts can result in pollutants being
carried on the winds into the community. Keeping the yard clean, using proper containers or storage sites, is
important in reducing total emissions. A system must be not only designed properly, but used properly as well
if the community is to be protected.

A worst case example of poor maintenance and housekeeping would be the lead recovery plant with a broken
lead dust conveyor. The dust was allowed to escape from the conveyor until the pile was so high the dust
could slide down the pile and out a broken window. Local winds then carried the dust around the
neighbourhood.

Equipment for Emission Sampling

Source sampling can be carried out for several reasons:

To characterize the emissions. To design an air pollution control system, one must know what is being
emitted. Not only the volume of gas, but the amount, identity and, in the case of particulates, size distribution
of the material being emitted must be known. The same information is necessary to catalogue total emissions
in a neighbourhood.

To test equipment efficiency. After an air pollution control system has been purchased, it should be tested
to ensure that it is doing the intended job.

As part of a control system. When emissions are continuously monitored, the data can be used to fine tune
the air pollution control system, or the plant operation itself.

To determine compliance. When regulatory standards include emission limits, emission sampling can be
used to determine compliance or non-compliance with the standards.

The type of sampling system used will depend on the reason for taking the samples, costs, availability of
technology, and training of staff.

Visible emissions

Where there is a desire to reduce the soiling power of the air, improve visibility or prevent the introduction of
aerosols into the atmosphere, standards may be based on visible emissions.

Visible emissions are composed of small particles or coloured gases. The more opaque a plume is, the more
material is being emitted. This characteristic is evident to the sight, and trained observers can be used to
assess emission levels. There are several advantages to using this method of assessing emission standards:

No expensive equipment is required.

One person can make many observations in a day.

Plant operators can quickly assess the effects of process changes at low cost.

Violators can be cited without time-consuming source testing.

Questionable emissions can be located and the actual emissions then determined by source testing as
described in the following sections.

Extractive sampling

A much more rigorous sampling method calls for a sample of the gas stream to be removed from the stack and
analysed. Although this sounds simple, it does not translate into a simple sampling method.

The sample should be collected isokinetically, especially when particulates are being collected. Isokinetic
sampling is defined as sampling by drawing the sample into the sampling probe at the same velocity that the
material is moving in the stack or duct. This is done by measuring the velocity of the gas stream with a pitot
tube and then adjusting the sampling rate so that the sample enters the probe at the same velocity. This is
essential when sampling for particulates, since larger, heavier particles will not follow a change in direction or
velocity. As a result the concentration of larger particles in the sample will not be representative of the gas
stream and the sample will be inaccurate.

A sample train for sulphur dioxide is shown in figure 55.5 . It is not simple, and a trained operator is required
to ensure that a sample is collected properly. If something other than sulphur dioxide is to be sampled, the
impingers and ice bath can be removed and the appropriate collection device inserted.

Figure 55.5 A diagram of an isokinetic sampling train for sulphur dioxide

Extractive sampling, particularly isokinetic sampling, can be very accurate and versatile, and has several uses:
 It is a recognized sampling method with adequate quality controls, and thus can be used to determine
compliance with standards.

The potential accuracy of the method makes it suitable for performance testing of new control equipment.

Since samples can be collected and analysed under controlled laboratory conditions for many components,
it is useful for characterizing the gas stream.

A simplified and automated sampling system can be connected to a continuous gas (electrochemical,
ultraviolet-photometric or flame ionization sensors) or particulate (nephelometer) analyzer to continuously
monitor emissions. This can provide documentation of the emissions, and instantaneous operating status of
the air pollution control system.

In situ sampling

Emissions can also be sampled in the stack. Figure 55.6 is a representation of a simple transmissometer used
to measure materials in the gas stream. In this example, a beam of light is projected across the stack to a
photcell. The particulates or coloured gas will absorb or block some of the light. The more material, the less
light will get to the photocell. (See figure 55.6.)

Figure 55.6 A simple transmissometer to measure particulates in a stack

By using different light sources and detectors such as ultraviolet light (UV), gases transparent to visible light
can be detected. These devices can be tuned to specific gases, and thus can measure gas concentration in the
waste stream.

An in situ monitoring system has an advantage over an extractive system in that it can measure the
concentration across the entire stack or duct, whereas the extractive method measures concentrations only at
the point from which the sample was extracted. This can result in significant error if the sample gas stream is
not well mixed. However, the extractive method offers more methods of analysis, and thus perhaps can be
used in more applications.
Since the in situ system provides a continuous readout, it can be used to document emissions, or to fine tune
the operating system.

WATER POLLUTION CONTROL

Herbert C. Preul

This article is intended to provide the reader with an understanding of currently available technology for
approaching water pollution control, building on the discussion of trends and occurrence provided by
Hespanhol and Helmer in the chapter Environmental Health Hazards. The following sections address the
control of water pollution problems, first under the heading Surface Water Pollution Control and then under
the heading Groundwater Pollution Control.

Surface Water Pollution Control

Definition of water pollution

Water pollution refers to the qualitative state of impurity or uncleanliness in hydrologic waters of a certain
region, such as a watershed. It results from an occurrence or process which causes a reduction in the utility of
the earths waters, especially as related to human health and environmental effects. The pollution process
stresses the loss of purity through contamination, which further implies intrusion by or contact with an outside
source as the cause. The term tainted is applied to extremely low levels of water pollution, as in their initial
corruption and decay. Defilement is the result of pollution and suggests violation or desecration.

Hydrologic waters

The earths natural waters may be viewed as a continuously circulating system as shown in figure 55.7 ,
which provides a graphic illustration of waters in the hydrologic cycle, including both surface and subsurface
waters.

Figure 55.7 The hydrologic cycle

As a reference for water quality, distilled waters (H2O) represent the highest state of purity. Waters in the
hydrologic cycle may be viewed as natural, but are not pure. They become polluted from both natural and
human activities. Natural degradation effects may result from a myriad of sources - from fauna, flora, volcano
eruptions, lightning strikes causing fires and so on, which on a long-term basis are considered to be prevailing
background levels for scientific purposes.

Human-made pollution disrupts the natural balance by superimposing waste materials discharged from
various sources. Pollutants may be introduced into the waters of the hydrologic cycle at any point. For
example: atmospheric precipitation (rainfall) may become contaminated by air pollutants; surface waters may
become polluted in the runoff process from watersheds; sewage may be discharged into streams and rivers;
and groundwaters may become polluted through infiltration and underground contamination.

Figure 55.8 shows a distribution of hydrologic waters. Pollution is then superimposed on these waters and
may therefore be viewed as an unnatural or unbalanced environmental condition. The process of pollution
may occur in waters of any part of the hydrologic cycle, and is more obvious on the earths surface in the
form of runoff from watersheds into streams and rivers. However groundwater pollution is also of major
environmental impact and is discussed following the section on surface water pollution.

Figure 55.8 Distribution of precipitation

Watershed sources of water pollution

Watersheds are the originating domain of surface water pollution. A watershed is defined as an area of the
earths surface on which hydrologic waters fall, accumulate, are used, disposed of, and eventually are
discharged into streams, rivers or other bodies of water. It is comprised of a drainage system with ultimate
runoff or collection in a stream or river. Large river watersheds are usually referred to as drainage basins.
Figure 55.9 is a representation of the hydrologic cycle on a regional watershed. For a region, the disposition
of the various waters can be written as a simple equation, which is the basic equation of hydrology as written
by Viessman, Lewis and Knapp (1989); typical units are mm/year:

P - R - G - E - T = S

where:
 P = precipitation (i.e., rainfall, snowfall, hail)

R = runoff or watershed surface flow

G = groundwater

E = evaporation

T = transpiration

S = surface storage

Figure 55.9 Regional hydrologic cycle

Precipitation is viewed as the initiating form in the above hydrologic budget. The term runoff is synonymous
with stream flow. Storage refers to reservoirs or detention systems which collect waters; for example, a
human-made dam (barrage) on a river creates a reservoir for purposes of water storage. Groundwater collects
as a storage system and may flow from one location to another; it may be influent or effluent in relation to
surface streams. Evaporation is a water surface phenomenon, and transpiration is associated with transmission
from biota.

Although watersheds may vary greatly in size, certain drainage systems for water pollution designation are
classified as urban or non-urban (agricultural, rural, undeveloped) in character. Pollution occurring within
these drainage systems originates from the following sources:

Point sources: waste discharges into a receiving water body at a specific location, at a point such as a sewer
pipe or some type of concentrated system outlet.

Non-point (dispersed) sources: pollution entering a receiving water body from dispersed sources in the
watershed; uncollected rainfall runoff water drainage into a stream is typical. Non-point sources are also
sometimes referred to as diffuse waters; however, the term dispersed is seen as more descriptive.

Intermittent sources: from a point or source which discharges under certain circumstances, such as with
overloaded conditions; combined sewer overflows during heavy rainfall runoff periods are typical.

Water pollutants in streams and rivers

When deleterious waste materials from the above sources are discharged into streams or other bodies of water,
they become pollutants which have been classified and described in a previous section. Pollutants or
contaminants which enter a body of water can be further divided into:

degradable (non-conservative) pollutants: impurities which eventually decompose into harmless

substances or which may be removed by treatment methods; that is, certain organic materials and chemicals,
domestic sewage, heat, plant nutrients, most bacteria and viruses, certain sediments

non-degradable (conservative) pollutants: impurities which persist in the water environment and do not
reduce in concentration unless diluted or removed through treatment; that is, certain organic and inorganic
chemicals, salts, colloidal suspensions

hazardous waterborne pollutants: complex forms of deleterious wastes including toxic trace metals,
certain inorganic and organic compounds

radionuclide pollutants: materials which have been subjected to a radioactive source.

Water pollution control regulations

Broadly applicable water pollution control regulations are generally promulgated by national governmental
agencies, with more detailed regulations by states, provinces, municipalities, water districts, conservation
districts, sanitation commissions and others. At the national and state (or province) levels, environmental
protection agencies (EPAs) and ministries of health are usually charged with this responsibility. In the
discussion of regulations below, the format and certain portions follow the example of the water quality
standards currently applicable for the US State of Ohio.
Water quality use designations

The ultimate goal in the control of water pollution would be zero discharge of pollutants to water bodies;
however, complete achievement of this objective is usually not cost effective. The preferred approach is to set
limitations on waste disposal discharges for the reasonable protection of human health and the environment.
Although these standards may vary widely in different jurisdictions, use designations for specific bodies of
water are commonly the basis, as briefly addressed below.

Water supplies include:

public water supply: waters which with conventional treatment will be suitable for human consumption

agricultural supply: waters suitable for irrigation and livestock watering without treatment

industrial/commercial supply: waters suitable for industrial and commercial uses with or without
treatment.

Recreational activities include:

bathing waters: waters which during certain seasons are suitable for swimming as approved for water
quality along with protective conditions and facilities

primary contact: waters which during certain seasons are suitable for full body contact recreation such as
swimming, canoeing and underwater diving with minimal threat to public health as a result of water quality

secondary contact: waters which during certain seasons are suitable for partial body contact recreation
such as, but not limited to, wading, with minimal threat to public health as a result of water quality.

Public water resources are categorized as water bodies which lie within park systems, wetland, wildlife areas,
wild, scenic and recreational rivers and publicly owned lakes, and waters of exceptional recreational or
ecological significance.

Aquatic life habitats

Typical designations will vary according to climates, but relate to conditions in water bodies for supporting
and maintaining certain aquatic organisms, especially various species of fish. For example, use designations in
a temperate climate as subdivided in regulations for the State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) are listed below without detailed descriptions:

warmwater

limited warmwater

exceptional warmwater

modified warmwater

seasonal salmonid
 coldwater

limited resource water.

Water pollution control criteria

Natural waters and wastewaters are characterized in terms of their physical, chemical and biological
composition. The principal physical properties and the chemical and biological constituents of wastewater and
their sources are a lengthy list, reported in a textbook by Metcalf and Eddy (1991). Analytical methods for
these determinations are given in a widely used manual entitled Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Waste Water by the American Public Health Association (1995).

Each designated water body should be controlled according to regulations which may be comprised of both
basic and more detailed numerical criteria as briefly discussed below.

Basic freedom from pollution. To the extent practical and possible, all bodies of water should attain the basic
criteria of the Five Freedoms from Pollution:

1. free from suspended solids or other substances that enter the waters as a result of human activity and that
will settle to form putrid or otherwise objectionable sludge deposits, or that will adversely affect aquatic life

2. free from floating debris, oil, scum and other floating materials entering the waters as a result of human
activity in amounts sufficient to be unsightly or cause degradation

3. free from materials entering the waters as a result of human activity, producing colour, odour or other
conditions in such degree as to create a nuisance

4. free from substances entering the waters as a result of human activity, in concentrations that are toxic or
harmful to human, animal or aquatic life and/or are rapidly lethal in the mixing zone

5. free from nutrients entering the waters as a result of human activity, in concentrations that create
nuisance growths of aquatic weeds and algae.

Water quality criteria are numerical limitations and guidelines for the control of chemical, biological and toxic
constituents in bodies of water.

With over 70,000-plus chemical compounds in use today it is impractical to specify the control of each.
However, criteria for chemicals can be established on the basis of limitations as they first of all relate to three
major classes of consumption and exposure:

Class 1: Chemical criteria for protection of human health are of first major concern and should be set
according to recommendations from governmental health agencies, the WHO and recognized health research
organizations.

Class 2: Chemical criteria for control of agricultural water supply should be based on recognized scientific
studies and recommendations which will protect against adverse effects on crops and livestock as a result of
crop irrigation and livestock watering.
Class 3: Chemical criteria for protection of aquatic life should be based on recognized scientific studies
regarding the sensitivity of these species to specific chemicals and also as related to human consumption of
fish and sea foods.

Wastewater effluent criteria relate to limitations on pollutant constituents present in wastewater effluents and
are a further method of control. They may be set as related to the water use designations of bodies of water
and as they relate to the above classes for chemical criteria.

Biological criteria are based on water body habitat conditions which are needed to support aquatic life.

Organic content of wastewaters and natural waters

The gross content of organic matter is most important in characterizing the pollutional strength of both
wastewater and natural waters. Three laboratory tests are commonly used for this purpose:

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): five-day BOD (BOD5) is the most widely used parameter; this test
measures the dissolved oxygen used by micro-organisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter over
this period.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD): this test is to measure the organic matter in municipal and industrial wastes
that contain compounds that are toxic to biological life; it is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic
matter that can be oxidized.

