Dynamic Research Journals (DRJ)

Journal of Economics and Finance (DRJ-JEF)

Volume 2 ~ Issue 9 (September, 2017) pp: 10-17
ISSN (Online): 2520-7490
www.dynamicresearchjournals.org

The Impact of the 2015-16 El-nino Induced Drought on Women

Sikhanyisiwe Mlotshwa, Dr Chipo Mutongi & Conillious Gwatirisa
*Contact details mutongic@gmail.com (+263712529824)

Abstract: Droughts continue to have significant impacts in both developed and developing countries. The latter still
suffer from droughts the most. Since drought is a global phenomenon, it is useful, from a global development
perspective, to understand the pattern of various drought-related characteristics and impacts worldwide. Such
characteristics should reflect multiple aspects of drought, ranging from quantification of drought hazard and
vulnerability of water resources systems, - to measures of preparedness to face future droughts. This study
therefore sets out to assess the impact of the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought on women of Chirimamhunga ward
in Seke, a district in the province of Mashonaland East, Zimbabwe.
Key words: El-nino, Drought, Women, Development, Climate, Water, Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

1. Introduction
In the year 2015-2016, the El Nino induced drought affected over 60 million people globally with East and
Southern African regions being the hardest hit. Many a times, when a disaster strikes, the hardest hit victims are
women and children as they lack coping strategies and are usually economically marginalised. National Drought
Mitigation Centre (2008) describes drought as a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period, usually a
season or more, resulting in a water shortage causing adverse impacts on vegetation, animals, and/or people.
Drought is regarded as a normal recurrent feature that is experienced in all climate zones whether dry or wet. On the
other hand, El Nio is a naturally occurring event in the equatorial region which causes temporary changes in the
world climate and reversals in wind direction. It is caused by the rapid warming of the Pacific Ocean (Babi, 2005).
Most studies highlight that droughts in Africa have become more frequent, intense and widespread. The severe
droughts of 19721973, 19831984 and 19911992 affected the whole continent and remain unique in the records
available today (Masih et al; 2014). Recently, the continent has been hit by drought that was also experienced 35
years ago. It should be noted, however, that many a times when disasters such as drought strike, many studies tend
to focus on its impacts on the community, country at large without specifically cascading down to individual groups
such as those of women, who are in most cases most vulnerable. This study therefore sets out to assess the impact of
the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought on women of Chirimamhunga ward in Seke, a district in the province of
Mashonaland East, Zimbabwe.

Purpose of the Study

This study seeks to assess how and the extent to which the El Nino induced drought phenomenon impacted on
women in Seke District, Zimbabwe.

2. Review of Related Literature

The following review of related literature was presented:

2.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

Sustainable Livelihoods Approach or Framework (SLA) was devised from what can be called an
intentional approach to development. It is founded upon the notion that intervention must be based upon an
appreciation of what underpins livelihoods. The notion of sustainable livelihood can be said to have arisen out of the
1992 Earth Summit held in Rio (Perrings 1994) and its promotion of Agenda 21 (Agenda for the 21st Century). A
stated aim in Agenda 21 is that everyone must have the opportunity to earn a sustainable livelihood. Fig 1 below
presents the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework.

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The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (Lowe and Schilderman, 2001).

