Chapter 17: Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

1841 - 1848

Territorial expansion dominated American diplomacy and politics in the 1840s.

I. The Accession of Tyler Too

A. 1840: Newly-elected President William Henry Harrison, Secretary of State Daniel
Webster, king of Whigs and able Senate spokesman Henry Clay. VP John Tyler
1. Webster/Clay wanted Whigs to control the government
2. Harrison catches pneumonia and dies after 4 weeks in office
B. John Tyler: blue eyes, six feet tall, slender, fair-hair, classic-style. Virginian gentleman,
principled, gracious, kind
1. resigned from Senate because he didnt want to do what VA legislature told him to do
2. Many accused of him being a Democrat in Whig clothing. He was part of the
minority wing, attracting Jeffersonian states righters => chosen for VP to attract
these people to vote Harrison
3. He should not have joined the Harrison campaign because now: in trouble when
making decisions. Whig Party - pro-bank, pro-protective tariff, pro-internal
improvements
4. Harrison and Tyler = 2 very different presidents
II. John Tyler: A President Without a Party
A. after winning election of 1840: Whigs introduced a strong nationalistic program
1. Financial reform
a) Congress quickly passed a law ending the independent treasury, Tyler signed it
b) Clay drove a Fiscal Bank bill to establish new BoUS. Tyler=hostile towards bank
idea. Clay=stiff in his bill from many losses in presidential elections
c) Tyler flatly vetoed bill => people rioted outside White House
d) Congress tried Fiscal Corporation bill. Tyler vetoed again
B. Many were angry = Tyler grippe
1. Whig congressmen expelled Tyler from the party
2. House of Representative tried to impeach him
3. Entire cabinet resigned (except for Webster who was negotiating with England)
C. Tariff passed by Congress: provided for distribution of revenue from selling land, among
the states. Tyler liked the idea of collecting money for federal government but did not ike
wasting the money: vetoed it
D. Tariff of 1842 - redraft of the original tariff bill. Removed the dollar-distribution among
states and pushed down rates to the protective level in 1832 (32% on goods). Tyler did
not like tariffs but realized additional revenue was needed: reluctantly signed
III. A War of Words with Britain
A. AntiBritish passions:
1. bitter red-coat memories of the 2 Anglo-American wars (American Revolution/1812)
2. Pro-british federalists gone => Jacksonian Democrats
3. British travelers to America wrote badly of uncivil American habits (tobacco spitting,
lynching, eye grouching, etc)
B. British journals launched sneering attacks on Yankee shortcomings. American
shortcomings struck back: youre another arguments.
1. Third War with Britain : British ink vs American ink (authors denied copyright, etc)
2. Sprawling America = borrowing nation (roads/railroads to build). Imperial Britain =
lending nation (overflowing coffers)
 C. 1837 - Uprising in Canada (British): Americans dedicated to take a strike at British for the
words war. Washington Government tried to remain neutral but there was no use in
passing laws against popular opposition
D. 1837 - Canadian frontier incident: Caroline (American steamer) carried supplies to
rebels on Niagara River. Attacked on NY shore by British (set on fire). While angry
American illustrators greatly dramatized and exaggerated the scene, only one American
was killed
1. on American soil attack => 1840 - McLeod (Canadian) boasted about his part in the
Caroline attack was arrested and indicted for murder
2. London Foreign Office regarded Caroline raiders as members of armed force (not
criminals) so McLeod execution = official war
3. After establishing alibi to convince NY jury, he was freed and tension eased
4. more tension: Creole (American ship) was captured by British and 130 Virginia
slaves were offered asylum by Bahamas British
E. British abolished slavery in 1833: feared that the Caribbean property/colonies would
become Canada-like havens for escaped slaves
IV. Manipulating the Maine Ships
A. Maine Boundary dispute = early 1840s
B. St. Lawrence river was ice for most of the year => British wanted to make a road
westward, but it would go into the disputed Main territory (Maine claimed it in a
misleading treaty of 1783)
C. Many British vs Maine fights, both sides called local militia => Aroostook War - small
scale lumber-jack war over the land, threatened to widen into a full-scale shooting war
D. 1842 - crisis was deep. London Foreign Office sent Lord Ashburton (financier) as an
nonprofessional diplomat to America. established cordial relations with Webster
1. Webster and Ashburton: agreed on compromise for the Maine boundary. America
kept ~7,000 square miles out of the 12,000 square miles. British got less land but got
their Halifax-Qubec route
2. the Caroline affair was patched up by a series of diplomatic notes
3. British also gave up 6,500 mi2 on West => later found it contained Mesabi ore of MN
V. Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone
A. 1836 - 1844: Texas wanted independence. Mexico did not recognize it independent,
decided to reconquer/deal with it later. threatened war if America took Texas in.