Total organic carbon (TOC): this test is especially applicable to small concentrations of organic matter in
water; it is a measure of the organic matter that is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

Antidegradation policy regulations

Antidegradation policy regulations are a further approach for preventing the spread of water pollution beyond
certain prevailing conditions. As an example, the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency Water Quality
Standards antidegradation policy consists of three tiers of protection:

Tier 1: Existing uses must be maintained and protected. No further water quality degradation is allowed that
would interfere with existing designated uses.

Tier 2: Next, water quality better than that needed to protect uses must be maintained unless it is shown that a
lower water quality is necessary for important economic or social development, as determined by the EPA
Director.

Tier 3: Finally, the quality of water resource waters must be maintained and protected. Their existing ambient
water quality is not to be degraded by any substances determined to be toxic or to interfere with any
designated use. Increased pollutant loads are allowed to be discharged into water bodies if they do not result
in lowering existing water quality.

Water pollution discharge mixing zones and waste load allocation modelling

Mixing zones are areas in a body of water which allow for treated or untreated wastewater discharges to attain
stabilized conditions, as illustrated in figure 55.10 for a flowing stream. The discharge is initially in a
transitory state which becomes progressively diluted from the source concentration to the receiving water
conditions. It is not to be considered as a treatment entity and may be delineated with specific restrictions.

Figure 55.10 Mixing zones

Typically, mixing zones must not:

interfere with migration, survival, reproduction or growth of aquatic species

include spawning or nursery areas

include public water supply intakes

include bathing areas

constitute more than 1/2 the width of a stream

constitute more than 1/2 the cross-sectional area of a stream mouth

extend downstream for a distance more than five times the stream width.

Waste load allocation studies have become important because of the high cost of nutrient control of
wastewater discharges to avoid instream eutrophication (defined below). These studies generally employ the
use of computer models for simulation of water quality conditions in a stream, particularly with regard to
nutrients such as forms of nitrogen and phosphorous, which affect the dissolved oxygen dynamics. Traditional
water quality models of this type are represented by the US EPA model QUAL2E, which has been described
by Brown and Barnwell (1987). A more recent model proposed by Taylor (1995) is the Omni Diurnal Model
(ODM), which includes a simulation of the impact of rooted vegetation on instream nutrient and dissolved
oxygen dynamics.

Variance provisions
All water pollution control regulations are limited in perfection and therefore should include provisions which
allow for judgemental variance based on certain conditions which may prevent immediate or complete
compliance.

Risk assessment and management as related to water pollution

The above water pollution control regulations are typical of worldwide governmental approaches for
achieving compliance with water quality standards and wastewater effluent discharge limits. Generally these
regulations have been set on the basis of health factors and scientific research; where some uncertainty exists
as to possible effects, safety factors often are applied. Implementation of certain of these regulations may be
unreasonable and exceedingly costly for the public at large as well as for private enterprise. Therefore there is
a growing concern for more efficient allocation of resources in achieving goals for water quality
improvement. As previously pointed out in the discussion of hydrologic waters, pristine purity does not exist
even in naturally occurring waters.

A growing technological approach encourages assessment and management of ecological risks in the setting
of water pollution regulations. The concept is based on an analysis of the ecological benefits and costs in
meeting standards or limits. Parkhurst (1995) has proposed the application of aquatic ecological risk
assessment as an aid in setting water pollution control limits, particularly as applicable for the protection of
aquatic life. Such risk assessment methods may be applied to estimate the ecological effects of chemical
concentrations for a broad range of surface water pollution conditions including:

point source pollution

non-point source pollution

existing contaminated sediments in stream channels

hazardous wastes sites as related to water bodies

analysis of existing water pollution control criteria.

The proposed method consists of three tiers; as shown in figure 55.11 which illustrates the approach.

Figure 55.11 Methods for conducting risk assessment for successive tiers of analysis. Tier 1: Screening
level; Tier 2: Quantification of potentially significant risks ; Tier 3: Site-specific risk quantification
Water pollution in lakes and reservoirs

Lakes and reservoirs provide for the volumetric storage of watershed inflow and may have long flushing time
periods as compared with the rapid inflow and outflow for a reach in a flowing stream. Therefore they are of
special concern with regard to the retention of certain constituents, especially nutrients including forms of
nitrogen and phosphorous which promote eutrophication. Eutrophication is a natural ageing process in which
the water content becomes organically enriched, leading to the domination of undesirable aquatic growth,
such as algae, water hyacinth and so on. The eutrophic process tends to decrease aquatic life and has
detrimental dissolved oxygen effects. Both natural and cultural sources of nutrients may promote the process,
as illustrated by Preul (1974) in figure 55.12 , showing a schematic listing of nutrient sources and sinks for
Lake Sunapee, in the US State of New Hampshire.
Figure 55.12 Schematic listing of nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) sources and sinks for Lake
Sunapee, New Hampshire (US)

Lakes and reservoirs, of course, can be sampled and analysed to determine their trophic status. Analytical
studies usually start with a basic nutrient balance such as the following:

(lake influent nutrients) = (lake effluent nutrients) + (nutrient retention in lake)

This basic balance can be further expanded to include the various sources shown in figure 55.12 .
Flushing time is an indication of the relative retention aspects of a lake system. Shallow lakes, such as Lake
Erie, have relatively short flushing times and are associated with advanced eutrophication because shallow
lakes often are more conducive to aquatic plant growth. Deep lakes such as Lake Tahoe and Lake Superior
have very long flushing periods, which are usually associated with lakes with minimal eutrophication because
up to the present time, they have not been overloaded and also because their extreme depths are not conducive
to extensive aquatic plant growth except in the epilimnion (upper zone). Lakes in this category are generally
classified as oligotrophic, on the basis that they are relatively low in nutrients and support minimal aquatic
growth such as algae.

It is of interest to compare the flushing times of some major US lakes as reported by Pecor (1973) using the
following calculation basis:

lake flushing time (LFT) = (lake storage volume)/(lake outflow)

Some examples are: Lake Wabesa (Michigan), LFT=0.30 years; Houghton Lake (Michigan), 1.4 years; Lake
Erie, 2.6 years; Lake Superior, 191 years; Lake Tahoe, 700 years.

Although the relationship between the process of eutrophication and nutrient content is complex, phosphorous
is typically recognized as the limiting nutrient. Based on fully mixed conditions, Sawyer (1947) reported that
algal blooms tend to occur if nitrogen values exceed 0.3 mg/l and phosphorous exceeds 0.01 mg/l. In stratified
lakes and reservoirs, low dissolved oxygen levels in the hypoliminion are early signs of eutrophication.
Vollenweider (1968, 1969) has developed critical loading levels of total phosphorous and total nitrogen for a
number of lakes based on nutrient loadings, mean depths and trophic states. For a comparison of work on this
subject, Dillon (1974) has published a critical review of Vollenweiders nutrient budget model and other
related models. More recent computer models are also available for simulating nitrogen/phosphorous cycles
with temperature variations.

Water pollution in estuaries

An estuary is an intermediate passageway of water between the mouth of a river and a sea coast. This
passageway is comprised of a river mouth channel reach with river inflow (fresh water) from upstream and
outflow discharge on the downstream side into a constantly changing tailwater level of sea water (salt water).
Estuaries are continuously affected by tidal fluctuations and are among the most complex bodies of water
encountered in water pollution control. The dominant features of an estuary are variable salinity, a salt wedge
or interface between salt and fresh water, and often large areas of shallow, turbid water overlying mud flats
and salt marshes. Nutrients are largely supplied to an estuary from the inflowing river and combine with the
sea water habitat to provide prolific production of biota and sea life. Especially desired are seafoods harvested
from estuaries.

From a water pollution standpoint, estuaries are individually complex and generally require special
investigations employing extensive field studies and computer modelling. For a further basic understanding,
the reader is referred to Reish 1979, on marine and estuarine pollution; and to Reid and Wood 1976, on the
ecology of inland waters and estuaries.

Water pollution in marine environments

Oceans may be viewed as the ultimate receiving water or sink, since wastes carried by rivers finally discharge
into this marine environment. Although oceans are vast bodies of salt water with seemingly unlimited
assimilation capacity, pollution tends to blight coastlines and further affects marine life.
Sources of marine pollutants include many of those encountered in land-based wastewater environments plus
more as related to marine operations. A limited list is given below:

domestic sewage and sludge, industrial wastes, solid wastes, shipboard wastes

fishery wastes, sediments and nutrients from rivers and land runoff

oil spills, offshore oil exploration and production wastes, dredge operations

heat, radioactive wastes, waste chemicals, pesticides and herbicides.

Each of the above requires special handling and methods of control. The discharge of domestic sewage and
sewage sludges through ocean outfalls is perhaps the major source of marine pollution.

For current technology on this subject, the reader is referred to the book on marine pollution and its control by
Bishop (1983).

Techniques for reducing pollution in wastewater discharges

Large-scale wastewater treatment is typically carried out by municipalities, sanitary districts, industries,
commercial enterprises and various pollution control commissions. The purpose here is to describe
contemporary methods of municipal wastewater treatment and then to provide some insights regarding
treatment of industrial wastes and more advanced methods.

In general, all processes of wastewater treatment may be grouped into physical, chemical or biological types,
and one or more of these may be employed to achieve a desired effluent product. This classification grouping
is most appropriate in the understanding of wastewater treatment approaches and is tabulated in table 55.15 .

Table 55.15 General classification of wastewater treatment operations and processes

Physical Operations Chemical Processes Biological Processes

Flow measurement Precipitation Aerobic action

Screening/grit removal Neutralization Anaerobic action

Mixing Adsorption Aerobic-anaerobic

combinations
Flocculation Disinfection

Sedimentation Chemical oxidation

Flotation Chemical reduction

Filtration Incineration

Drying Ion exchange

Distillation Electrodialysis

Centrifuging

Freezing

Reverse osmosis

Contemporary methods of wastewater treatment

The coverage here is limited and is intended to provide a conceptual overview of current wastewater treatment
practices around the world rather than detailed design data. For the latter, the reader is referred to Metcalf and
Eddy 1991.

Municipal wastewaters along with some intermingling of industrial/commercial wastes are treated in systems
commonly employing primary, secondary and tertiary treatment as follows:

Primary treatment system: Pre-treat Primary settling Disinfection (chlorination) Effluent

Secondary treatment system: Pre-treat Primary settling Biological unit Second settling
Disinfection (chlorination) Effluent to stream

Tertiary treatment system: Pre-treat Primary settling Biological unit Second settling Tertiary unit
Disinfection (chlorination) Effluent to stream

Figure 55.13 further shows a schematic diagram of a conventional wastewater treatment system. Overview
descriptions of the above processes follow.

Figure 55.13 Schematic diagram of conventional wastewater treatment

Primary treatment
The basic objective of primary treatment for municipal wastewaters, including domestic sewage intermingled
with some industrial/commercial wastes, is to remove suspended solids and clarify the wastewater, to make it
suitable for biological treatment. After some pre-treatment handling such as screening, grit removal and
comminution, the main process of primary sedimentation is the settling of the raw wastewater in large settling
tanks for periods up to several hours. This process removes from 50 to 75% of the total suspended solids,
which are drawn off as an underflow sludge collected for separate treatment. The overflow effluent from the
process then is directed for secondary treatment. In certain cases, chemicals may be employed to improve the
degree of primary treatment.

Secondary treatment

The portion of the organic content of the wastewater which is finely suspended or dissolved and not removed
in the primary process, is treated by secondary treatment. The generally accepted forms of secondary
treatment in common use include trickling filters, biological contactors such as rotating discs, activated
sludge, waste stabilization ponds, aerated pond systems and land application methods, including wetland
systems. All of these systems will be recognized as employing biological processes of some form or another.
The most common of these processes are briefly discussed below.

Biological contactor systems. Trickling filters are one of the earliest forms of this method for secondary
treatment and are still widely used with some improved methods of application. In this treatment, the effluent
from the primary tanks is applied uniformly onto a bed of media, such as rock or synthetic plastic media.
Uniform distribution is accomplished typically by trickling the liquid from perforated piping rotated over the
bed intermittently or continuously according to the desired process. Depending on the rate of organic and
hydraulic loadings, trickling filters can remove up to 95% of the organic content, usually analysed as
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). There are numerous other more recent biological contactor systems in
use which can provide treatment removals in the same range; some of these methods offer special advantages,
particularly applicable in certain limiting conditions such as space, climate and so on. It is to be noted that a
following secondary settling tank is considered to be a necessary part of completing the process. In secondary
settling, some so-called humus sludge is drawn off as an underflow, and the overflow is discharged as a
secondary effluent.

Activated sludge. In the most common form of this biological process, primary treated effluent flows into an
activated sludge unit tank containing a previously existing biological suspension called activated sludge. This
mixture is referred to as mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) and is provided a contact period typically
ranging from several hours up to 24 hours or more, depending on the desired results. During this period the
mixture is highly aerated and agitated to promote aerobic biological activity. As the process finalizes, a
portion of the mixture (MLSS) is drawn off and returned to the influent for continuation of the biological
activation process. Secondary settling is provided following the activated sludge unit for the purpose of
settling out the activated sludge suspension and discharging a clarified overflow as an effluent. The process is
capable of removing up to about 95% of the influent BOD.

Tertiary treatment

A third level of treatment may be provided where a higher degree of pollutant removal is required. This form
of treatment may typically include sand filtration, stabilization ponds, land disposal methods, wetlands and
other systems which further stabilize the secondary effluent.

Disinfection of effluents
Disinfection is commonly required to reduce bacteria and pathogens to acceptable levels. Chlorination,
chlorine dioxide, ozone and ultraviolet light are the most commonly used processes.

Overall wastewater treatment plant efficiency

Wastewaters include a broad range of constituents which generally are classified as suspended and dissolved
solids, inorganic constituents and organic constituents.

The efficiency of a treatment system can be measured in terms of the percentage removal of these
constituents. Common parameters of measurement are:

BOD: biochemical oxygen demand, measured in mg/l

COD: chemical oxygen demand, measured in mg/l

TSS: total suspended solids, measured in mg/l

TDS: total dissolved solids, measured in mg/l

nitrogen forms: including nitrate and ammonia, measured in mg/l (nitrate is of particular concern as a
nutrient in eutrophication)

phosphate: measured in mg/l (also of particular concern as a nutrient in eutrophication)

pH: degree of acidity, measured as a number from 1 (most acid) to 14 (most alkaline)

coliform bacteria counts: measured as most probable number per 100 ml (Escherichia and fecal coliform
bacteria are most common indicators).