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required
for a means of living; a livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain
or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and
which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long-term
(Chambers and Conway (1992, p. 7). SLA evolved within the context of the intentional development approach by
which development practitioners were seeking to maximise the effectiveness of their interventions to help the
disadvantaged. It is in effect a diagnostic tool which provides a framework for analysis leading to concrete
suggestions for intervention (Allison and Horemans 2006; Tao and Wall 2009). SLA was typically applied in poorer
countries as part of a planning phase for an intervention via policy, a development project or perhaps as the basis for
more in-depth research. In that sense the SLA is an analysis of peoples current livelihood and what is needed for an
enhancement, and useful in avoiding the inappropriate interventions critiqued by the post-developmentalists. The
SLA could also result in recommendations that people themselves may be able to put into practice rather than be
dependent upon the actions of outsiders. This makes SLA a holistic approach.
It is also important to realise that the use of the SLA framework is not necessarily dependent upon
facilitation by an external agency for those whose livelihood is being analysed. In theory it should be possible for
anyone to apply this model. For example, an individual could apply it to themselves or to their household or a group
could use it to analyse their own livelihoods. SLA is an example of the multiple capital approach where
sustainability is considered in terms of available capital (natural, human, social, physical and financial) and an
examination of the vulnerability context (trends, shocks and stresses) in which these capitals (or assets) exist.
Capital is defined as a means by which people can engage more fruitfully and meaningfully with the world and
most importantly the capability to change the world. Krantz (2001, p. 1).
The concept of Sustainable Livelihood (SL) is an attempt to go beyond the conventional definitions and
approaches to poverty eradication. These had been found to be too narrow because they focused only on certain
aspects or manifestations of poverty, such as low income, or did not consider other vital aspects of poverty such as
vulnerability and social exclusion. SLA forces this wider perspective through its very design, and is especially
relevant in situations where people may have multiple contributions towards their livelihood rather than just a single
wage or salary (Tao and Wall2009). There is an assumption underlying all this in that change happens and
livelihoods are dynamic rather than static. The importance of understanding the history of where people are helps in
appreciating why things are the way they are and why people do what they do (Scoones and Wolmer 2003).
SLA is a flexible approach that can be implemented in many different ways depending upon local context
and expertise available for the analysis. It can also be used as a framework for developing indicators to help policy
makers and others chart progress towards attainment of sustainable livelihood (Bondad-Reantaso et al. 2009; Bueno
2009; Nha 2009). This research will therefore be guided by this approach to assess the impact of 2015-16 El Nino
induced-drought on women of Seke, Chirimamhunga Ward.

2.2 Drought
Many parts of the world have been experiencing drought over the years. Australia suffered multi-year
droughts between 2002 and 2010 (Fao, 2010). Based on FAO statistics, total Australia wheat yield in 2006 dropped
by 46 percent (below 1960-2010 yield trend level). The 2010 drought in Russia was very long, intensive, spread
over a sizeable area and caused serious damage to the environment, economy and human health. The 2010 drought
was recorded as the worst in the last 38 years in Russia. In the United States, the 2011 drought affected mostly the

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covered southern states; Texas, Oklahoma and New Mexico. Drought also affected parts of Arizona, Kansas,
Arkansas, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, South and North
Carolina.
Pielke (2012) observes that in recent years, concern has grown worldwide that droughts may be increasing
in frequency and severity given the changing climatic conditions. Responses to droughts in most parts of the world
are generally reactive in terms of crisis management and are known to be untimely, and poorly coordinated. Climate
change is one of the worlds biggest threats today and its impacts are already being felt particularly the 2015-16 El
Nino which has affected 60 million people globally. El Nino got its name from fishermen off the west coast of South
America. They were the first to notice appearances of unusually warm water that occurred at year's end. The
phenomenon became known as El Nio because of its tendency to occur around Christmas time. El Nio is Spanish
for "the boy child" and is named after the baby Jesus (Shuman; 2011). With the reduction of Southern Africas
rainfall, an impact that has led to the region experiencing frequent drought conditions (Chenje and Johnson,1994;
and SADC, 2008). El Nio has resulted in a severe drought across much of southern Africa, affecting nearly 41.4
million people out of which at least 21.7 million people are in need of assistance across all SADC countries. East
and Southern Africa are the most affected regions. The El Nio weather phenomenon happens every two to seven
years and influences weather almost everywhere in the world (Kuhn; 2013). Most countries in Africa lack the
necessary capacity and resources to make required progress to address this catastrophic hazard (e.g. Global Facility
for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), 2011; Tadesse et al., 2008; Vogel et al., 2010).

2.3 The impact of El Nino induced drought on water supply sources

UN Water (2015), notes that women are often managers of household water supply, sanitation and health is
most societies. Water is a precious liquid not only used for drinking but for personal hygiene, food production and
preparation, cleaning, washing, care of domestic animals, care of the sick, cleaning and waste disposal. High
dependence on water sources by women has made them accumulate considerable knowledge about water resources
including location, quality and storage methods (UN Water, 2015). Lack of physically accessible water sources
forces women to devote much of their time looking for the precious liquid at the same time compromising other
activities that can lead to their empowerment. These activities include; pursuit of education, income generation
project, increased prevalence of diseases related to the drought and even the construction and management of water
and sanitation facilities (Meena, 2012; UN Water, 2015).
Scarcity of water also put womens hygiene at risk as they are forced to prioritize the little water for
drinking and cooking (Abuya; 2011). This also affects girls badly in that in some cases they are withdrawn from
school to support their mothers in fetching water or taking care of their siblings. Quest for the precious liquid also
results in men leaving their homesteads with livestock in search of pasture and water thereby leaving women behind
with a number of responsibilities. Some women become so vulnerable to the extent that they find engaging in
prostitution as an option in order to put food on their tables, consequently exposing themselves to the risk of
contracting HIV/AIDS.
Abuya (2011), adds that long walks in the bushes by women looking for water also exposes them to being
raped by marauding bandits. Most female farmers have little or no access to irrigation water for agricultural
activities and they are dependent on rainfall. This makes it difficult for them to achieve a bumper harvest especially
during drought disasters. World Bank Research studies note that it is important to accord women land and resources
such as irrigation facilities to be able to curb effects brought about by natural disasters such as drought. Meena
(2012) who looks at water scarcity in Kenya due to drought notes that it has greatly harmed the already vulnerable
populations such as that of women and children. This is the same with other countries experiencing drought.