B. Texas = forced to maintain costly military budget (never knew when Mexico would attack.
Tried to negotiate with European countries for protective shield => 1839-1840: secured
treaty with France, Holland, Belgium
C. British - wanted independent republic
1. Texas could check the southward surge of Americans (America = constant threat to
nearby British possessions)
2. could become puppet Texas - turn upon Americans, create a smokescreen diversion
so foreign powers could enter Americas again and challenge Monroe Doctrine
3. British abolitionists intriguing many in Texas
4. British merchants regarded Texas as a potentially important free-trade area (offset to
the tariff USA
5. Saw Texas as a potential cotton producing area. Would reduce their dependence on
American cotton in case of an embargo or war
D. French = wanted independent Texas to cause fragmentation & militarization of America
VI. The Belated Texas Nuptials
A. 1844 election: Texas was a large issue
 1. Pro-expansion Democrats won: James K. Polk, over Whigs: Henry Clay
B. President Tyler interpreted the Polk victory with a mandate for Texas
1. Union thought Texas annexation would nourish more slavery
2. TO avoid this opposition, Tyler despaired needed the 2/3 vote of Congress: arranged
for annexation by a joint resolution (required only a simple majority in both houses of
Congress)
3. 1845 - resolution passed and Texas formally invited to become 28th state
C. Mexicans angry at America because Mexico thinks America took their land in 1845, but
Texas had become independent since 1836
1. many Comanche raids = weak Mexican influence in the region
2. Comanche tribes = created Texas a dangerous spot. Texas as an independent
nation, threatening to involve US in series of wars
D. Texas = happy with marriage between TX and USA (perfect fit)
VII. Oregon Fever Populates Oregon
A. Oregon territory: immense piece of land, parts held by Spain, Russia, Britain, US
B. Spain dropped out first: bartered away all of its land to USA in the Florida Treaty of 1819
C. Russia retreated from the area with 1824 America Treaty and 1825 British Treaty
D. British vs America for the land
1. British: strong hold on land north of Columbia River. based on discovery and
exploration, treaty rights, actual occupation. Hudsons Bay Company = colonizing
agency in the area who profitably traded furs with the Indians
2. America: based on discovery and exploration, occupation. Captain Robert Gray
found Columbia River in 1792, Lewis and Clark expedition 1804-1806 went through
Oregon territory to Pacific. Strong hold strengthened by missionaries and settlers =>
stimulated interest in the far domain of Oregon that many people thought would not
be settled for a long time
E. British and America lived peacefully there for long time. Anglo-American Convention:
Americans wanted to divide the area at the 49th parallel. British regarded Columbia
River as St. Lawrence of the West => unwilling to yield that division
1. scheme for joint occupation was adopted
F. #Americans quickly increased in 1840s => many caught with the Oregon fever.
hundred of pioneers carried their wagons, etc to Oregon. Many died. Most experts in
