CARBOHYDRATES

Chemistry and Classification C L Stylianopoulos 303

Regulation of Metabolism C L Stylianopoulos 309
Requirements and Dietary Importance C L Stylianopoulos 316
Resistant Starch and Oligosaccharides A Laurentin and C A Edwards 322

ENERGY
Metabolism S Cox 106
Balance Y Schutz 115
Requirements W P T James 125
Adaptation A G Dulloo and J Jacquet 131

EXERCISE
Beneficial Effects C Boreham and M H Murphy 154
Diet and Exercise R J Maughan 162

FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS see VITAMIN A: Biochemistry and Physiological Role. VITAMIN D:

Physiology,
Dietary Sources and Requirements; Rickets and Osteomalacia. VITAMIN E: Metabolism
and
Requirements. VITAMIN K
FAT STORES see ADIPOSE TISSUE
FATS see FATTY ACIDS: Metabolism; Monounsaturated; Omega-3 Polyunsaturated; Omega-6
Polyunsaturated; Saturated; Trans Fatty Acids. LIPIDS: Chemistry and
Classification; Composition and
Role of Phospholipids
FATS AND OILS A H Lichtenstein 177
FATTY ACIDS
Metabolism P A Watkins 186
Monounsaturated P Kirk 198
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated A P Simopoulos 205
Omega-6 Polyunsaturated J M Hodgson, T A Mori and M L Wahlqvist 219
Saturated R P Mensink and E H M Temme 225
Trans Fatty Acids M J Sadler 230

FIBER see DIETARY FIBER: Physiological Effects and Effects on Absorption; Potential
Role in Etiology of
Disease; Role in Nutritional Management of Disease

FOOD CHOICE, INFLUENCING FACTORS A K Draper 277

FOOD COMPOSITION DATA S P Murphy 282
FOOD FOLKLORE J Dwyer and J Freitas 289
FOOD FORTIFICATION
Developed Countries R Nalubola 295
Developing Countries O Dary and J O Mora 302
FOOD INTAKE see DIETARY INTAKE MEASUREMENT: Methodology; Validation. DIETARY
SURVEYS.
MEAL SIZE AND FREQUENCY
FOOD INTOLERANCE T J David 309
FOOD SAFETY
Mycotoxins J D Groopman and T W Kensler 317
Pesticides M Saltmarsh 323
Bacterial Contamination N Noah 329
Other Contaminants C K Winter 340
Heavy Metals G L Klein 344
FORTIFICATION see FOOD FORTIFICATION: Developed Countries; Developing Countries
FRUCTOSE N L Keim and P J Havel 351
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES A E Bender 356
FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Health Effects and Clinical Applications L Galland 360
Regulatory Aspects H H Butchko and B J Petersen

GLUCOSE
Chemistry and Dietary Sources D J A Jenkins, R de Souza, L S A Augustin and C W C
Kendall 390
Metabolism and Maintenance of Blood Glucose Level V Marks 398
Glucose Tolerance B Ahren 405

LEGUMES M A Grusak 120

LIPIDS
Chemistry and Classification J L Dupont 126
Composition and Role of Phospholipids A D Postle 132
LIPOPROTEINS J M Ordovas 143

MAGNESIUM C Feillet-Coudray and Y Rayssiguier 191

MALABSORPTION SYNDROMES P M Tsai and C Duggan 196
MALNUTRITION
Primary, Causes Epidemiology and Prevention A Briend and P Nestel 203
Secondary, Diagnosis and Management N Solomons 212
MANGANESE C L Keen, J L Ensunsa, B Lonnerdal and S Zidenberg-Cherr 217
MEAL SIZE AND FREQUENCY F E Leahy 225
MEAT, POULTRY AND MEAT PRODUCTS P A Lofgren 230
MENKES SYNDROME see COPPER
MICROBIOTA OF THE INTESTINE
Prebiotics J M Saavedra and N Moore 237
Probiotics M Gueimonde and S Salminen 244
MILK see DAIRY PRODUCTS
MINERALS see CALCIUM. MAGNESIUM. PHOSPHORUS. POTASSIUM. SODIUM: Physiology
MOLYBDENUM see ULTRATRACE ELEMENTS
MONOSATURATED FAT see FATTY ACIDS: Monounsaturated
MYCOTOXINS see FOOD SAFETY: Mycotoxins