3. Methodology
This study adopted the mixed research design. Mixed methods are a combination or integration of qualitative
and quantitative research and data in a research study. Qualitative research design collects analyses information in
many forms, chiefly in words. Quantitative research design is, as the term suggests, collects and analyses data in
numeric form (Hughes, 1997). Qualitative data tends to be open-ended without predetermined responses while
quantitative data usually includes closed-ended responses such as found on questionnaires. Mixed methods was
motivated by the idea that both methods (qualitative and quantitative) had weaknesses and bias, therefore using both
methods in a research study would neutralize the weaknesses of each method. This is the chief reason why this
research study opted for mixed methods to analyse the impact of the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought on women of
Chirimamhunga Ward in Seke District.

3.1 Polulation

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In this study, population was the women of Seke, particularly from two villages known as Gawura and
Chirimamhunga in Chirimamhunga Ward 6. The women aged 30-70 years were chosen for this study.

3.2 Systematic Sampling

The systematic sampling was applied in the distribution of questionnaires in Gawura and Chirimamhunga
villages in Chirimamhunga Ward. In this method of sampling, the first unit is selected with the help of random
numbers and the remaining units are selected automatically according to a predetermined pattern (Shalab,2000). In
this study, the first homestead to be distributed a questionnaire was chosen randomly and the third homestead after
that was chosen systematically. A total of seven homesteads from each village were chosen for this study.
Systematic sampling extended the sample to the entire population.

3.3 Purposive sampling

The researchers employed their own expert judgment about who to include in the sample frame. They
deliberately chose 8 women who specifically represented various forms of vulnerability experienced by women.
These included women with greater nutritional needs specifically - pregnant woman, lactating mother and one
living with HIV or Diabetes, woman who heads a household, one in community leadership, one with assets such as
livestock and scotch cart, one from a proper family set up (with kids and a husband) and a counsellor. This study
focused on the period 2015 to 2016, the period which experienced El Nino induced drought in Zimbabwe.

3.4 Research Instruments

Research instruments are fact finding strategies. These are the tools used during data collection. These can
include Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation and Reading. This study made use of questionnaires and key
informant interviews to collect data. These two instruments were chosen because they are valid and reliable for this
type of study. Annum (2016) notes that, the validity and reliability of any research project depends to a large extent
on the appropriateness of the instruments.

4. Findings
Findings of this study clearly show that:
Respondents reaction to whether the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought affected womens health

Responses

Yes
No

As shown by the findings above, Chirimamhunga women resoundingly agreed that the 2015-16 El Nino
induced drought affected womens health. Some of the respondents below share womens experiences;
A 57 year old woman said;
My blood pressure would shoot high during the drought period as children demanded a lot that I could not
even offer. For instance, school needs and food. I did not have any income and borrowing money from the
Club all the time was not sustainable. As a result, I would do nothing but stress and this caused my high
blood pressure.
A 56-year-old mother of four shared the following;
I had BP (high blood pressure) throughout the drought period and even now. It was not easy thinking of
how you are going to survive the next day with the children. Also, this past drought season was too hot and
we would spend most of our time working outside, as a result we experienced headaches due to
dehydration.
A 67-year old woman said;
We were affected health wise by the 2015-16 drought period. I lost weight due having one meal per day
during the drought period. Also age is catching up with me I would take more time than normal to get to
the nearest borehole to fetch water. I experienced back pain and headache as a result.