Industrial wastewater treatment

Types of industrial wastes

Industrial (non-domestic) wastes are numerous and vary greatly in composition; they may be highly acidic or
alkaline, and often require a detailed laboratory analysis. Specialized treatment may be necessary to render
them innocuous before discharge. Toxicity is of great concern in the disposal of industrial wastewaters.

Representative industrial wastes include: pulp and paper, slaughterhouse, brewery, tannery, food processing,
cannery, chemical, petroleum, textile, sugar, laundry, meat and poultry, hog feeding, rendering and many
others. The initial step in treatment design development is an industrial waste survey, which provides data on
variations in flow and waste characteristics. Undesirable waste characteristics as listed by Eckenfelder (1989)
can be summarized as follows:

soluble organics causing depletion of dissolved oxygen

suspended solids

trace organics
 heavy metals, cyanide and toxic organics

colour and turbidity

nitrogen and phosphorus

refractory substances resistant to biodegradation

oil and floating material

volatile materials.

The US EPA has further defined a list of toxic organic and inorganic chemicals with specific limitations in
granting discharge permits. The list includes more than 100 compounds and is too long to reprint here, but
may be requested from the EPA.

Treatment methods

The handling of industrial wastes is more specialized than the treatment of domestic wastes; however, where
amenable to biological reduction, they are usually treated using methods similar to those previously described
(secondary/tertiary biological treatment approaches) for municipal systems.

Waste stabilization ponds are a common method of organic wastewater treatment where sufficient land area is
available. Flow-through ponds are generally classified according to their bacterial activity as aerobic,
facultative or anaerobic. Aerated ponds are supplied with oxygen by diffused or mechanical aeration systems.

Figure 55.14 and figure 55.15 show sketches of waste stabilization ponds.

Figure 55.14 Two-cell stabilization pond: cross sectional diagram

Figure 55.15 Aerated lagoon types: schematic diagram

Pollution prevention and waste minimization

When industrial waste in-plant operations and processes are analysed at their source, they often can be
controlled so as to prevent significant polluting discharges.
Recirculation techniques are important approaches in pollution prevention programmes. A case study example
is a recycling plan for a leather tannery wastewater effluent published by Preul (1981), which included
chrome recovery/reuse along with the complete recirculation of all tannery wastewaters with no effluent to
any stream except in emergencies. The flow diagram for this system is shown in figure 55.16 .

Figure 55.16 Flow diagram for tannery wastewater effluent recycling system
For more recent innovations in this technology, the reader is referred to a publication on pollution prevention
and waste minimization by the Water Environment Federation (1995).

Advanced methods of wastewater treatment

A number of advanced methods are available for higher degrees of removal of pollution constituents as may
be required. A general listing includes:

filtration (sand and multimedia)

chemical precipitation

carbon adsorption

electrodialysis

distillation

nitrification

algae harvesting

reclamation of effluents

micro-straining

ammonia stripping

reverse osmosis

ion exchange

land application

denitrification

wetlands.

The most appropriate process for any situation must be determined on the basis of the quality and quantity of
the raw wastewater, the receiving water requirements and, of course, costs. For further reference, see Metcalf
and Eddy 1991, which includes a chapter on advanced wastewater treatment.

Advanced wastewater treatment case study

The case study of the Dan Region Sewage Reclamation Project discussed elsewhere in this chapter provides
an excellent example of innovative methods for wastewater treatment and reclamation.

Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is a form of industrial waste, defined as deleterious increases or reductions in normal water
temperatures of receiving waters caused by the disposal of heat from human-made facilities. The industries
producing major waste heat are fossil fuel (oil, gas and coal) and nuclear power generating plants, steel mills,
petroleum refineries, chemical plants, pulp and paper mills, distilleries and laundries. Of particular concern is
the electric power generating industry which supplies energy for many countries (e.g., about 80% in the US).

Impact of waste heat on receiving waters

Influence on waste assimilation capacity

Heat increases biological oxidation.

Heat decreases oxygen saturation content of water and decreases rate of natural reoxygenation.

The net effect of heat is generally detrimental during warm months of year.

Winter effect may be beneficial in colder climates, where ice conditions are broken up and surface
aeration is provided for fish and aquatic life.

Influence on aquatic life

Many species have temperature tolerance limits and need protection, particularly in heat affected reaches of a
stream or body of water. For example, cold water streams usually have the highest type of sport fish such as
trout and salmon, whereas warm waters generally support coarse fish populations, with certain species such as
pike and bass fish in intermediate temperature waters.

Thermal analysis in receiving waters

Figure 55.17 illustrates the various forms of natural heat exchange at the boundaries of a receiving water.
When heat is discharged to a receiving water such as a river, it is important to analyse the river capacity for
thermal additions. The temperature profile of a river can be calculated by solving a heat balance similar to that
used in calculating dissolved oxygen sag curves. The principal factors of the heat balance are illustrated in
figure 55.18 for a river reach between points A and B. Each factor requires an individual calculation
dependent on certain heat variables. As with a dissolved oxygen balance, the temperature balance is simply a
summation of temperature assets and liabilities for a given section. Other more sophisticated analytical
approaches are available in the literature on this subject. The results from the heat balance calculations can be
used in establishing heat discharge limitations and possibly certain use constraints for a body of water.

Figure 55.17 Heat exchange at the boundaries of a receiving water cross section
Figure 55.18 River capacity for thermal additions

Thermal pollution control

The main approaches for the control of thermal pollution are:

improved power plant operation efficiencies

 cooling towers

isolated cooling ponds

consideration of alternative methods of power generation such as hydro-power.

Where physical conditions are favourable within certain environmental limits, hydro-electric power should be
considered as an alternative to fossil-fuel or nuclear power generation. In hydro-electric power generation,
there is no disposal of heat and there is no discharge of waste waters causing water pollution.

Groundwater Pollution Control

Importance of groundwater

Since the worlds water supplies are widely extracted from aquifers, it is most important that these sources of
supply be protected. It is estimated that more than 95% of the earths available fresh water supply is
underground; in the United States approximately 50% of the drinking water comes from wells, according to
the 1984 US Geological Survey. Because underground water pollution and movement are of subtle and
unseen nature, less attention sometimes is given to the analysis and control of this form of water degradation
than to surface water pollution, which is far more obvious.

Sources of underground pollution

Figure 55.19 shows the hydrologic cycle with superimposed sources of groundwater contamination. A
complete listing of the potential sources of underground pollution is extensive; however, for illustration the
most obvious sources include:

industrial waste discharges

polluted streams in contact with aquifers

mining operations

solid and hazardous waste disposal

underground storage tanks such as for petroleum

irrigation systems

artificial recharge

sea water encroachment

spills

polluted ponds with permeable bottoms

disposal wells
 septic tank tile fields and leaching pits

improper well drilling

agricultural operations

roadway de-icing salts.

Figure 55.19 Hydrologic cycle and sources of groundwater contamination

Specific pollutants in underground contamination are further categorized as:

undesirable chemical constituents (typical, not complete list) - organic and inorganic (e.g., chloride,
sulphate, iron, manganese, sodium, potassium)

total hardness and total dissolved solids

 toxic constituents (typical, not complete list) - nitrate, arsenic, chromium, lead, cyanide, copper, phenols,
dissolved mercury

undesirable physical characteristics - taste, colour and odour

pesticides and herbicides - chlorinated hydrocarbons and others

radioactive materials - various forms of radioactivity

biological - bacteria, viruses, parasites and so on

acid (low pH) or caustic (high pH).

Of the above, nitrates are of special concern in both ground waters and surface waters. In groundwater
supplies, nitrates can cause the disease methaemoglobinaemia (infant cyanosis). They further cause
detrimental eutrophication effects in surface waters and occur in a wide range of water resources, as reported
by Preul (1991). Preul (1964, 1967, 1972) and Preul and Schroepfer (1968) have also reported on the
underground movement of nitrogen and other pollutants.

Pollution travel in underground domain

Groundwater movement is exceedingly slow and subtle as compared with the travel of surface waters in the
hydrologic cycle. For a simple understanding of the travel of ordinary groundwater under ideal steady flow
conditions, Darcys Law is the basic approach for the evaluation of groundwater movement at low Reynolds
numbers (R):

V = K(dh/dl)

where:

V = velocity of groundwater in aquifer, m/day

K = coefficient of permeability of aquifer

(dh/dl) = hydraulic gradient which represents the driving force for movement.

In pollutant travel underground, ordinary groundwater (H2O) is generally the carrying fluid and can be
calculated to move at a rate according to the parameters in Darcys Law. However, the rate of travel or
velocity of a pollutant, such as an organic or inorganic chemical, may be different due to advection and
hydrodynamic dispersion processes. Certain ions move slower or faster than the general rate of groundwater
flow as a result of reactions within the aquifer media, so that they can be categorized as reacting or non-
reacting. Reactions are generally of the following forms:

physical reactions between the pollutant and the aquifer and/or the transporting liquid

chemical reactions between the pollutant and the aquifer and/or the transporting liquid

biological actions on the pollutant.

The following are typical of reacting and non-reacting underground pollutants:

reacting pollutants - chromium, ammonium ion, calcium, sodium, iron and so on; cations in general;
biological constituents; radioactive constituents

non-reacting pollutants - chloride, nitrate, sulphate and so on; certain anions; certain pesticide and
herbicide chemicals.

At first, it might seem that reacting pollutants are the worst type, but this may not always be the case because
the reactions detain or retard pollutant travel concentrations whereas non-reacting pollutant travel may be
largely uninhibited. Certain soft domestic and agricultural products are now available which biologically
degrade after a period of time and therefore avoid the possibility of groundwater contamination.

Aquifer remediation

Prevention of underground pollution is obviously the best approach; however, uncontrolled existence of
polluted groundwater conditions usually is made known after its occurrence, such as by complaints from
water well users in the area. Unfortunately, by the time the problem is recognized, severe damage may have
occurred and remediation is necessary. Remediation may require extensive hydro-geological field
investigations with laboratory analyses of water samples in order to establish the extent of pollutant
concentrations and travel plumes. Often existing wells can be used in initial sampling, but severe cases may
require extensive borings and water samplings. These data can then be analysed to establish current conditions
and to make future condition predictions. The analysis of groundwater contamination travel is a specialized
field often requiring the use of computer models to better understand the groundwater dynamics and to make
predictions under various constraints. A number of two- and three-dimensional computer models are available
in the literature for this purpose. For more detailed analytical approaches, the reader is referred to the book by
Freeze and Cherry (1987).

Pollution prevention

The preferred approach for the protection of groundwater resources is pollution prevention. Although drinking
water standards generally apply to the use of groundwater supplies, the raw water supplies require protection
from contamination. Governmental entities such as ministries of health, natural resources agencies, and
environmental protection agencies are generally responsible for such activities. Groundwater pollution control
efforts are largely directed at protection of aquifers and the prevention of pollution.

Pollution prevention requires land-use controls in the form of zoning and certain regulations. Laws may apply
to the prevention of specific functions as particularly applicable to point sources or actions which potentially
may cause pollution. Control by land-use zoning is a groundwater protection tool which is most effective at
the municipal or county level of government. Aquifer and wellhead protection programmes as discussed
below are leading examples of pollution prevention.

An aquifer protection programme requires establishing the boundaries of the aquifer and its recharge areas.
Aquifers may be of an unconfined or confined type, and therefore need to be analysed by a hydrologist to
make this determination. Most major aquifers are generally well known in developed countries, but other
areas may require field investigations and hydrogeologic analysis. The key element of the programme in the
protection of the aquifer from water quality degradation is control of land use over the aquifer and its recharge
areas.
Wellhead protection is a more definitive and limited approach which applies to the recharge area contributing
to a particular well. The US federal government by amendments passed in 1986 to the Safe Drinking Water
Act (SDWA) (1984) now requires that specific wellhead protection areas be established for public supply
wells. The wellhead protection area (WHPA) is defined in the SDWA as the surface and subsurface area
surrounding a water well or well field, supplying a public water supply system, through which contaminants
are reasonably likely to move toward and reach such water well or well field. The main objective in the
WHPA programme, as outlined by the US EPA (1987), is the delineation of well protection areas based on
selected criteria, well operation and hydrogeologic considerations.

DAN REGION SEWAGE RECLAMATION PROJECT: A CASE STUDY

Alexander Donagi

Conception and Design

The Dan Region Reclamation Project of municipal wastewater is the biggest project of its kind in the world. It
consists of facilities for treatment and groundwater recharge of municipal wastewater from the Dan Region
Metropolitan Area - an eight-city conglomerate centred around Tel Aviv, Israel, with a combined population
of about 1.5 million inhabitants. The project was created for the purpose of collection, treatment and disposal
of municipal wastewater. The reclaimed effluent, after a relatively long detention period in the underground
aquifer, is pumped for unrestricted agricultural use, irrigating the arid Negev (the southern part of Israel). A
general scheme of the project is given in figure 55.20 . The project was established in the 1960s, and has been
growing continuously. At present, the system collects and treats about 110 106 m3 per year. Within a few
years, at its final stage, the system will handle 150 to 170 106 m3 per year.

Figure 55.20 Dan Region Sewage Reclamation Plant: layout

Sewage treatment plants are known to create a multitude of environmental and occupational health problems.
The Dan Region project is a unique system of national importance that combines national benefit together
with considerable saving of water resources, high treatment efficiency and production of inexpensive water,
without creating excessive occupational hazards.

Throughout the design, installation and routine operation of the system, careful consideration has been given
to water sanitation and occupational hygiene concerns. All necessary precautions have been taken to ensure
that the reclaimed wastewater will be practically as safe as regular drinking water, in the event that people
accidentally drink or swallow it. Similarly, appropriate attention has been given to the issue of reducing to the
minimum any potential exposure to accidents or other biological, chemical or physical hazards that may affect
either the workers at the wastewater treatment plant proper or other workers engaged in the disposal and
agricultural use of the reclaimed water.

At Stage One of the project, the wastewater was biologically treated by a system of facultative oxidation
ponds with recirculation and additional chemical treatment by a lime-magnesium process, followed by
detention of the high-pH effluent in polishing ponds. The partially treated effluent was recharged to the
regional groundwater aquifer by means of the Soreq spreading basins.