bowie knife and revolving pistol
G. British could only get ~700 people there => British thought it was not wise to fight as a
minority for the land against USA
H. Area in dispute: Columbia River on S,E. 49th parallel on N. Pacific Ocean on W.
I. Issue eventually pushed to 1844 election, overshadowed by Texas annexation
VIII.A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny
A. 1844 election:
1. Whigs = Henry Clay
2. Democrats = James K. Polk, Americas first dark-horse (surprise) candidate
a) surprise, but known by many. Speaker of House for 4 years, Gov of Tennessee
for 2 years. determined, industrious, ruthless, intelligent public servant
B. Manifest Destiny - termed in this election
1. Americans felt a sense of a mission. Believed Alighty God had manifestly destined
the American people for a hemispheric career. They would spread their uplifting/
ennobling democratic institutions across the continent (land greed, ideals - empire
and liberty)
2. Strongly supported by Expansionist Democrats
 3. wanted reanimation of Texas, reoccupation of Oregon all the way to 5440 => Fifty-
four forty or fight coined 2 years later
C. Democrats condemned Clay as a corrupt bargainer and slaveowner (Polk also owned
slaves). Whigs were also noisemakers=shouted slogans. spread a rumor - a gang of TN
slaves had been seen going to a Southern market branded with J.K.P. initials
D. For issue of Texas: Clay straddled. Wrote letters: personally favored annexing
slaveholding Texas (South appeal), but also favored postponement (North appeal)
1. alienated the Northern people by doing this, but also gained votes
E. James K. Polk won the election => Clay lost many votes in NY (antislavery Liberty
Party absorbed ~16,000 votes. spoiled Clays chance of winning to help ensure that if
pro-Texas Polk won, Texas would be annexed faster
F. some thought Polk victory would mean direct annexation of Texas =>realized that they
must ask public to vote again to follow the mandate signed by Pres. Tyler 3 days before
leaving office
IX. Polk the Purposeful
A. Polk = 58 medium height, lean, long white hair, gray eyes, stern face. Methodological,
hardworking, not brilliant, shrewd, narrow-minded, conscientious, persistent. Serious life,
unwilling to delegate authority (increased burden).
B. Purposeful: developed a 4 point program and achieved in less than 4 years
C. #1 goal: lower tariff. Walker Tariff of 1846 - Secretary of State Robert J. Walker advised
a tariff-for-revenue bill (reduced Tariff of 1842 from 32% to 25%).
1. Bill went through Congress, Whigs complained it would ruin American manufacturing
2. Truth: it proved to be revenue producer because it was followed by boom times and
heavy imports
D. #2 goal: restoration of independent treasury. dropped by Whigs in 1841, pro-Bank Whigs
tried o stop in Congress, but Democrats won treasury in 1846.
E. #3 goal: acquisition of California. #4 goal: settle the Oregon dispute
1. Northern democrats promised whole Oregon in 1844 election. Southern democrats
quickly cooled off after annexing Texas. Polk proposed the 49th parallel, not 5440
like his party. British rejected it
2. British mindset changed: anti expansionists were persuaded that Columbia river was
not St. Lawrence river. Realizes that Americans might seize the Oregon country. Did
not want to fight war for the unpopular monopolies Hudson Bay Company.
3. early 1846 - British proposed the 49th parallel. Polk was still mad at the original
rejection => sent offer to Senate who accepted it (US was in a long war with Mexico
over Texas)
F. Some were unhappy with Oregon settlement - why all of Texas and not all of Oregon?
=> because Britain is powerful and Mexico is weak. Polk got a reasonable compromise
without any shots fired
X. Misunderstandings with Mexico
A. Many wanted the glorious California (harbor, bay, land)
1. had many Spanish Mexicans, Indians, some foreigners - mostly American => wanted
to take over Texas by playing the Texas game
B. Polk wanted to buy CA from Mexico but US had ~$3 million in damages to American
citizens/property. Mexico assumed debts (lots of revolution activity) but forced to default
C. Mexican Government promised to declare war if US annexed Texas. After annexation,
Mexico removed its minister form Washington => diplomatic relations destroyed
D. Another deadlock: Mexico and America boundary (disputed land). Polk simply wanted to
protect the Texas land he annexed
 1. Mexicans were not really concerned about the land dispute (thought it was useless
because Texas was still theirs in their eyes)
E. California land was being anxiously watch - rumor: England was bout to buy it =>
angered Americans because it was against Monroe Doctrine
1. 1845 - Polk dispatched John Slidell to Mexico City as a minister to offer a max of $25
million for California and the territory to the East (Mexicans thought this was
insulting)
XI. American Blood on American (?) Soil
A. Jan 13 1846 - Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor and 4 thousand men to march from
Nieces River to Rio Grande, near the Mexican forces
B. May 9 1846 - Polk heard no sounds of clashing => asked Congress to declare war on
basis of: unpaid claims, Slidell's Rejection
C. April 25 - 1846: Mexican troops crossed Rio Grande and fired at Americans
D. Polk took this opportunity to exaggerate the small clash => all Americans, even Whigs,
joined the War fever, but later condemned the Jimmy Polks War
E. spot resolutions - Abraham Lincoln (gangling, rough features, Illinois congressman)
introduced certain resolutions that requested informations to the precise spot on
American soil where American blood was shed. => pushed a lot by him. Many did not
like him because they thought he was lying
F. Only ways Polk could get California (Mexico would not sell): use force, wait for internal
American rebellion
1. 1846 - all patience for getting CA for the USA was gone => bloody showdown
2. American wanted to teach the Mexicans a lesson. Mexicans wanted to humiliate the
Americans (bullies of the North) [both sides fired up by moral indignation]
3. Mexicans boasted of invading USA and freeing slaves, taking Americans, etc
XII. The Mastering of Mexico
A. Polk wanted California, not War. If war, he hoped to take his prize an leave ASAP
B. Dethroned Mexican dictator Santa Anna was exiled, promised Polk to go back and then
sell Mexico to USA if he is allowed back. Santa Anna goes back and forms strong army