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A 63-year old grandmother of five shared the following;

I almost went crazy because of thinking during the drought period. I had a lot of responsibilities while I
could not juggle up. Drought really affects womens health, sometimes when you just take a look of
someone you would think they are sick when they are not. Thinking alone can lead to loss of weight and
headaches.
A 34-year-old pregnant woman said;
I was pregnant with my son at the time of drought. It was a horrible time for me and my health was greatly
affected. I did not have a wheel barrow for use when fetching water so I would carry the water buckets on
the head. I would get tired so much that at some point I almost collapsed on my way to the borehole. The
borehole was far and it was too hot. I even thought I was going to have a miscarriage or a stillbirth due to
the heavy duties I was doing.
A 45-year-old Home Based Counsellor had this to share:
Some women in the ward especially those who are diabetic and living with HIV deteriorated health wise
due to the past drought effects. These are women with greater nutritional needs, they have to eat good food
with the required nutrients and they usually manage to do so because most women here have gardens where
they grow all types of vegetables and they have farms as well where they grow grain. There was however,
none of that during the El Nino induced drought period and they suffered a great deal. Those who take pills
should eat daily and not skip meals as these can be detrimental to their health but they were forced to do so
because there was no enough food.
Pregnant women and lactating mothers also had an unpleasant time during the drought period. Some
pregnant women would come to us seeking pain relief after engaging in heavy duties especially travelling
long distances to fetch water and thereafter load it on their heads. Lactating mothers on the other hand
much need balanced diet food so that they could produce good and enough milk for their babies especially
those who had babies below six months. Babies below six months are recommended to rely only on breast
milk and start solids after six months. However, this was not fulfilled by some mothers as they ended up
giving their babies porridge way before six months because they were not producing enough milk due to
lack of enough food.
The above experiences shared by Chirimamhunga women clearly underscores how the 2015-16 El Nino induced
drought period affected womens health. UN women (2010) observes that health related concerns are alarming as
populations affected by drought are more disposed to illness and death. This statement is true to Chirimamhunga
women as elaborated by the experiences shared. Pregnant, breastfeeding and those with chronic illnesses are more
at risk as they need additional nutrition.

4.1 Womens main source of livelihood

When asked about their source of livelihood as high as 71% of the respondents said market gardening while
21% stated Internal Savings and Lending (ISAL) and a negligible 8% said agriculture. Fig 7 below illustrates the
said responses.

Fig 7 Womens main livelihood assets

Source of Livelihood
100

Source of Livelihood
0
Agriculture
ISAL (Internal Savings and Lending)
Market Gardening

The findings above clearly show that the majority of women mainly survive on market gardening.
According to Chambers and Conway (1992) defines a livelihood as capabilities, assets, and activities required for a
means of living. One of the women explained why market gardening is the most of the womens main source of
livelihood. This is shared below;
Most of the women in this ward including myself mainly survive on market gardening. Majority of us have
gardens. We grow various vegetables such as carrots, tomatoes, green pepper, beetroot, onions among
others. We are fortunate in that we stay close to Chitungwiza town and there are a quite a number of
markets there. We then take our produce there for sale and get income for our families. We get to

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Chitungwiza as early as 4am, sell our produce and by 8 oclock we will be back home with bread for
breakfast. We were unfortunate last season which experienced drought we did not get much from the
gardens due to lack of rainfall which led to our water sources depletion.
4.2 Comparison between the drought experienced in other seasons and the 2015-16 El Nino-induced drought
When asked to compare the drought experienced in other previous seasons and the 2015-16 El Nino
induced drought as high as 67% strongly agreed that the later was worse off while 17% partially agreed and 17%
disagreed. Fig 3 below, clearly shows how research participants responded to question:
Fig 3: Comparison of the severity of the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought and other seasons