NUTRITION POLICIES IN DEVELOPING AND DEVELOPED COUNTRIES C Geissler 293

NUTRITION TRANSITION, DIET CHANGE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS B M Popkin 301
NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT
Anthropometry J EatonEvans 311
Biochemical Indices F Fidanza 318
Clinical Examination B Caballero 329
NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT
In the Home Setting M Elia and R J Stratton 332
Adults, Enteral K N Jeejeebhoy 342
Adults, Parenteral J Binkley, S Daniell and G L Jensen 349
Infants and Children, Parenteral S Collier and C Lo 357
NUTRITIONAL SURVEILLANCE
Developed Countries N R Sahyoun 363
Developing Countries L M Neufeld and L Tolentino 371
NUTS AND SEEDS J Gray 381

STARCH see CARBOHYDRATES: Chemistry and Classification; Regulation of Metabolism;

Requirements
and Dietary Importance; Resistant Starch and Oligosaccharides
STARVATION AND FASTING J E Bines and R G Heine 173
STOMACH
Structure and Function J P Pearson and I A Brownlee 180
Disorders J A Solon 190
STROKE, NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT S McLaren 196
SUCROSE
Nutritional Role, Absorption and Metabolism J Brand-Miller 204
Dietary Sucrose and Disease B Caballero 212
SUGAR see CARBOHYDRATES: Chemistry and Classification; Regulation of Metabolism;
Requirements and
Dietary Importance; GALACTOSE. GLUCOSE: Chemistry and Dietary Sources; Metabolism
and
Maintenance of Blood Glucose Level; Glucose Tolerance. SUCROSE: Nutritional Role,
Absorption and
Metabolism; Dietary Sucrose and Disease
SUPPLEMENTATION
Dietary Supplements S S Percival 214
Role of Micronutrient Supplementation R D W Klemm 220
Developing Countries R Shrimpton 227
Developed Countries M F Picciano and S S McDonald 233

Chimie ?i clasificare
C L Stylianopoulos, Universitatea Johns Hopkins,
Baltimore, MD, SUA
2005 Elsevier Ltd. Toate drepturile rezervate.
Introducere
Carbohidra?ii sunt constituen?ii cei mai abunden?i
din cereale, fructe, legume ?i leguminoase. Sunt
principala sursa de energie n nutri?ia umana ?i
contribuie la textura ?i aroma alimentelor procesate.
Ele cuprind un grup de substan?e cu
structuri diferite ?i proprietati fizice, chimice,
?i fiziologice diferite. Carbohidra?ii sunt
polihidroxid aldehida sau cetone ?i
deriva?ii lor cu formula generala (CH20) n.
Carbohidra?ii dietetici sunt importan?i n men?inerea
homeostaziei glicemica ?i sanatatea gastrointestinala.
Mai mult, ele con?in micronutrien?i necesari,
fitochimicale ?i antioxidan?i.
Clasificarea ?i structura chimica
Carbohidra?ii sunt clasifica?i n patru categorii
n func?ie de structura ?i gradul lor chimic
de polimerizare: monozaharide, dizaharide, oligozaharide,
?i polizaharide.
monozaharide
Monozaharidele sunt cea mai simpla forma de carbohidrati
?i nu poate fi hidrolizata n continuare n cantita?i mai mici.
n func?ie de lungimea lan?ului, monozaharidele
pot fi mpar?ite n mai multe categorii,
din punct de vedere nutri?ional pentozele sunt mai importante,
cu schelete care con?in cinci atomi de carbon (de exemplu,
riboza) ?i hexozelor, cu schelete care con?in
?ase atomi de carbon (de exemplu, glucoza).
Prezen?a atomilor de carbon asimetrici n
monozaharide cu diferite grupuri func?ionale
ata?ate, da na?tere la activitate optica, ceea ce nseamna ca daca
lumina polarizata trece printr-o solu?ie din acesti
compu?i, planul luminii va fi rotit n stnga
(levorotator sau forma L) sau n dreapta (dreapta
sau D). Ca rezultat, structurile oglinziare ale imaginii
acela?i compus exista ?i se numesc stereoizomeri.
Monozaharidele din forma D sunt mai important nutritive,
deoarece enzimele metabolice ?i digestive
sunt specifice pentru stereoizomerii D.
Monozaharidele demonstreaza un alt tip de
stereoizomerism datorita formarii structurilor ciclice.
Pentozele formeaza furanoza (cu cinci inele membre),
iar hexozele formeaza piranoza (?ase inele membre).
Ciclizarea poate produce doi stereoizomeri ?i, n general, solutiile monozaharide
con?in un amestec de echilibru dintre acestea
doua forme.
Glucoza este cea mai abundenta monozaharida,
?i este un combustibil major de celule n corpul uman, ?i
pot fi gasite nelegate n ?esuturi ?i fluide ale corpului.
Glucoza reprezinta blocul de mai multe polizaharide.
Galactoza ?i fructoza sunt, de asemenea, utilizate ca conbustibili celulari.