C. 1846 - General Stephen W. Kearny led detachment of 17 hundred troops to capture
Santa Fe. Before he reached CA, USA won the land
D. Captain John C. Frmont, explorer, just happened to be there with many armed men.
Collaborated with American naval officers and local Americans (locals hoisted the
banner of short-lived California Bear Flag Republic)
E. General Zachary Taylor = iron constitution and unsoldierly appearance, fought his way
across Rio Grande. Feb 22-23 1847 - reached Buena Vista, was attacked by Santa
Annas troops. Mexicans were finally repulsed with extreme difficulty.
F. Net: crush Mexico at Mexico City. General Taylor was not skilled enough. Pushed to
General Winfield Scott (hero in War of 1812). Had many issues for this battle: small
#troops, expiring enlistments, large enemy, mountains, disease, politics. Still won and
proved to be a distinguished general during this time
XIII.Fighting Mexico for Peace
A. Polk = anxious to end war ASAP => sent Nicholas P. Trist with Scott to negotiate with
Santa Anna: arranged for ceasefire for a $10,000 bribe => Santa Anna took it and spent
the extra time restocking army
1. Polk angry with the negotiation => abruptly pulled Trist back, but Trist wrote a 65-
page letter saying why he would not come back
2. Feb 2 1848 - Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - signed by Trist who was desperate to
take this negotiation opportunity. Confirmed American title to Texas, yielded
 enormous area stretching westward to Oregon including California => all land was
1/2 of Mexico. America would pay $15 million for the land and assume all debts of
the claims (~$3,250,000)
B. Conscience Whigs = Mexican Whigs, antislavery Whigs in Congress. denounced
the warmth increasing heat. Controlled the House = threatened to vote down supplies for
military and could have forced Scott to retreat (Texas, etc could not have been won)
C. large group of expansionists were intoxicated by Manifest Destiny fever => wanted all of
Mexico (if USA did keep expanding, they would have an expensive, vexatious problem.
but treaty was still approved even though it was condemned by people who wanted all of
Mexico and those who did not want it
XIV.Profit and Loss in Mexico
A. Mexican War was a small war overall, compared to other wars
B. Treaty annexation was larger than Louisiana Purchase, stimulated Manifest Destiny
C. Mexican War = schoolroom of the Civil War. Many officers were destined to become
leading generals in the upcoming conflict (Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, etc)
D. 1802 - Military Academy at West Point founded. created well-trained officers.
1. navy = did valuable work in creating blockade around Mexican ports. 1845 - new
academy at Annapolis established by George Bancroft. Marine Corps est. 1845
2. opposing armies emerged from the war with increasing respect (Mexico was poorly
led but fought heroically)
E. Mexicans never got over this fight about Texas: angry with Americans for striping away
half of country. before, looked at USA with friendliness, now they at USA as a bully
F. War rerouted the slavery issue: Congress debated over the issue too. Wilma Proviso -
Representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania - introduced a fateful amendment
stipulating that slavery should never exist in any territory taken from Mexico (feared
southern slavocracy)
1. passed in House twice, but never in Senate. Southerners felt like they were being
robbed of potential slave states
2. Never became federal law, eventually endorsed by all but one free states =>
symbolized burning issue of slavery. Issue created large sectional wedge