At Stage Two, the wastewater conveyed to the treatment plant undergoes mechanical-biological treatment by
means of an activated-sludge process with nitrification-denitrification. The secondary effluent is recharged to
the groundwater by means of the spreading basins Yavneh 1 and Yavneh 2.

The complete system consists of a number of different elements complementing each other:

a wastewater treatment plant system, comprised of an activated-sludge plant (the biomechanical plant),
which treats most of the wastes, and of a system of oxidation and polishing ponds used mostly for treatment
of excess sewage flows

a groundwater recharge system for the treated effluent, which consists of spreading basins, at two
different sites (Yavneh and Soreq), that are intermittently flooded; the absorbed effluent passes through the
soils unsaturated zone and through a portion of the aquifer, and creates a special zone that is dedicated to
complementary effluent treatment and seasonal storage, which is called SAT (soil-aquifer-treatment)

networks of observation wells (53 wells all together) which surround the recharge basins and allow the
monitoring of the efficiency of the treatment process

networks of recovery wells (a total of 74 active wells in 1993) which surround the recharge sites

a special and separate reclaimed water conveyance main for unrestricted irrigation of agricultural areas in
the Negev; this main is called The Third Negev Line, and it complements the water supply system to the
Negev, which includes another two major fresh water supply main lines

a setup for chlorination of the effluent, which consists, at present, of three chlorination sites (two more to
be added in the future)

six operational reservoirs along the conveyance system, which regulate the amounts of water pumped and
consumed along the system

an effluent distribution system, composed of 13 major pressure zones, along the effluent main, that supply
the treated water to the consumers

a comprehensive monitoring system which supervises and controls the complete operation of the project.

Description of the Reclamation System

The general scheme of the reclamation system is presented in figure 55.20 and the flow diagram in figure
55.21 . The system consists of the following segments: wastewater treatment plant, water recharge fields,
recovery wells, conveyance and distribution system, chlorination setup and a comprehensive monitoring
system.

Figure 55.21 Flow diagram of Dan Region Project

The wastewater treatment plant

The wastewater treatment plant of the Dan Region Metropolitan Area receives the domestic wastes of the
eight cities in the region, and also handles part of their industrial wastes. The plant is located within the
Rishon-Lezion sand dunes and is based mostly on secondary treatment of the wastes by the activated-sludge
method. Some of the wastes, mostly during peak-flow discharges, are treated in another, older system of
oxidation ponds occupying an area of 300 acres. The two systems together can handle, at present, about 110
106 m3 per year.

The recharge fields

The treatment plant effluents are pumped into three different sites located within the regional sand dunes,
where they are spread on the sand and percolate downward into the underground aquifer for temporary
storage and for additional time-dependent treatment. Two of the spreading basins are used for recharge of the
mechanical-biological treatment-plant effluent. These are Yavneh 1 (60 acres, located 7 km to the south of the
plant) and Yavneh 2 (45 acres, 10 km south of the plant); the third basin is used for recharge of a mixture of
the oxidation ponds effluent and a certain fraction from the biomechanical treatment plant that is required in
order to improve the quality of the effluent to the necessary level. This is the Soreq site, which has an area of
about 60 acres and is located to the east of the ponds.

The recovery wells

Around the recharge sites there are networks of observation wells through which the recharged water is re-
pumped. Not all of the 74 wells in operation in 1993 were active during the whole project. In 1993 a total of
about 95 million cubic metres of water were recovered from the systems wells and pumped into the Third
Negev Line.

The conveyance and distribution systems

The water pumped from the various recovery wells is collected into the conveyance and distribution system of
the Third Line. The conveyance system is composed of three sections, having a combined length of 87 km
and a diameter ranging from 48 to 70 inches. Along the conveyance system six different operational
reservoirs, floating on the main line, were constructed, in order to regulate the water flow of the system.
The operational volume of these reservoirs ranges from 10,000 m3 to 100,000 m3.

The water flowing in the Third Line system was supplied to the customers in 1993 through a system of 13
major pressure zones. Numerous water consumers, mostly farms, are connected to these pressure zones.

The chlorination system

The purpose of the chlorination that is carried out in the Third Line is breakage of the human connection,
which means elimination of any possibility for existence of micro-organisms of human origin in Third Line
water. Throughout the course of monitoring it was found that there is a considerable increase of fecal micro-
organisms during the stay of the reclaimed water in the water reservoirs. Therefore it was decided to add more
chlorination points along the line, and by 1993 three separate chlorination points were routinely operating.
Two more chlorination points are to be added to the system in the near future. The residual chlorine ranges
between 0.4 and 1.0 mg/l of free chlorine. This method, whereby low concentrations of free chlorine are
maintained at various points along the system rather than a single massive dose at the beginning of the line,
secures the breakage of the human connection, and at the same time enables fish to live in the reservoirs. In
addition, this chlorination method will disinfect the water in the downstream sections of the conveyance and
distribution system, in the event that pollutants entered the system at a point downstream from the initial
chlorination point.

The monitoring system

Operation of the reclamation system of the Third Negev Line is dependent upon routine functioning of a
monitoring setup which is supervised and controlled by a professional and independent scientific entity. This
body is the Research and Development Institute of the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, in Haifa,
Israel.

The establishment of an independent monitoring system has been a mandatory requirement of the Israeli
Ministry of Health, the local legal authority according to the Israeli Public Health Ordinance. The need for
establishing this monitoring setup stems from the facts that:

1. This wastewater reclamation project is the biggest one in the world.

2. It comprises some non-routine elements that have not as yet been experimented with.

3. The reclaimed water is to be used for unlimited irrigation of agricultural crops.

The major role of the monitoring system is therefore to secure the chemical and sanitary quality of the water
supplied by the system and to issue warnings regarding any change in the water quality. In addition, the
monitoring setup is conducting a follow-up of the complete Dan Region reclamation project, also
investigating certain aspects, such as the routine operation of the plant and the chemico-biological quality of
its water. This is necessary in order to determine the adaptability of the Third Line water for unlimited
irrigation, not only from the sanitary aspect but also from the agricultural viewpoint.

The preliminary monitoring layout was designed and prepared by the Mekoroth Water Co., the major Israeli
water supplier and the operator of the Dan Region project. A specially appointed steering committee has been
reviewing the monitoring programme on a periodic basis, and has been modifying it according to the
accumulated experience gained through the routine operation. The monitoring programme dealt with the
various sampling points along the Third Line system, the various investigated parameters and the sampling
frequency. The preliminary programme referred to various segments of the system, namely the recovery
wells, conveyance line, reservoirs, a limited number of consumer connections, as well as the presence of
potable water wells in the vicinity of the plant. The list of parameters included within the monitoring schedule
of the Third Line is given in table 55.16 .

Table 55.16 List of investigated parameters

Ag Silver g/l
Al Aluminium g/l
ALG Algae No./100 ml
ALKM Alkalinity as CaCO3 mg/l
As Arsenic g/l
B Boron mg/l
Ba Barium g/l
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand mg/l
Br Bromide mg/l
Ca Calcium mg/l
Cd Cadmium g/l
Cl Chloride mg/l
CLDE Chlorine demand mg/l
CLRL Chlorophile g/l
CN Cyanides g/l
Co Cobalt g/l
COLR Colour (platinum cobalt)
COD Chemical oxygen demand mg/l
Cr Chromium g/l
Cu Copper g/l
DO Dissolved oxygen as O2 mg/l
DOC Dissolved organic carbon mg/l
DS10 Dissolved solids at 105 C mg/l
DS55 Dissolved solids at 550 C mg/l
EC Electrical conductivity mhos/cm
ENTR Enterococcus No./100 ml
F- Fluoride mg/l
FCOL Faecal coliforms No./100 ml
Fe Iron g/l
HARD Hardness as CaCO3 mg/l
HCO3- Bicarbonate as HCO3- mg/l
Hg Mercury g/l
K Potassium mg/l
Li Lithium g/l
MBAS Detergents g/l
Mg Magnesium mg/l
Mn Manganese g/l
Mo Molybdenum g/l
Na Sodium mg/l
NH4+ Ammonia as NH4+ mg/l
Ni Nickel g/l
NKJT Kjeldahl nitrogen total mg/l
NO2 Nitrite as NO2- mg/l
NO3 Nitrate as NO3- mg/l
ODOR Odour-threshold odour number
OG Oil and grease g/l
Pb Lead mg/l
PHEN Phenols mg/l
PHFD pH measured at field
PO4 Phosphate as PO4-2 mg/l
PTOT Total phosphorus as P mg/l
RSCL Residual free chlorine mg/l
SAR Sodium adsorption ratio
Se Selenium g/l
Si Silica as H2SiO3 mg/l
Sn Tin g/l
SO4 Sulphate mg/l
Sr Strontium g/l
SS10 Suspended solids at 100 C mg/l
SS55 Suspended solids at 550 C mg/l
STRP Streptococcus No./100 ml
T Temperature C
TCOL Total coliforms No./100 ml
TOTB Total bacteria No./100 ml
TS10 Total solids at 105 C mg/l
TS55 Total solids at 550 C mg/l
TURB Turbidity NTU
UV UV (absorb. at 254 nm)(/cm x 10)
Zn Zinc g/l

Recovery wells monitoring

The sampling programme of the recovery wells is based upon a bi-monthly or tri-monthly measurement of a
few indicator-parameters (table 55.17). When the chlorides concentration at the sampled well exceeds by
more than 15% the initial chlorides level of the well, it is interpreted as a significant increase of the share of
the recovered effluent within the underground aquifer water, and the well is transferred into the next category
of sampling. Here, 23 characteristic-parameters are determined, once every three months. In some of the
wells, once a year, a complete water investigation, including 54 various parameters, is carried out.

Table 55.17 The various parameters investigated at the recovery wells

Group A Group B Group C

Indicator parameters Characteristic Parameters Complete-Test Parameters
1. Chlorides Group A and: Groups A+B and:

2. Electrical 6. Temperature 24. Suspended solids

conductivity
7. pH 25. Enteric viruses
3. Detergents
8. Turbidity 26. Total bacterial count
4. UV absorption
9. Dissolved solids 27. Coliform
5. Dissolved oxygen
10. Dissolved organic 28. Faecal coli
carbon
29. Faecal streptococcus
11. Alkalinity
30. Zinc
12. Hardness
31. Aluminium
13. Calcium
32. Arsenic
14. Magnesium
33. Iron
15. Sodium
34. Barium
16. Potassium
35. Silver
17. Nitrates
36. Mercury
18. Nitrites
37. Chromium
19. Ammonia
38. Lithium
20. Kjeldahl total nitrogen
39. Molybdenum
21. Total phosphorus
40. Manganese
 22. Sulphate 41. Copper

23. Boron 42. Nickel

43. Selenium

44. Strontium

45. Lead

46. Fluoride

47. Cyanides

48. Cadmium

49. Cobalt

50. Phenols

51. Mineral oil

52. TOC

53. Odour

54. Colour

Conveyance system monitoring

The conveyance system, the length of which is 87 km, is monitored at seven central points along the
wastewater line. At these points 16 different parameters are sampled once per month. These are: PHFD, DO,
T, EC, SS10, SS55, UV, TURB, NO3+, PTOT, ALKM, DOC, TOTB, TCOL, FCOL and ENTR. Parameters
which are not expected to change along the system are measured at two sampling points only - at the
beginning and at the end of the conveyance line. These are: Cl, K, Na, Ca, Mg, HARD, B, DS, SO 42, NH4+,
NO2 and MBAS. At those two sampling points, once a year, various heavy metals are sampled (Zn, Sr, Sn,
Se, Pb, Ni, Mo, Mn, Li, Hg, Fe, Cu, Cr, Co, Cd, Ba, As, Al, Ag).

Reservoirs monitoring

The monitoring setup of the Third Line reservoirs is based mostly on examination of a limited number of
parameters which serve as indicators of biological development in the reservoirs, and for pinpointing the entry
of external pollutants. Five reservoirs are sampled, once per month, for: PHFD, T, DO, Total SS, Volatile SS,
DOC, CLRL, RSCL, TCOL, FCOL, STRP and ALG. At these five reservoirs Si is also sampled, once per two
months. All these parameters are also sampled at another reservoir, Zohar B, at a frequency of six times per
year.

Summary
The Dan Region Reclamation Project supplies high-quality reclaimed water for unrestricted irrigation of the
Israeli Negev.

Stage One of this project is in partial operation since 1970 and in full operation since 1977. From 1970 to
1993, a total raw sewage amount of 373 million cubic metres (MCM) was conveyed to the facultative
oxidation ponds, and a total water amount of 243 MCM was pumped from the aquifer in the period 1974
1993 and supplied to the South of the country. Part of the water was lost, mostly due to evaporation and
seepage from the ponds. In 1993 these losses amounted to about 6.9% of the raw sewage conveyed to the
Stage One plant (Kanarek 1994).

The mechanical-biological treatment plant, Stage Two of the project, has been in operation since 1987.
During the 1987-1993 period of operation a total raw sewage amount of 478 MCM was conveyed to the
mechanical-biological treatment plant. In 1993 about 103 MCM of water (95 MCM reclaimed water plus 8
MCM potable water) were conveyed through the system, and used for unlimited irrigation of the Negev.

The recovery-wells water represents the underground aquifer water quality. The aquifer water quality is
changing all the time as a result of the percolation of effluent into it. The aquifer water quality approaches that
of the effluent for those parameters that are not influenced by the Soil-Aquifer Treatment (SAT) processes,
while parameters that are affected by the passage through the soil layers (e.g., turbidity, suspended solids,
ammonia, dissolved organic carbon and so on) show considerably lower values. Noteworthy is the chloride
content of the aquifer water, which increased within a recent four-year period by 15 to 26%, as evidenced by
the changing water quality in the recovery wells. This change indicates the continuous replacement of aquifer
water by effluent having a considerably higher chloride content.

The quality of the water in the six reservoirs of the Third Line system is influenced by biological and
chemical changes that occur within the open reservoirs. The oxygen content is increased, as a result of
photosynthesis of algae and due to dissolution of atmospheric oxygen. Concentrations of various types of
bacteria are also increased as a result of random pollution by various water fauna residing near the reservoirs.

