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This article was published in ASHRAE Journal, February 2015. Copyright 2015 ASHRAE. Posted at www.ashrae.org. This article may not be copied and/or
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Part One
Radiant Heating and
Cooling Systems
BY KWANG WOO KIM, ARCH.D., MEMBER ASHRAE; BJARNE W. OLESEN, PH.D., FELLOW ASHRAE
The use of radiant heating systems has several thousand years of history.1,2 The early
stage of radiant system application was for heating purposes, where hot air from flue gas
(cooking, fires) was circulated under floors or in walls. After the introduction of plastic
piping water-based radiant heating and cooling with pipes embedded in room surfaces
(floor, wall, and ceiling), the application increased significantly worldwide. Earlier
application of radiant heating systems was mainly for residential buildings because of
its comfort and free use of floor space without any obstruction from installations. For
similar reasons, as well as possible peak load reduction and energy savings, radiant
systems are being widely applied in commercial and industrial buildings.
This two-part article describes basic knowledge of cooling. The water temperatures are operated at very
radiant heating and cooling systems to give a principle close to room temperature, and, depending on the
understanding of the design and operation of this position of the piping, the system can take advan-
advantageous system including comfort, system load, tage of the thermal storage capacity of the building
heating/cooling capacity, installation and application of structure.
the system with examples. Figure 1 shows the available types of embedded
hydronic radiant systems. The embedded radiant sys-
Embedded Radiant Heating and Cooling System tems, except thermally active building systems (TABS),
Embedded radiant systems are used in all types of are usually insulated from the main building structure
buildings. Due to the large surfaces needed for heat (floor, wall and ceiling), and the actual operation mode
transfer, the systems work with low water tempera- (heating/cooling) of the systems depends on the heat
ture for heating and high water temperature for transfer between the water and the space.
Kwang Woo Kim, Arch.D., is a professor of architecture at Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, and president of Architectural Institute of Korea. Bjarne W. Olesen, Ph.D., is
director, professor, International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, and vice president of ASHRAE.
0F 3.6F 7.2F 10.8F 14.4F 18F 0F 9F 18F 27F 36F 45F 54F 63F
Y Y
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
1 2
20% 20%
10% 10%
8% 8% 3 4
6% 6%
4% 4%
2% 2%
1% X 1% X
X=Air Temperature Difference Between Head and Feet Y=Dissatisfied X=Radiant Temperature Asymmetry Y=Dissatisfied 1=Warm Ceiling
FIGURE 3Local thermal discomfort caused by vertical air temperature difference.6 2=Cool Wall 3=Cool Ceiling 4=Warm Wall
FIGURE 4 Local thermal discomfort caused by radiant temperature asymmetry.6
Acceptability
0.0
to = 0.5(ta + tr) 40
41.4F 0.1
Where 0.2
20 32.4F
ta = air temperature F (C) 0.3
tr = mean radiant temperature F (C)
0 1.0
The occupants can maintain the same comfort level 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
with a lower air temperature in a radiantly heated Relative Humidity (%)
space, and the same comfort level with a higher air FIGURE 5 Human satisfaction with the IAQ depending on relative humidity and air
temperature.3
temperature in a radiantly cooled space in comparison
to convective heating and cooling systems. Therefore,
reduction of the energy loss due to ventilation and infil- system and vice-versa in summer. With air systems the
tration is possible while maintaining the same comfort colder window temperatures in winter will be com-
level compared with conventional heating and cooling pensated by a higher air temperature, which will result
systems. in an air temperature higher than the mean radiant
As the reference temperature for the transmission heat temperature.
loss is closer to the operative temperature than to the air For rooms with sedentary and/or standing occupants,
temperature, there will not be any significant difference the maximum permissible floor temperature for heating
of transmission heat loss between radiantly heated or is 29C (84F), and the minimum floor temperature for
cooled spaces. cooling is 19C (66F). For spaces with occupants in bare
Interestingly enough, the difference between air- and feet (bathrooms, swimming pools, dressing rooms, etc.),
mean radiant temperature is normally smaller in radi- the optimal floor temperature for comfort also depends
antly heated or cooled spaces. This is due to the fact on the floor covering material.
that in winter the windows will have a lower surface For wall heating, a maximum surface temperature
temperature than the air temperature, which is com- range of 35C to 45C (95F to 113F) is recommended.
pensated by a higher surface temperature of the radiant The maximum may depend on whether the occupants
5 Flooring Material
3 3
3
Joist
4 4 4
1=Floor Covering 2=Weight Bearing and Thermal Diffusion Layer (Cement Screed, Anhydrite Screed, Asphalt Screed or Wood)
3=Thermal Insulation 4=Structural Base 5=Heat Diffusion Device
FIGURE 6 Embedded radiant system types.7
may easily get contact with the surface or whether occu- for condensation and mold growth. The relationship
pants are more sensitive persons such as children or the between air temperature and humidity is one of impor-
elderly. Wall cooling is limited by the risk of condensa- tant comfort issues in radiantly cooled spaces. Where
tion and the development of a downdraft of cold air. the humidity is not controlled by the air system, as in
A vertical air temperature difference between head naturally ventilated spaces, radiant cooling capacity will
and feet of less than 3K (5.4F) is recommended. Most be limited to avoid the forming of condensation on the
heating and cooling systems will, in modern buildings, radiant surface (see section on control in Part 2 of this
normally have vertical air temperature differences article in next months Journal).