The findings shown on Fig 3 above show beyond reasonable doubt that the majority of women considered
the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought to be worse off. According to the women who mainly survive on gardening
especially in Chirimamhunga Village, El Nino drought was worse off because their main water sources went dry and
as a result they had no water or irrigation facilities to water their gardens. As such they lost out on the garden
produce. Women from Gawura Village partially agreed while some disagreed that the El Nino induced drought was
worse off because they had a borehole nearby and some of their wells did not completely dry off hence, they were
still able water their gardens though they did not get as much as anticipated due to the drought season.
Some of the respondents views shared below;
A female farmer from Chirimamhunga Village;
The 2015-16 drought period was severe as that of the 2008 one. The 2008 one was worse off in that the
economy was in dire straits, shops were empty, and even if you had money you had nowhere to buy what
you needed. This recent one was severe in that we did not get anything from our gardens due to lack of
rainfall as a result of drought. For instance, I rely on garden produce for a living and I got nothing.
A female farmer-cum-trader;
The 2015-16 drought season was worse off than the previous ones for me. This is because I did not get any
income from farming that I then use for trading to earn a living. Goods were available in the shops but there
was no money to buy.
A 67-year-old said:
This past El Nino drought period was severe than previous ones because people are still suffering from its
effects even now. We planted grain hoping to get enough rainfall but to no avail, our corn for instance
dried halfway through growth stage, wells and rivers dried too. We did not harvest much and we did not
have enough water for household use too.
A grandmother of four had this to say;
I found the 2015-16 drought season to be better than the previous one especially of 2008 because you could
not even find a 5kg bag of maize to buy. The previous one is better in that we had something to eat even
though we did not get much. It pained us only on water supply sources which were highly depleted. We
could not water our tomatoes, onions and various vegetables we plant on our gardens for sale.
A 34-year-old married woman from Gawura Village shared the following;
The recent drought period was better because as some got nothing some got something. One could go to her
neighbour to ask for corn but there was none of that in 2008. People did not have much and things were
scarce, one could not get help from anyone.
Ruvimbo Club Secretary had this to share:
This one was severe in that there were just a few places where people managed to harvest enough for the
family. The majority in this ward did not get enough and as result many families were starving.
The above statements confirm the severity of the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought. This also confirms the studies
carried out by different organisations that Southern African countries were the hardest hit by drought which affected
more than 60 million people globally. In Zimbabwe, the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought left 1.5 million in need of
immediate food assistance (UNDP, 2016). Some scholars note that this kind of drought last hit the African continent
35 years ago, it has been the driest growing season (Tagat, 2015). One can conclude that Chirimamhunga women

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experiences on the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought period are just but a reflection of what other women are
experiencing in various countries especially in Southern Africa.

4.3 Women perceptions towards the 2015-16 El Nino induced drought

Respondent Perception
1 It was severe. It was only better in that we did not get floods as its effects like in other countries.
2 It was severe. It disadvantaged us greatly on our gardens.
3 It was severe. Skipping meals due to lack of enough food is not easy.
4 It should never come back again. If it were possible, God should only allow it for one year and thereafter give us good rain that
will make us achieve bumper harvest.
5 Government should help us when we experience drought such as the 2015-16 El Nino one. At least give us water through water
bowsers. It is a pain to not have water nearby. Water is life.
6 It was not easy. Government should chip in during drought periods. We received help from NGOs in 2008 when drought struck
and this time around we did not. We were just on our own. The government should have at least intervened because the situation
was dire.

The above findings clearly show that the majority of respondents perceived the 2015-16 El Nino induced
drought as severe compared to other years that were affected by drought.
The 2015/16 El Nino-induced drought affected women in various ways and these are as follows;
Women experienced reduced yield in both market gardening and conventional agriculture;
Given that market gardening was their major source of livelihood, this area was affected significantly by
the drought. Women used to survive on selling vegetables to vegetable markets in Chitungwiza, proceeds
from which they would use to buy food and other necessities for the family.
Womens health was affected. Many experienced headaches due to stress as they worried about how to
fend for their families. Pregnant women walking long distances to fetch water put their lives and that of
their unborn babies at risk as they would carry the buckets on their heads. Lactating mothers did not get
enough nutritional food that is crucial for the health of their babies. Elderly women experienced constant
back pains as they walked long distances to fetch water.
Water supply sources were heavily depleted, which was a major letdown to the women since they survived
on market gardening, which required lots of water. As a result they abandoned market gardening, which
was their major source of livelihood. Also the water shortages forced them to walk long distances about
5km to fetch water for household use. This mainly affected widows or women-headed households who did
not have assets such as scotch carts and wheelbarrows. Moreso, the majority of female-headed households
lost out on their livestock as they could not fetch water for them resulting in some of them dying from
dehydration while at the same time they had to sell some of their livestock.
Women resorted to Internal savings and lendings (ISAL) popularly known as Mukando/ Ukutshayelana to
eke out a living. This turned out to be a great strategy as it became a sustainable livelihood scheme. Women
would contribute different amounts to their ISAL clubs, which they saved and lent to each other as they
grew it. This helped them fend for the family. They would afford to pay school for their children and buy
other necessities for their home.