The quality of the water supplied to the customers along the system is dependent upon the quality of water
from the recovery wells and the reservoirs. Mandatory chlorination of the systems water constitutes an
additional safeguard against erroneous use of the water as potable water. Comparison of the Third Line water
data with the requirements of the Israeli Ministry of Health regarding quality of wastewater to be used for
unlimited agricultural use shows that most of the time the water quality fully satisfies the requirements.

In conclusion it might be said that the Third Line wastewater recovery and utilization system has been a
successful environmental and national Israeli project. It has solved the problem of sanitary disposal of the Dan
Region sewage and at the same time it has increased the national water balance by a factor of about 5%. In an
arid country such as Israel, where water supply, especially for agricultural use, is quite limited, this is a real
contribution.

The costs of the recharge operation and maintenance of the reclaimed water, in 1993, was about 3 US cents
per m3 (0.093 NIS/m3).

The system has been operating since the late 1960s under strict surveillance of the Israeli Ministry of Health
and of Mekoroths occupational safety and hygiene department. There have been no reports of any
occupational disease resulting from the operation of this intricate and comprehensive system.

PRINCIPLES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Lucien Y. Maystre

Environmental awareness is leading to a rapid transformation of waste management practices. Interpretation

of this change is necessary before examining in more detail the methods that are applied to waste management
and to the handling of residues.

Modern principles of waste management are based on the paradigm of a geared connection between the
biosphere and the anthroposphere. A global model (figure 55.22) relating these two spheres is based on the
assumption that all materials drawn out of the environment end up as waste either directly (from the
production sector) or indirectly (from the recycling sector), bearing in mind that all consumption waste flows
back to this recycling sector either for recycling and/or for disposal.

Figure 55.22 A global model of the principles of waste management

From this perspective, recycling must be defined broadly: from the recycling of whole objects (returnables), to
the recycling of objects for some of their spare parts (e.g., cars, computers), to the production of new materials
(e.g., paper and cardboard, tin cans) or the production of similar objects (recycling, downcycling and so on).
Over the long term, this model can be visualized as a steady-state system wherein goods end up as waste after
a few days or often a few years.

Deductions from the Model

Some major deductions can be made from this model, provided the various flows are clearly defined. For
purposes of this model:

Po=the annual input of materials drawn from the environment (bio-, hydro- or lithospheres). In a steady
state, this input is equal to the annual final disposal of waste.

P=the annual production of goods from Po.

 C=the annual flow of goods in the anthroposphere.

R=the annual flow of waste converted to goods through recycling. (In a steady state: C=R+ P)

p=the effectiveness of production, measured as the ratio of P/Po.

If r=the effectiveness of recycling, measured as the ratio of R/C, then the relationship is: C/Po=p(1-r).

If C/Po=C*; then C* is the ratio of goods to the materials drawn out of nature.

In other words, C* is a measure of the meshing of the connection between environment and anthroposphere. It
is related to the efficiency of the production and of the recycling sectors. The relationship between C*, p and
r, which is a utility function, can be charted as in figure 55.23 , which shows the explicit trade-off between p
and r, for a selected value of C*.

Figure 55.23 A utility function illustrating production recycling trade-offs

In the past, industry has developed along the line of an increase of the efficiency of production, p. Currently,
in the late 1990s, the price of waste disposal through dispersion into the atmosphere, into bodies of water or
into soils (uncontrolled tipping), or the burial of waste in confined deposit sites has increased very rapidly, as
a result of increasingly stringent environmental protection standards. Under these conditions, it has become
economically attractive to increase the effectiveness of recycling (in other words, to increase r). This trend
will persist through the coming decades.

One important condition has to be met in order to improve the effectiveness of recycling: the waste to be
recycled (in other words the raw materials of the second generation) must be as pure as possible (i.e., free of
unwanted elements which would preclude the recycling). This will be achieved only through the
implementation of a generalized policy of non-mixing of domestic, commercial and industrial waste at the
source. This is often incorrectly termed sorting at the source. To sort is to separate; but the idea is precisely
not to have to separate by storing the various categories of waste in separate containers or places until they are
collected. The paradigm of modern waste management is non-mixing of waste at the source so as to enable an
increase in the efficiency of recycling and thus to achieve a better ratio of goods per material drawn out of the
environment.

Waste Management Practices

Waste may be grouped into three major categories, depending on its production:

1. from the primary sector of production (mining, forestry, agriculture, animal breeding, fishery)

2. from the production and transformation industry (foods, equipment, products of all types)

3. from the consumption sector (households, enterprises, transportation, trade, construction, services, etc.).

Waste can be also classified by legislative decree:

municipal waste and mixed waste from enterprises which may be aggregated as municipal waste, since
both consist of the same categories of waste and are of small size (vegetables, paper, metals, glass, plastics
and so on), although in differing proportions.

bulky urban waste (furniture, equipment, vehicles, construction and demolition waste other than inert
material)

waste subject to special legislation (e.g., hazardous, infectious, radioactive).

Management of municipal and ordinary commercial waste:

Collected by trucks, these wastes can be transported (directly or by road-to-road, road-to-rail or road-to-
waterway transfer stations and long-distance transportation means) to a landfill, or to a treatment plant for
material recovery (mechanical sorting, composting, biomethanization), or for energy recovery (grid or kiln
incinerator, pyrolysis).

Treatment plants produce proportionally small quantities of residues which may be more hazardous for the
environment than the original waste. For example, incinerators produce fly ashes with very high heavy metal
and complex chemical content. These residues are often classified by legislation as hazardous waste and
require appropriate management. Treatment plants differ from landfills because they are open systems with
inputs and outputs, whereas landfills are essentially sinks (if one neglects the small quantity of leachate
which deserves further treatment and the production of biogas, which may be an exploited source of energy
on very large landfills).
Industrial and domestic equipment:

The present trend, which also has commercial contributions, is for the producers of the waste sectors (e.g.,
cars, computers, machines) to be responsible for the recycling. Residues are then either hazardous waste or are
similar to ordinary waste from enterprises.

Construction and demolition waste:

The increasing prices of landfills is an incentive for a better sorting of such waste. Separation of the hazardous
and burnable waste from the large quantity of inert materials allows the latter to be disposed of at a far lower
rate than mixed waste.

Special waste:

Chemically hazardous waste must be treated through neutralization, mineralization, insolubilization or be

made inert before it can be deposited in special landfills. Infectious waste is best burnt in special incinerators.
Radioactive waste is subject to very strict legislation.

Management of Residues

Production and consumption waste which cannot be recycled, down-cycled, reused or incinerated to produce
energy must eventually be disposed of. The toxicity for the environment of these residues should be reduced
according to the principle of best available technology at an acceptable price. After this treatment, the
residues should be deposited in sites where they will not contaminate the water and the ecosystem and spread
into the atmosphere, into the sea or into lakes and streams.

Deposits of waste are usually dated by the combination of multilayer isolation (using clay, geotextiles, plastic
foils and so on), the diversion of all exogenous water, and waterproof cover layers. Permanent deposits need
to be monitored for decades. Restrictions on land use of a deposit site must also be controlled for long periods
of time. Controlled drainage systems for leachates or gases are necessary in most cases.

More biochemically stable and chemically inert residues from waste treatment require less stringent
conditions for their final disposal, making it less difficult to find a deposit site for them within the region of
production of the waste. Export of wastes or their residues, which always awakens NIMBY (Not In My Back
Yard) reactions, might thus be avoided.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND RECYCLING

Niels Jorn Hahn and Poul S. Lauridsen

Solid wastes are traditionally described as residual products, which represent a cost when one has to resort to
disposal.

Management of waste encompasses a complex set of potential impacts on human health and safety, and the
environment. The impacts, although the type of hazards may be similar, should be distinguished for three
distinct types of operation:

handling and storage at the waste producer

 collection and transportation

sorting, processing and disposal.

One should bear in mind that health and safety hazards will arise where the waste is produced in the first place
- in the factory or with the consumer. Hence, waste storage at the waste generator - and especially when waste
is separated at source - may cause harmful impact on the nearby surroundings. This article will focus on a
framework for understanding solid waste management practices and situating the occupational health and
safety risks associated with the waste collection, transportation, processing and disposal industries.

Why Solid Waste Management?

Solid waste management becomes necessary and relevant when the structure of the society changes from
agricultural with low-density and widespread population to urban, high-density population. Furthermore,
industrialization has introduced a large number of products which nature cannot, or can only very slowly,
decompose or digest. Hence, certain industrial products contain substances which, due to low degradability or
even toxic characteristics, may build up in nature to levels representing a threat to humanitys future use of the
natural resources - that is, drinking water, agricultural soil, air and so on.

The objective of solid waste management is to prevent pollution of the natural environment.

A solid waste management system should be based on technical studies and overall planning procedures
including:

studies and estimates on waste composition and amounts

studies on collection techniques

studies on processing and disposal facilities

studies on prevention of pollution of the natural environment

studies on occupational health and safety standards

feasibility studies.

The studies must include protection of the natural environment and occupational health and safety aspects,
taking the possibilities of sustainable development into consideration. As it seldom is possible to solve all
problems at one time, it is important at the planning stage to note that it is helpful to set up a list of priorities.
The first step in solving environmental and occupational hazards is to recognize the existence of the hazards.

Principles of Waste Management

Waste management involves a complex and wide range of occupational health and safety relations. Waste
management represents a reverse production process; the product is removal of surplus materials. The
original aim was simply to collect the materials, reuse the valuable part of the materials and dispose of what
remained at the nearest sites not used for agriculture purposes, buildings and so on. This is still the case in
many countries.
Sources of waste can be described by the different functions in a modern society (see table 55.18).

Table 55.18 Sources of waste

Activity Waste description

Industry Product residues
Default products
Wholesale Default products
Retail Transport packaging
Default products
Organics (from food processing)
Food waste
Consumer Transport packaging
Retail packaging (paper, glass, metal, plastics, etc.)
Kitchen waste (organics)
Hazardous waste (chemicals, oil)
Bulky waste (used furniture) etc.
Garden waste
Construction and demolition Concrete, bricks, iron, soil, etc.
Infrastructure activities Park waste
Street cleaning waste
Clinkers, ashes and flue gas from energy production
Sewage sludge
Hospital waste
Waste processing Rejects from sorting facilities
Clinkers, ashes and flue gas cleaning products from
incineration

Each type of waste is characterized by its origin or what type of product it was before it became waste. Hence,
basically its health and safety hazards should be laid down upon the restriction of handling the product by the
waste producer. In any case, storage of the waste may create new and stronger elements of hazards (chemical
and/or biological activity in the storage period).

Solid waste management can be distinguished by the following stages:

separation at source into specific waste fraction depending on material characteristics

temporary storage at the waste producer in bins, sacks, containers or in bulk

collection and transportation by vehicle:

- manual, horse team, motorized and so on

- open platform, closed truck body, compacting unit and so on

 transfer station: compaction and reloading to larger transport units

recycling and/or waste processing facilities

waste processing:

- manual or mechanical sorting out into different material fractions for recycling

- processing of presorted waste fractions to secondary raw materials

- processing for new (raw) materials

- incineration for volume reduction and/or energy recovery

- anaerobic digestion of organics for production of soil conditioner, fertilizer and energy (biogas)

- composting of organics for production of soil conditioner and fertilizer

waste disposal:

- landfill, which should be designed and located to prevent migration of polluted water (landfill leachate),
especially into drinking water resources (groundwater resources, wells and rivers).

Recycling of waste can take place at any stage of the waste system, and at each stage of the waste system,
special occupational health and safety hazards may arise.

In low-income societies and non-industrial countries, recycling of solid waste is a basic income for the waste
collectors. Typically, no questions are put on the health and safety hazards in these areas.

In the intensely industrialized countries, there is a clear trend for putting increased focus on recycling of the
huge amounts of waste produced. Important reasons go beyond the direct market value of the waste, and
include the lack of proper disposal facilities and the growing public awareness of the imbalance between
consumption and protection of the natural environment. Thus, waste collection and scavenging have been
renamed recycling to upgrade the activity in the mind of the public, resulting in a steeply growing awareness
of the working conditions in the waste business.

Today, the occupational health and safety authorities in the industrialized countries are focusing on working
conditions which, a few years ago, passed off unnoticed with unspoken acceptance, such as:

improper heavy lifting and excessive amount of materials handled per working day

inappropriate exposure to dust of unknown composition

unnoticed impact by micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi) and endotoxins

unnoticed exposure to toxic chemicals.

Recycling
Recycling or salvaging is the word covering both reuse (use for the same purpose) and reclamation/recovery
of materials or energy.

The reasons for implementing recycling may change depending on national and local conditions, and the key
ideas in the arguments for recycling may be:

detoxification of hazardous waste when high environmental standards are set by the authorities

resource recovery in low income areas

reduction of volume in areas where landfilling is predominant

energy recovery in areas where conversion of waste to energy can replace fossil fuel (coal, natural gas,
crude oil and so on) for energy production.

As previously mentioned, recycling can occur at any stage in the waste system, but recycling can be designed
to prevent waste from being born. That is the case when products are designed for recycling and a system
for repurchasing after end-use, for instance by putting a deposit on beverage containers (glass bottles and so
on).

Hence, recycling may go further than mere implementation of reclamation or recovery of materials from the
waste stream.

Recycling of materials implies, in most situations, separation or sorting of the waste materials into fractions
with a minimum degree of fineness as a prerequisite to the use of the waste as a substitute for virgin or
primary raw materials.

The sorting may be performed by waste producers (source separation), or after collection, meaning separation
at a central sorting plant.

Source Separation

Source separation will, by todays technology, result in fractions of waste which are designed for
processing. A certain degree of source separation is inevitable, as some mixtures of waste fractions can be
separated into usable material fractions again only by great (economic) effort. The design of source separation
must always take the final type of recycling into consideration.

The goal of the source sorting system should be to avoid a mixing or pollution of the different waste fractions,
which could be an obstacle to easy recycling.

The collection of source-sorted waste fractions will often result in more distinct occupational health and safety
hazards than does collection in bulk. This is due to concentration of specific waste fractions - for instance,
toxic substances. Sorting out of easily degradable organics may result in producing high levels of exposure to
hazardous fungi, bacteria, endotoxins and so on, when the materials are handled or reloaded.

Central Sorting

Central sorting may be done by mechanical or manual methods.

It is the general opinion that mechanical sorting without prior source separation by todays known technology
should be used only for production of refuse derived fuel (RDF). Prerequisites for acceptable working
conditions are total casing of the mechanical equipment and use of personal space suits when service and
maintenance have to be carried out.