5. Recommendations
This study recommends that:
Government chips in through various initiatives to assist those affected by drought particularly women.
For instance drilling boreholes in almost every village and provide irrigation facilities so that womens
main source of livelihood such as market gardening is not affected during drought.
Government must partner the civic society in capacity building of rural communities particularly
women on how to cope during drought periods.
Health personnel must conscientise women on how to protect their health conditions during drought.
Those rural women adopt various alternative sources of livelihood assets in the event that one of them
is affected by drought. For instance, the majority of rural women have market gardens as their main
livelihood asset, alternatively they could adopt poultry projects, honey production, and other off farm
assets.

6. Conclusion
That drought affects women more than men because women get involved in activities that are directly
affected by drought such as market gardening, conventional agriculture, water fetching and household chores that

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require water. That the Sustainable Livelihood Framework notion that sustainable livelihood approach can result in
recommendations that people themselves may be able to put into practice rather than be depended upon the actions
of outsiders. This is a true reflection of Chirimamhunga women who turned ISAL that was initially adopted as a
coping strategy to a sustainable livelihood strategy.

References
[1]. Babi, D. D. (2005). Assessing the vulnerability of FADAMA (flood plain) agriculture to climate variability and Change. A
case study of semi-arid Northern Nigeria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
[2]. Chambers, R. and Conway, G. (1992) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century. IDS
Discussion Paper 296. Brighton: IDS.
[3]. FAO (2010) Food Security in the World. Retrieved (25/09/2017) from http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0750e/a0750e00.htm
[4]. Hughes, C (1997) Mystifying through coalescence: The underlying politics of methodological choices, in K Watson, C
Modgil and S Modgil (Eds) Educational Dilemmas: Debate and Diversity, Quality in Education, London, Cassell, pp 413-
420.
[5]. National Drought Mitigation Centre (2008). Retrieved (25/09/2017) from
http://drought.unl.edu/NewsOutreach/NDMCNews.aspx?id=311.
[6]. Pielke, A. and Wilby, R. l. (2012) Regional climate downscaling: What's the point?. Wiley: AGU Publications.
[7]. Lowe, L. and Schilderman, L. (2001) The Impact of policies, institutions and processes in urban upgrading. Paper
presented at the International Workshop on Regulatory Guidelines for Urban Upgrading. Bourton-on-Dunsmore, May 17-
18, 2001.
[8]. Ian Scoones and William Wolmer, (2003) Introduction: Livelihoods in Crisis: Challenges for Rural Development in
Southern Africa. IDS Bulletin. Volume 34, Issue 3.July 2003 Pages 114.
[9]. UN Water (2015) Water for a sustainable. Retrieved (22/09/2017) from
Worldhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002318/231823E.pdf.

Sikhanyisiwe Mlotshwa: A Communication for Development Specialist, a

holder of BSc Honours in Media and Society Studies (MSU, 2014), MSc Degree
in Development Studies (WUA, 2016)

Dr. Chipo Mutongi: A Part Time Lecturer and a PhD/DPhil Research Thesis Supervisor at
the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) with more than ten years lecturing experience; PhD/DPhil
Research Thesis Supervisor/ Under Study (2014-2016-ZOU), Research Supervisor for all levels of
education; member of the International Board of Reviewers for the International Journal of Doctoral
Studies (IJDS); Journal Reviewer-Journal of Information and Knowledge Management (JIKM);
published over thirty nine articles in International Journals; DCIZ board member (2016), published
more than ten modules with Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU); is in the process of authoring books
on Knowledge Management and Information Policy. An Acting Talent Development Officer in the
City of Harare, worked as a Librarian at the City of Harare with more than twelve years experience in
library, information and knowledge management; attained the highest and most prestigious degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Information and Knowledge Management (ZOU); Master of Science in
Library and Information Science (NUST); the more professional degree of Master of Business
Administration (ZOU); Media Studies Degree (ZOU); Higher National Diploma in Library and
Information Science (Harare Polytechnic); Diploma in Library and Information Science (Bulawayo
Polytechnic); Diploma in Education (UZ); Diploma in Personnel Management (IPMZ); Diploma in
Salaries Administration (Stallone Consultancy); Certificate in Desk Top Publishing (CCOSA);
Certificate in Web Designing (Peoples College); Certificate in Computer Repairs (Peoples College).

Conillious Gwatirisa: A Part Time Lecturer at the Womens University in

Africa, PhD candidate, a holder of MSc (UZ), Bed (UZ), Diploma in Education
(UZ).

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