Mechanical central sorting with prior source separation has, with todays technology, not been successful due
to difficulties in reaching proper sorting efficiency. When the characteristics of the sorted out waste fractions
become more clearly defined, and when these characteristics become valid on a national or international basis,
then it can be expected that new proper and efficient techniques will be developed. The success of these new
techniques will be closely linked to prudent consideration to obtaining acceptable working conditions.

Manual central sorting should imply prior source separation to avoid occupational health and safety hazards
(dust, bacteria, toxic substances and so on). The manual sorting should be limited to only a limited number of
waste fraction qualities to avoid foreseeable sorting mistakes at the source, and to facilitate easy control
facilities at the plants reception area. As the waste fractions become more clearly defined, it will be possible
to develop more and more devices for automatic sorting procedures to minimize direct human exposure to
noxious substances.

Why Recycling?

It is important to note that recycling is not a waste processing method that should be seen independently of
other waste management practices. In order to supplement recycling, it is necessary to have access to a
properly managed landfill and perhaps to more traditional waste processing facilities such as incineration
plants and composting facilities.

Recycling should be evaluated in connection with

local supply of raw materials and energy

what is substituted - renewable (i.e., paper/tree) resources or non-renewable (i.e., oil) resources.

As long as oil and coal are used as energy resources, for example, incineration of waste and refuse-derived
fuel with energy recovery will constitute a viable waste management option based on energy recovery.
Minimization of waste quantities by this method, however, must end in final deposits subject to extremely
strict environmental standards, which may be very expensive.

CASE STUDY: CANADIAN MULTIMEDIA POLLUTION CONTROL AND PREVENTION ON

THE GREAT LAKES

Thomas Tseng, Victor Shantora and Ian R. Smith

The Challenge

The Great Lakes are a shared resource between Canada and the United States (see figure 55.24). The five
large lakes contain over 18% of the worlds surface water. The basin is home to one in every three Canadians
(approximately 8.5 million ) and one in every nine Americans (27.5 million). The basin is the industrial
heartland of both countries - one-fifth of the US industrial base and one-half of Canadas. Economic activities
around the Great Lakes basin generate an estimated 1 trillion dollars of wealth each year. Over time,
increasing population and industrial activities created a variety of stresses on the lakes until the need for
concerted action to protect the Great Lakes by the two countries was recognized in mid-century.

Figure 55.24 Great Lakes drainage basin: St. Lawrence River

The Response

Since the 1950s, both countries have put in place domestic and bilateral programmes to address gross
pollution problems and also to respond to more subtle water quality concerns. As a result of these actions,
Great Lakes waters are visibly cleaner than they were at mid-century, loadings of heavy metals and organic
chemicals have decreased and contaminant levels in fish and aquatic birds have gone down significantly. The
successes of CanadaUnited States actions to restore and protect the Great Lakes provide a model for bilateral
cooperation on resource management, but challenges remain.

The Case Study in Perspective

The threats posed by persistent toxic substances, however, are long term in nature and their management
requires a multimedia, comprehensive at-source approach. To achieve a long-term goal of virtual elimination
of persistent toxic substances from the Great Lakes, environmental authorities, industries and other
stakeholders in the basin were challenged to develop new approaches and programmes. The purpose of this
case study report is to provide a brief summary of Canadian pollution control programmes and the progress
achieved by 1995, and to outline initiatives for managing persistent toxics in the Great Lakes. Similar US
initiatives and programmes are not discussed herein. Interested readers should contact the Great Lakes
National Program Office of the US Environmental Protection Agency in Chicago for information on federal
and state programmes for protecting the Great Lakes.

1970s1980s

A significant problem acknowledged to be affecting Lake Erie in the 1960s was nutrient enrichment or
eutrophication. The identified need for bilateral actions prompted Canada and the United States to sign the
first Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) in 1972. The Agreement outlined abatement goals for
reducing phosphorus loadings primarily from laundry detergents and municipal sewage effluent. In response
to this commitment Canada and Ontario enacted legislation and programmes for controlling point sources.
Between 1972 and 1987, Canada and Ontario invested more than 2 billion dollars in sewage treatment plant
construction and upgrading in the Great Lakes basin.

The 1972 GLWQA also identified the need to reduce releases of toxic chemicals into the lakes from industries
and other sources such as spills. In Canada, the promulgation of federal effluent (end of pipe) regulations in
the 1970s for conventional pollutants from major industrial sectors (pulp and paper, metal mining, petroleum
refining and so on) provided a national baseline standard, while Ontario established similar effluent guidelines
tailored for local needs including the Great Lakes. Actions by industries and municipalities to meet these
federal and Ontario effluent requirements produced impressive results; for example, phosphorus loadings
from point sources to Lake Erie were reduced by 70% between 1975 and 1989, and discharges of
conventional pollutants from the seven Ontario petroleum refineries were cut by 90% since the early 1970s.
Figure 55.25 shows similar loading reduction trends for the pulp and paper and the iron and steel sectors.

Figure 55.25 Progress on industrial abatement

By the mid-1970s evidence of elevated concentrations of toxic chemicals in Great Lakes fish and wildlife,
reproductive abnormalities in some fish-eating birds and population decline in a number of species implicated
persistent bioaccumulative toxic substances, which became the new focus for the binational protection effort.
Canada and the United States signed a second Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement in 1978, in which the
two countries pledged to restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the waters of
the Great Lakes Ecosystem. A key challenge was the policy that the discharge of toxic substances in toxic
amounts be prohibited and the discharge of any or all persistent toxic substances be virtually eliminated. The
call for virtual elimination was necessary, as persistent toxic chemicals may concentrate and accumulate in the
food chain, causing severe and irreversible damages to the ecosystem, whereas chemicals which are not
persistent needed to be kept below levels which cause immediate harm.

In addition to tighter controls on point sources, Canada and Ontario developed and/or strengthened controls
on pesticides, commercial chemicals, hazardous wastes and non-point sources of pollution such as dump sites
and incinerators. Government initiatives became more multimedia oriented, and the concept of cradle to
grave or responsible care for chemicals became the new environmental management philosophy for
government and industries alike. A number of persistent toxic pesticides were banned under the federal Pest
Control Products Act (DDT, Aldrin, Mirex, Toxaphene, Chlordane) and the Environmental Contaminants Act
was used to (1) prohibit commercial, manufacturing and processing uses of persistent toxics (CFC, PPB, PCB,
PPT, Mirex, lead) and (2) to limit chemical releases from specific industrial operations (mercury, vinyl
chloride, asbestos).

By the early 1980s, results from these programmes and measures and similar American efforts started
producing evidence of a rebound. Contaminant levels in Great Lakes sediments, fish and wildlife were on the
decline, and noted environmental improvements included the return of bald eagles to the Canadian shore of
Lake Erie, a 200-fold increase in cormorant population, a resurgence in osprey on Georgian Bay and the re-
establishment in the Toronto Harbour area of common terns - all have been affected by levels of persistent
toxic substances in the past, and their recovery illustrates the success of this approach to date.

The trend toward reduced concentrations for some of the persistent toxic substances in fish, wildlife and
sediments levelled off by the mid-1980s (see Mirex in herring gull eggs in figure 55.26). It was concluded by
scientists that:

1. While the water pollution and contaminants control programmes in place were helpful, they were not
enough to bring about further reductions in contaminant concentrations.

2. Additional measures were required for non-point sources of persistent toxics including contaminated
sediments, long range atmospheric input of pollutants, abandoned dump sites and so on.

3. Some pollutants can persist in the ecosystem at minute concentrations and can bioaccumulate in the food
chain for a long time.

4. The most efficient and effective approach for dealing with persistent toxics is to prevent or eliminate
their generation at source rather than virtually eliminate their release.

Figure 55.26 Mirex in herring gull eggs

It was generally agreed that achieving virtual elimination in the environment through the application of zero-
discharge philosophy to sources and the ecosystem approach to Great Lakes water quality management
needed to be further strengthened and promoted.

To reaffirm their commitment to the virtual elimination goal for persistent toxic substances, Canada and the
United States amended the 1978 Agreement through a protocol in November 1987 (United States and Canada
1987). The protocol designated areas of concern where beneficial uses have been impaired around the Great
Lakes, and required the development and implementation of remedial action plans (RAPs) for both point and
non-point sources in the designated areas. The protocol also stipulated lakewide management plans (LAMPs)
to be used as the main framework for resolving whole-lake impairment of beneficial uses and for coordinating
control of persistent toxic substances impacting each of the Great Lakes. Furthermore, the protocol included
new annexes for establishing programmes and measures for airborne sources, contaminated sediments and
dump sites, spills and control of exotic species.

1990s

Following the signing of the 1987 protocol, the goal of virtual elimination was strongly promoted by
environmental interest groups on both sides of the Great Lakes as concerns about the threat of persistent
toxics increased. The International Joint Commission (IJC), the binational advisory body created under the
1909 Boundary Waters Treaty, also strongly advocated the virtual elimination approach. An IJC binational
task force recommended a strategy for Virtual Elimination in 1993 (see figure 55.27). By the mid-1990s, the
IJC and the parties are attempting to define a process for implementing this strategy, including considerations
for socioeconomic impacts.

Figure 55.27 Decision-making process for virtual elimination of persistent toxic substances from the
Great Lakes
The governments of Canada and Ontario responded in a number of ways to control or reduce the release of
persistent toxics. The important programmes and initiatives are briefly summarized below.

Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA)

In 1989, Environment Canada consolidated and streamlined its legal mandates into a single statute. CEPA
provides the federal government with comprehensive powers (e.g., information gathering, regulations making,
enforcement) over the entire life cycle of chemicals. Under CEPA, the New Substances Notification
Regulations establish screening procedures for new chemicals so that persistent toxics that cannot be
adequately controlled will be prohibited from being imported, manufactured or used in Canada. The first
phase of the Priority Substances List (PSL I) assessment programme was completed in 1994; 25 of the 44
substances assessed were found to be toxic under the definition of CEPA, and the development of
management strategies for these toxic chemicals was initiated under a Strategic Options Process (SOP); an
additional 56 priority substances will be nominated and assessed in phase II of the PSL programme by the
year 2000. The National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) was implemented in 1994 to mandate industrial
and other facilities that meet the reporting criteria to annually report their releases to air, water and land, and
their transfers in waste, of 178 specified substances. The inventory, modelled on the Toxic Release Inventory
(TRI) in the United States, provides an important database for prioritizing pollution prevention and abatement
programmes.

Canada-Ontario Agreement (COA)

In 1994, Canada and Ontario set out a strategic framework for coordinated action to restore, protect and
conserve the Great Lakes ecosystem with a key focus on reducing the use, generation or release of 13 Tier I
persistent toxic substances by the year 2000 (Canada and Ontario 1994). COA also targets an additional list of
26 priority toxics (Tier II) for significant reductions. Specifically for Tier I substances, COA will: (1) confirm
zero discharge of five banned pesticides (Aldrin, DDT, Chlordane, Mirex, Toxaphene); (2) seek to
decommission 90% of high-level PCBs, destroy 50% now in storage and accelerate destruction of low-level
PCBs in storage; and (3) seek 90% reduction in the release of the remaining seven Tier I substances
(benzo(a)pyrene, hexachlorobenzene, alkyl-lead, octachlorostyrene, PCDD (dioxins) PCDF (furans) and
mercury).

The COA approach is to seek quantitative reductions wherever feasible, and sources are challenged to apply
pollution prevention and other means to meet the COA targets. Fourteen projects have already been launched
by federal Ontario staff to achieve reduction/elimination of Tiers I and II substances.

Toxic Substances Management Policy

In recognition of the need for a preventive and precautionary approach, Environment Canada announced in
June 1995 a national Toxic Substances Management Policy as the framework for efficient management of
toxic substances in Canada (Environment Canada 1995a). The policy adopts a two-track approach (see figure
55.28) that recognizes management actions must be tailored to the characteristics of chemicals; that is:

to virtually eliminate from the environment substances that are predominantly anthropogenic, persistent,
bioaccumulative and toxic (Track I)

to implement full life cycle (cradle-to-grave) management of all other substances of concern (Track II).

Figure 55.28 Selection of management objectives under the Toxic Substances Management Policy
A set of scientifically based criteria (Environment Canada 1995b) (see table 55.19) will be used to categorize
substances of concern into the two tracks. If a substance identified for either track is not adequately controlled
under existing programmes, additional measures will be identified under the multi-stakeholder Strategic
Options Process. The policy is consistent with the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and will direct and
frame a number of domestic programmes by defining their ultimate environmental objective, but the means
and pace of achieving the ultimate objective will vary by chemical and source. Further, Canadas position on
persistent toxics will also be framed by this policy in international discussions.

Table 55.19 Criteria for the selection of substances for Track 1 toxic substances management policy

Persistence Bioaccumulation Toxicity Predominantly

Anthropogenic
Medium Half-life
Air 2 days BAF5,000 CEPA- Concentration in
Water 182 days or toxic environment
Sediment 365 days BCP 5,000 or largely resulting from
Soil 182 days or CEPA- human activity
log Kow 5.0 toxic
equivalent

Chlorine Action Plan

A comprehensive approach to managing chlorinated substances within the context of the Toxic Substances
Management Policy was announced in October 1994 by Environment Canada (Environment Canada 1994).
The approach will be to prune the chlorine-use tree with a five-part action plan that will (1) target action on
critical uses and products, (2) improve scientific understanding of chlorine and its impact on health and the
environment, (3) detail socioeconomic implications, (4) improve public access to information and (5) promote
international actions on chlorinated substances. Chlorine use has already decreased in Canada in recent years,
for example by 45% in the pulp and paper sector since 1988. Implementation of the Chlorine Action Plan will
accelerate this reduction trend.

Great Lakes Pollution Prevention Initiative

A strong pollution prevention programme has been put in place for the Great Lakes basin. Since March 1991,
Environment Canada and the Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Energy have been working together
with industries and other stakeholders to develop and implement pollution prevention projects, in contrast to
waste treatment or reducing pollution after its generation. In 1995/96, more than 50 projects will cover
commercial chemicals, hazardous waste management, federal facilities, industries, municipalities and the
Lake Superior basin. Figure 55.29 provides an overview of these projects, which fall into two main
categories: programme integration or voluntary agreements. The figure also shows programme linkages with
other programmes discussed earlier (NPRI, RAP, LAMP) and a number of institutions that work with
Environment Canada closely on green technologies and clean processes, as well as on training, information
and communications. Pollution prevention projects can produce impressive results, as evidenced by the
Automotive Manufacturers, who have undertaken 15 pilot projects recently, thereby reducing or eliminating
2.24 million kilograms of targeted substances from the manufacture of automobiles at the Ontario facilities of
Chrysler, Ford and General Motors.

Figure 55.29 Great Lakes pollution prevention

Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics (ARET)

ARET is a cooperative multi-stakeholder initiative launched in 1994 that seeks the eventual elimination of 14
priority toxics with an interim target (by the year 2000) of a 90% reduction/elimination and reduced emission
(50%) of 87 less harmful toxic substances (ARET Secretariat 1995). As of 1995, more than 200 companies
and government agencies are participating in this voluntary initiative. Together, they reduced emissions by
10,300 tonnes in comparison with the 1988 base year and are committed to an additional 8,500 tonnes
reduction by the year 2000.

Binational and international strategies

In addition to the above domestic initiatives, Canada and the United States are currently developing a
binational strategy to coordinate agency action and to establish shared goals for persistent toxics in the Great
Lakes basin. Goals and objectives similar to the Canada-Ontario Agreement for the Tiers I and II substances
and a similar US list will be adopted. Joint projects will be developed and implemented to facilitate
information exchange and agency action on priority chemicals such as PCBs and mercury. By taking an
aggressive approach to virtual elimination as outlined above, Canada will be able to assume a leadership role
in promoting international action on persistent toxics. Canada hosted a United Nations conference in June
1995 in Vancouver to focus global dialogue on persistent organic pollutants (POP) and to explore pollution
prevention approaches to reducing their emissions around the world. Canada also co-chairs the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) workgroup to develop a protocol for persistent organic
pollutants under the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution.

An ExampleDioxins and Furans

For more than a decade, polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins and furans have been recognized as a group of
persistent toxics of concern to the Canadian environment and the Great Lakes. Table 55.20 summarizes
federal actions and the reductions in releases achieved to date, illustrating the mix of programmes and
initiatives which has resulted in significant reductions of these toxics. In spite of these impressive results,
dioxins and furans will remain priorities under the Toxic Substances Management Policy, the Chlorine Action
Plan, the Canada Ontario Agreement and the binational strategy outlined above, because virtual elimination
requires further reductions.

Table 55.20 Summary of reductions in releases of dioxin and furan in Canada

Sources of Emissions Reductions Reporting Canadian Government

Period Initiatives
Bleached kraft pulpmill 82% 1989-94 CEPA defoamer, wood chip
effluents and dioxin/furan regulations
2,4,5-T-pesticide 100% 1985 Banned from use under
PCPA
2,4-D-pesticide 100% 1987-90 Dioxin content and use
heavily restricted under
PCPA
Pentachlorophenol
- wood preservation 6.7% 1987-90 Regulations under PCPA
- wood protectant 100% 1987-90 Banned from use under
PCPA
PCBs 23% 1984-93 CCME PCB Action Plan
Incineration
- municipal solid waste 80% 1989-93 CCME operating/ emissions
guidelines
- hazardous + biomedical 80% 1990-95 CCME operating/ emissions
waste guidelines

CCME: Canadian Council of Environmental Ministers;

CEPA: Canadian Environmental Protection Act;

PCPA: Pest Control Products Act.

Summary

There has been a significant improvement in the water quality of the Great Lakes as a result of pollution
control actions taken by governments and stakeholders in Canada and the United States since the early 1970s.
This case study report provides a summary of the Canadian effort and successes in dealing with gross
pollution and conventional pollutants. It also outlines the evolution of a new approach (the Toxic Substances
Management Policy, the Chlorine Action Plan, pollution prevention, voluntary action, stakeholder
consultations and so on) for dealing with the much more difficult problems with persistent toxic substances in
the Great Lakes. Comprehensive programmes (COA, NPRI, SOP, PSL and so on) that are being put in place
with the aim of achieving the virtual elimination goal are briefly described. Details of the Canadian approach
are contained in the listed references.

CLEANER PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

David Bennett

Prevention, Control and Remediation

Conventionally, there are three ways of addressing pollution: prevention, control and remediation. These form
a hierarchy, in which the first priority or option is prevention, followed by control measures, with remediation
as a poor third. Pollution abatement can refer to any means that lessens pollution, or a mitigation of pollution;
in practice, it usually means control. Though the hierarchy of the three ideas is in terms of preference or
priority, this is not always so in practice: there may be regulatory pressures to choose one path rather than
another; one strategy may be less expensive than another, or remediation may be the most urgent - for
example, in the event of a major spill or the hazardous dissemination of pollutants from a contaminated site.

Pollution prevention

Pollution prevention can be defined as a strategy or strategies which avoid the creation of pollutants in the
first place. In Barry Commoners phrase, If its not there, it cant pollute. Thus, if a chemical whose use
results in pollution is eliminated, there will be zero discharge (or zero emission) of the pollutant. Zero
discharge is more convincing if the chemical is not replaced by another chemical - an alternative or substitute
- which results in a different pollutant.

One central strategy of pollution prevention is the banning, elimination or the phasing out (sunsetting) of
specified chemicals or classes of chemical. (Alternatively, use-restrictions may be specified.) Such strategies
are laid down in the form of laws or regulations by national governments, less often by international
instruments (conventions or treaties) or by sub-national governments.

A second strategy is pollution reduction, again in the context of prevention rather than control. If the use of a
chemical which results in pollution is reduced, then the result will almost always be less pollution. Pollution
reduction strategies are exemplified in North America by toxics use reduction (TUR) programmes and in
Europe by clean technology programmes.

Unlike bans and phase-outs, which usually apply to all (relevant) workplaces within a political jurisdiction,
pollution reduction programmes apply to specific workplaces or classes of workplace. These are usually
industrial manufacturing (including chemical manufacturing) workplaces over a certain size, in the first
instance, though the principles of pollution reduction can be applied generally - for example, to mines, power
plants, construction sites, offices, agriculture (in regard to chemical fertilizers and pesticides) and
municipalities. At least two US states (Michigan and Vermont) have legislated TUR programmes for
individual households which are also workplaces.

Pollution reduction can result in the elimination of specific chemicals, thus achieving the same aims as bans
and phase-outs. Again, this would result in zero discharge of the pollutant concerned, but requirements to
eliminate specific chemicals are not part of pollution reduction programmes; what is prescribed is a general
programme with a flexible range of specified methods. A requirement to eliminate a specific chemical is an
example of a specification standard. A requirement to institute a general programme is a performance
standard because it allows flexibility in the mode of implementation, though a specific mandatory target
(outcome) for a general programme would (confusingly) count as a specification standard. When they have to
choose, businesses usually prefer performance to specification standards.

Pollution control

Pollution control measures cannot eliminate pollution; all they can do is to mitigate its effects on the
environment. Control measures are instituted at the end of the (waste) pipe. The usefulness of control
measures will depend on the pollutant and the industrial circumstance. The main methods of pollution control,
in no particular order, are:

the capture and subsequent storage of pollutants

 filtration, whereby airborne or waterborne pollutants are removed from the waste stream by physical
methods such as meshes, filters and other permeable barriers (such as coke)

precipitation, whereby the pollutant is chemically precipitated and then captured in its transformed state or
captured by physical methods such as an electrostatic charge

destruction - for example, incineration, or neutralization, whereby pollutants are transformed chemically
or biologically into substances which are less harmful

dilution, whereby the pollutant is diluted or flushed in order to lessen its effects on any one organism or
on an ecosystem; or concentration to lessen the effect of disposal

evaporation or dissolution - for example, dissolving a gas in water

utilization - for example, transforming a pollutant into a potentially useful (though not necessarily less
toxic) product (such as sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid or using solid waste as hard core or road bed)

out-of-process recycling (where the recycling is not an integral part of the production process)

media-shift, whereby a waste-stream is diverted from one medium, such as air, soil or water, to another,
on the rationale that the medium-shift makes the pollutant less harmful

state-changesa change to the solid, liquid or gaseous state on the rationale that the new state is less
harmful.

Pollution remediation

Remediation is needed to the extent that pollution prevention and control fail. It is also very expensive, with
the costs not always accruing to the polluter. The modes of remediation are:

The clean-up of contaminated sites

Clean-up has a common sense meaning, as when an employer is required to clean up his act, which can
mean a large number of different things. Within environmental protection, clean-up is a technical term
meaning a branch or a mode of remediation. Even within this restricted use of the term, clean-up can mean (1)
the removal of pollutants from a contaminated site or (2) the rehabilitation of a site so that it is restored to its
full use-potential. Again, clean-up sometimes refers to nothing more than the containment of pollutants within
a site, area or body of waterfor example, by capping, sealing or the construction of an impermeable floor.

To be successful, clean-up has to be 100% effective, with full protection for workers, bystanders and the
general public. A further consideration is whether the clean-up materials, methods and technology do not
create further hazards. Though it is desirable to use engineering controls to protect clean-up workers, there
will almost always be a need for appropriate personal protective equipment. Normally, workers engaged in
remediation are classified as hazardous-waste workers, though aspects of such work are undertaken by fire
fighters and municipal workers, among others.

A large number of physical, chemical, biological and biotechnological agents and methods are used in the
clean-up of contaminated sites.
Hazardous-waste treatment

Most treatment of hazardous (or toxic) waste now takes place in purpose-built facilities by hazardous-waste
workers. From an environmental point of view, the test of effectiveness of a hazardous-waste facility is that it
produces no outputs which are not inert or virtually inert, such as silica, insoluble inorganic compounds,
insoluble and non-corrosive slags, gaseous nitrogen or carbon dioxide - though carbon dioxide is a
greenhouse gas which causes climate change and is, thus, a further environmental detriment.

A further test is that the facility be energy efficient - that is, energy is not wasted - and as energy non-
intensive as possible (i.e., the ratio of energy use to the volume of waste treated be as low as possible). A
general rule of thumb (it is fortunately not a universal law) is that the more effective the pollution (or waste)
abatement strategy, the more energy is consumed, which by sustainable development criteria is another
detriment.

Even when the workers are properly protected, it is easy to see the drawbacks of hazardous-waste treatment as
a mode of addressing pollution. Pollution prevention methods can be applied to the operation of the treatment
process but they cannot be applied to the principal input - the waste to be treated. Hazardous-waste
treatment facilities will usually require at least as much energy to treat the waste as was expended in its
creation, and there will always be further waste as an output, however inert or non-toxic.

Spills and leaks

The same considerations will apply to chemical spills and leaks as to the clean-up of contaminated sites, with
the further hazards caused by the urgency of the clean-up. Workers cleaning up spills and leaks are almost
always emergency workers. Depending on the scale and the nature of the pollutant, leaks and spills can
become major industrial accidents.

The Modes of Pollution Prevention

Definition and philosophy

The definition of pollution prevention may seem to be a trivial matter, but it is important because advocates of
pollution prevention want, as a principle of policy, to see a single-minded and aggressive prevention strategy
at the expense of control methods, and to avoid remediation. The more strictly pollution prevention is defined,
they say, the more likely it is to succeed as a practical strategy. Conversely, the more widely employers are
allowed to define the term, the more likely their activities are to result in a mix of the same old (failed)
strategies. Employers sometimes reply that even toxic waste can have a market value, and control methods
have their place, so pollution is really only potential pollution. Besides, zero discharge is impossible and leads
only to false expectations and misguided strategies. Proponents of pollution prevention respond that unless we
have zero discharge as an aim or practical ideal, pollution prevention will not succeed and environmental
protection will not improve.

Most of the strict definitions of pollution prevention have, as a sole or central element, the avoidance of the
use of chemicals which result in pollutants so that pollution is not created in the first place. Some of the most
important definitional controversies concern recycling, which is dealt with in the context of pollution
prevention below.

Objectives
One possible objective of pollution prevention is zero discharge of pollutants. This is sometimes referred to as
virtual elimination, since even zero discharge cannot solve the problem of contaminants already in the
environment. Zero discharge of pollutants is possible using pollution prevention methods (while control
methods cannot achieve zero in theory and are even less effective in practice, usually owing to lax
enforcement). For instance, we can envisage automobile production in which there is zero discharge of
pollutants from the plant; other waste is recycled and the product (the car) consists of parts which are reusable
or recyclable. Certainly, zero discharge of specific pollutants has been achieved - for example, by modifying
the production process in wood pulp mills so that no dioxins or furans are discharged in the effluent. The aim
of zero discharge has also been written into environmental laws and into the policies of bodies commissioned
to abate pollution.

In practice, zero discharge often gives way to target reductions - for example, a 50% reduction in pollution
emissions by such-and-such a year. These targets or interim targets are usually in the form of challenges or
aims by which to measure the success of the pollution prevention programme. They are rarely the product of a
feasibility analysis or calculation, and there are invariably no penalties attached to failure to attain the target.
Nor are they measured with any precision.

Reductions would have to be measured (as opposed to estimated) by variations on the formula:

Pollution (P) = Toxicity of the pollutant (T) Volume (V) of the discharges

or:

P = T V E (exposure potential).

This is very difficult in theory and expensive in practice, though it could be done in principle by utilizing
hazard assessment techniques (see below). The whole issue suggests that resources would be better allocated
elsewhere - for example, in ensuring that proper pollution prevention plans are produced.

In regard to chemical pesticides, the objective of use-reduction can be achieved by the methods of integrated
pest management (IPM), though this term, too, is capable of a wide or a strict definition.

Methods

The main methods of pollution prevention are:

The elimination or phasing out of specific hazardous chemicals

Input substitution - replacing a toxic or hazardous substance with a non-toxic or less hazardous substance
or with a non-toxic process. Examples are the substitution of water-based for synthetic organic dyes in the
printing industry; water - or citrus-based solvents for organic solvents; and, in some applications, the
substitution of vegetable for mineral oils. Examples of non-chemical substitution include the substitution of
pellet blasting technology for the use of fluid chemical paint strippers; the use of high-pressure hot water
systems instead of caustic cleaning; and the substitution of kiln-drying for the use of pentachlophenols (PCPs)
in the lumber industry. In all cases, it is necessary to perform a substitution analysis to ensure that substitutes
are genuinely less hazardous than what they replace. This is at least a matter of organized common sense, and
at best the application of hazard assessment techniques (see below) to the chemical and its proposed
substitute.
 Product reformulation - substituting for an existing end-product an end-product which is non-toxic or less
toxic upon use, release or disposal Whereas input substitution refers to the raw materials and adjuncts at the
front end of the production process, product reformulation approaches the issue from the final product end
of the production cycle.

General programmes to produce products which are more environmentally benign are examples of economic
conversion. Examples of particular measures in the area of product reformulation include the production of
rechargeable batteries instead of throw-away types and the use of water-based product coatings instead of
those based on organic solvents and the like. Again, substitution analysis will be necessary to ensure that the
net environmental benefit is greater for the reformulated products that it is for the originals.

Production unit redesign modernization or modification, which results in less chemical use or in the use of
less toxic substances.

Improved operation and maintenance of the production unit and production methods, including better
housekeeping, more efficient production quality control, and process inspections. Examples are spill
prevention measures; the use of spill-proof containers; leak prevention; and floating lids for solvent tanks.

Using less and reusing more. For instance, some degreasing operations take place too frequently on a
single item. In other cases, chemicals can be used more sparingly in each operation. De-icing fluids can
sometimes be reused, a case of extended use.

Closed-loop methods and in-process recycling. Strictly speaking, a closed-loop process is one in which
there are no emissions into the workplace or into the outside environment, not even waste water into surface
water or carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. There are only inputs, finished products, and inert or non-toxic
wastes. In practice, closed-loop methods eliminate some, but not all, hazardous releases. To the extent that
this is achieved, it will count as a case of in-process recycling (see below).

Recycling

Any definition of pollution prevention is likely to result in a number of grey areas in which it is not easy to
distinguish prevention measures from emission controls. For instance, to qualify as a prevention method, a
phase of a production process may have to be an integral part of the production unit, but how far away the
phase has to be from the periphery of the production process in order to qualify as a prevention measure is not
always clear. Some processes may be so remote from the heart of an operation that they look more like an
add on process and, thus, more like an end of pipe control measure than a prevention method. Again,
there are unclear cases like a waste pipe that provides the feedstock for a neighbouring plant: taken together,
the two plants provide a kind of closed loop; but the upstream plant still produces effluent and, thus, fails
the prevention test.

Similarly with recycling. Conventionally, there are three types of recycling:

in-process recycling - for example, when dry-cleaning solvent is filtered, cleaned and dried, then reused
within a single process

out-of-process but on-site, as when pesticide production waste is cleaned and then reused as the so-called
inert base in a new production run

out-of-process and off-site.

Of these, the third is usually ruled out as not qualifying as pollution prevention: the more remote the recycling
site, the less of a guarantee that the recycled product is actually reused. There are also hazards in the
transporting of waste to be recycled, and the financial uncertainty that the waste will have a continuous
market value. Similar, though less acute, considerations apply to out-of-process but on-site recycling: there is
always a possibility that the waste will not actually be recycled or, if recycled, not actually reused.

In the initial pollution prevention strategies of the 1980s, on-site but out-of-process recycling was ruled out as
not being a genuine pollution prevention measure. There was a fear that an effective pollution prevention
programme would be compromised or diluted by too great an emphasis on recycling. In the mid-1990s, some
policy-makers are prepared to entertain on-site, out-of-process recycling as a legitimate pollution prevention
method. One reason is that there are genuine grey areas between prevention and control. Another reason is
that some on-site recycling really does do what it is supposed to do, even though it may not technically
qualify as pollution prevention. A third reason is business pressure: employers see no reason why techniques
should be ruled out it they serve the purposes of a pollution prevention programme.

Pollution prevention planning

Planning is an essential part of pollution prevention methodology, not least because the gains in both
industrial efficiency and environmental protection are likely to be in the longer term (not immediate),
reflecting the sort of planning that goes into product design and marketing. The production of periodic
pollution prevention plans is the most usual way of realizing pollution prevention planning. There is no single
model for such plans. One proposal envisages:

aims and objectives

chemical inventories and estimates of discharges into the environment

pollution prevention methods used and methods proposed

responsibilities and action in the event of the plan not being fulfilled or realized.

Another proposal envisages:

a review of production processes

identification of pollution prevention opportunities

a ranking of the opportunities and a schedule for the implementation of the selected options

measures of the success of the plan after the implementation period.

The status of such plans varies widely. Some are voluntary, though they can be spelled out in law as a
(voluntary) code of practice. Others are mandatory in that they are required (1) to be kept on-site for
inspection or (2) submitted to a regulatory authority on completion or (3) submitted to a regulatory authority
for some form of scrutiny or approval. There are also variations, such as requiring a plan in the event that a
voluntary plan is, in some way, inadequate or ineffective.

The degree to which mandatory plans are prescriptive also varies - for example, in regard to penalties and
sanctions. Few authorities have the power to require specific changes in the content of pollution prevention
plans; almost all have the power to require changes in the plan in the event that the formal requirements have
not been met - for example, if some plan headings have not been addressed. There are virtually no examples
of penalties or sanctions in the event that the substantive requirements of a plan have not been met. In other
words, legal requirements for pollution prevention planning are far from traditional.

Issues surrounding the production of pollution prevention plans concern the degree of confidentiality of the
plans: in some cases, only a summary becomes public, while in other cases, plans are released only when the
producer fails in some way to comply with the law. In almost no cases do the requirements for pollution
prevention planning override existing provisions regarding the trade secrecy or the business confidentiality of
inputs, processes or the ingredients of products. In a few cases, community environmental groups have access
to the planning process, but there are virtually no cases of this being required by law, nor are the legal rights
of workers to participate in the production of plans widespread.

Legislation

In the Canadian provinces of British Columbia and Ontario, pollution prevention measures are voluntary;
their effectiveness depends on moral suasion on the part of governments and environmentalists. In the
United States, about half (26) of the states have some form of legislation, while in Europe, several northern
countries have legislated clean technology programmes. There is quite a wide variety in both the content and
the effectiveness of such legislation. Some laws define pollution prevention strictly; others define it widely or
loosely and cover a wide variety of environmental protection activities concerning pollution and waste, not
just pollution prevention. The New Jersey law is highly prescriptive; those of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts and the States of Minnesota and Oregon involve a high degree of government scrutiny and
assistance; that of Alaska is little more than a statement of the governments intentions.

Health, safety and employment

Pollution prevention is of central concern to occupational health: if the use of toxic substances decreases,
there will almost always be a corresponding decrease in worker exposure to toxic substances and, thus, in
industrial diseases. This is a prime case of prevention at the source of the hazard and, in many cases, the
elimination of hazards by engineering controls (i.e., methods), the first and best line of defence against
chemical hazards. However, such preventive measures are different from one traditional strategy, which is the
total isolation or the total enclosure of a chemical process. While total enclosure is highly useful and
highly desirable, it does not count as a pollution prevention method since it controls, rather that reduces
intrinsically, an existing hazard.

The pollutants which pose hazards to workers, communities and the physical environment alike, have usually
been addressed primarily because of their impact on human communities (environmental health). Though the
greatest exposures are often received by workers within a workplace (workplace pollution), this has not, so
far, been the prime focus of pollution prevention measures. The Massachusetts legislation, for instance, aims
to reduce the risks to the health of workers, consumers and the environment without shifting the risks between
workers, consumers and parts of the environment (New Jersey is similar). But there was no attempt to focus
on workplace pollution as a major detriment, nor was there a requirement to accord a primacy to the chief
human exposures to hazards - often the workers. Nor is there any requirement to train workers in the
discipline of pollution prevention.

There are several reasons for this. The first is that pollution prevention is a new discipline in the context of a
general, traditional failure to see environmental protection as a function of processes utilized and adopted
within workplaces. A second reason is that worker-management co-determination in the area of
environmental protection is not well advanced. Workers in many countries have legal rights, for instance, to
joint workplace health and safety committees; to refuse unsafe or unhealthy work; to health and safety
information; and to training in health and safety issues and procedures. But there are few legal rights in the
parallel and often overlapping area of environmental protection, such as the right to joint union-management
environment committees; the right of employees to blow the whistle (go public) on an employers anti-
environmental practices; the right to refuse to pollute or to degrade the outside environment; the right to
environmental information; and the right to participate in workplace environmental audits (see below).

The impacts of pollution prevention planning on employment are hard to gauge. The explicit aim of pollution
prevention initiatives is often to increase industrial efficiency and environmental protection at the same time
and by the same set of measures. When this happens, the usual effect is to decrease overall employment
within any given workplace (because of technological innovation) but to increase the skills required and then
to increase job security (because there is planning for a longer-term future). To the extent that the use of raw
materials and adjuncts is reduced, there will be decreased chemical manufacturing employment, though this is
likely to be offset by the implied transition of feedstock to speciality chemicals and by the development of
alternatives and substitutes.

There is one aspect of employment which pollution prevention planning cannot address. Pollution emissions
from a single facility may decrease but to the extent that there is an industrial strategy to create wealth and
value-added employment, an increase in the number of production facilities (however clean) will tend to
nullify the environmental protection gains already achieved. The most notorious failing in environmental
protection measures - that pollution emission reductions and controls are nullified by an increase in the
number of sources - applies, unfortunately, to pollution prevention as well as to any other form of
intervention. Ecosystems, according to one respected theory, have a carrying capacity, and that limit can be
reached equally by a small number of highly polluting or dirty sources or by a correspondingly large
number of clean ones.

Workplace environmental audits

Pollution prevention planning can form part of or be accommodated in a workplace environmental audit.
Though there are many versions of such audits, they are likely to be in the form of a site audit or
production audit, in which the whole production cycle is subjected to both an environmental and a financial
analysis.

There are roughly three areas of sustainable development and environmental protection which can be covered
in a workplace audit:

the conservation of natural resource inputs - for example, minerals, water and wood products

energy use, which may also include consideration of energy sources, energy efficiency, energy
intensiveness and energy conservation

pollution prevention, control and remediation.

To the extent that pollution prevention is successful, there will be a corresponding decrease in the importance
of control and remediation measures; pollution prevention measures can form a major part of a workplace
environmental audit.
Traditionally, businesses were able to externalize environmental detriments through such means as the
profligate use of water or unloading their wastes onto the outside community and the environment. This has
led to demands for taxes on the front end such as water use or on outputs such as environmentally
unfriendly products or on wastes (pollution taxes).

In this way, costs to business are internalized. However, it has proved difficult to put the right price on the
inputs and on the detriments - for example, the cost to communities and the environment of wastes. Nor is it
clear that pollution taxes reduce pollution in proportion to the amounts levied; taxes may well internalize
costs, but they otherwise only add to the cost of doing business.

The advantage of environmental auditing is that the audit can make economic sense without having to cost
externalities. For instance, the value of waste can be calculated in terms of resource input loss and energy
non-utilization (inefficiency) - in other words, of the difference in value between resources and energy on
one side and the value of the product on the other. Unfortunately, the financial side of pollution prevention
planning and its part in workplace environmental audits is not well advanced.

Hazard assessment

Some pollution prevention schemes work without any hazard evaluation - that is, without criteria to decide
whether a plant or facility is more or less environmentally benign as a result of pollution prevention measures.
Such schemes may rely on a list of chemicals which are objects of concern or which define the scope of the
pollution prevention programme. But the list does not grade chemicals as to their relative hazardousness, nor
is there a guarantee that a chemical substitute not on the list is, in fact, less hazardous than a listed chemical.
Common sense, not scientific analysis, tells us how to go about implementing a pollution prevention
programme.

Other schemes rest on criteria for assessing hazardousness, that is, on hazard assessment systems. They work,
essentially, by laying down a number of environmental parameters, such as persistence and bioaccumulation
in the environment, and a number of human health parameters which serve as measures of toxicity - for
example, acute toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, reproductive toxicity and so on.

There is then a weighted scoring system and a decision procedure for scoring those parameters on which there
is inadequate information on the chemicals to be scored. Relevant chemicals are then scored and ranked, then
(often) assembled in groups in descending order of hazardousness.

Though such schemes are sometimes devised with a specific purpose in mind - for example, for assessing
priorities for control measures or for elimination (banning) - their essential use is as an abstract scheme which
can be used for a large variety of environmental protection measures, including pollution prevention. For
instance, the top group of scored chemicals could be the prime candidates for a mandatory pollution
prevention programme, or they could be candidates for phasing-out or substitution. In other words, such
schemes do not tell us how much we should reduce environmental health hazards; they tell us only that any
measures we take should be informed by the hazard assessment scheme.

For instance, if we have to make decisions about substituting a less hazardous chemical for a more dangerous
one, we can use the scheme to tell us whether, prima facie, the substitution decision is a good one: we run
both chemicals through the scheme to determine whether there is a wide or merely a narrow gap between
them regarding their hazardousness.
There are two sorts of considerations which rarely fall within the scope of hazard assessment schemes. The
first is exposure data, or the potential for human exposure to the chemical. The latter is difficult to calculate,
and, arguably, it distorts the intrinsic hazard of the chemicals concerned. For instance, a chemical could be
accorded an artificially low priority on the grounds that its exposure potential is low; though it may, in fact, be
highly toxic and relatively easy to deal with.

The second sort of consideration is the socioeconomic impact of eliminating or reducing the use of the
chemical concerned. While we can start to make substitution decisions on the basis of the hazard analysis, we
would have to make a further and distinct socioeconomic analysis and consider, for example, the social utility
of the product associated with the chemical use (which may, e.g., be a useful drug), and we would also have to
consider the impact on workers and their communities. The reason for keeping such analysis separate is that it
is impossible to score the results of a socioeconomic analysis in the same way that the intrinsic hazards of
chemicals are scored. There are two entirely distinct sets of values with different rationales.

However, hazard assessment schemes are crucial in assessing the success of pollution prevention
programmes. (They are also relatively new, both in their impact and their utility.) For instance, it is possible to
apply them without reference to risk assessments, risk analysis and (with reservations) without reference to
cost-benefit analysis. An earlier approach to pollution was to first do a risk assessment and only then decide
what sort of action, and how much, was necessary to reduce the risk to an acceptable level. The results were
rarely dramatic. Hazard assessment, on the other hand, can be utilized very quickly and in such a way that it
does not delay or compromise the effectiveness of a pollution prevention programme. Pollution prevention is,
above all, a pragmatic programme capable of constantly and speedily addressing pollution issues as they arise
and before they arise. It is arguable that traditional control measures have reached their limit and only the
implementation of comprehensive pollution prevention programmes will be capable of addressing the next
phase of environmental protection in a practical and effective way.

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Part VII - The Environment Franais