within this limit. In high ceiling spaces it is, for energy With air heating or cooling system more air has to
reasons, important to avoid large vertical temperature be circulated than the amount needed for providing
differences. This is why floor heating is especially rec- acceptable air quality. This may increase the noise level
ommended here (atrium, foyer, industrial space, etc.) in a space and also increase the risk for complaints
People are very sensitive to radiant temperature related to draft. When a part of sensible heating and/
asymmetry from a cold window and a warm ceiling. or cooling load is taken care of by a water-based radi-
Occupants may feel discomfort caused by a temperature ant system, the ventilation system may have reduced
asymmetry of 5K (9F) for warm ceiling, and a tempera- duct size and lower air velocity because it will only
ture asymmetry of 10K (18F) for walls or windows (Figure treat the air renewal for required IAQ and, if needed,
4, Page 30). The critical factor at cold surfaces (windows, dehumidification.
walls) is, however, the risk of downdraft that may cause In buildings with thermally active building systems
discomfort. (TABS) you will normally prefer to have free access to
The radiant heating and cooling system operates with the concrete surface to increase the heat transfer with
less dust transportation, as it is not a convective system, the room. This may require special solutions for the
and does not require the cleaning of heat emitters or acoustics. Acoustic panels on the ceilings and suspended
filters. With the radiant floor heating systems, carpets ceiling panels will reduce heat transfer. It will be more
16
are not necessary. Thus, the possible allergen sources of efficient to hang down vertical acoustical panels. The
emitting pollutants and a sink source can be eliminated. application of the raised floor or the thermal/acoustic
The higher mean radiant temperature in radiantly insulation in floor will decrease the upper heat flow
heated space means that the air temperature can be from the TABS, which normally is much less than the
kept lower than in convectively heated space. This has heat exchange from the ceiling.
the advantage that the relative humidity in winter may
be a little higher. Studies show that lower air tempera- Load Calculations and Heating/Cooling Capacity
ture and lower air humidity have a significant effect At a given average surface temperature and indoor
3
on perceived air quality (Figure 5 ). Due to the higher temperature (operative temperature, to), a surface
heating surface temperatures, there is less chance will deliver the same amount of heat flux to a space
qdown=22.3 Btu/h
FIGURE 7 Temperature distribution and cooling effect up and down for a floor system calculated by FEM software for a floor cooling system with 19C (66.2F) water tem-
peratures and 26C (78.8F) room temperature.
regardless of the embedded radiant system type. surface and the space in relation with the system type.
Therefore, it is possible to establish basic formulas or Acceptable surface temperature is determined based on
characteristic curves of heating and cooling for the all comfort considerations and the risk of condensation.
7
heating and cooling surfaces independent of the embed- Heating/cooling capacity of the systems is:
ded system types. The heat transfer between the surface
Floor heating and ceiling cooling, q = 8.92 (to tS,m )1.1;
and the space do, however, depend on the different sur-
face heat transfer coefficients (Figure 2). Wall heating and wall cooling, q = 8 (|to tS,m |);
The heat transfer between the water and surface is differ- Ceiling heating, q = 6 (|to tS,m |);
ent for each system configuration. Therefore, the estima-
tion of heating/cooling capacity of systems is very important Floor cooling, q = 7 (|to tS,m |).
for the proper system design. Two calculation methods Where
7
included in ISO 11855-2 are simplified calculation meth- to (C) is the operative temperature in the space
ods depending on the type of system, and finite element tS,m (C) is the average surface temperature
method (FEM) or finite difference method (FDM). Given The ceiling has the capacity up to 100 W/m (31.7
system types are Types A and C, Type B, Types D and G. Btu/hft) for sensible cooling and 40 to 50 W/m (12.7
The simplified calculation methods are specific for the to 15.9 Btu/hft) for heating. The floor has the capac-
given system types within boundary conditions. Based ity up to 100 W/m (31.7 Btu/hft) for heating and
on the calculated average surface temperature at given 40 W/m (12.7 Btu/hft) for sensible cooling. When
heat transfer medium temperature and space tempera- direct sunlight strikes on the floor, the sensible cooling
ture, it is possible to determine the steady state heating capacity of the floor may be more than 100 W/m (31.7
and cooling capacity. In case a simplified calculation Btu/hft). This is why floor cooling is often adopted in
method is not applicable for the considered system, spaces with large window area like airports, atria and
either two- or three-dimensional finite element or finite lobby halls.
difference method, or laboratory testing may be applied. For the thermally active building systems (TABS), the
The temperature distribution in floor cooling system, steady-state heating/cooling capacity calculation is not
calculated using FEM software, is shown in Figure 7. sufficient, and analysis with a dynamic computational
Heat exchange coefficient is the parameter that program that can predict the dynamic behavior and
determines the amount of heat transferred between performance of the system together with the building
17,1
is needed. Several programs exist such
Energy Plus, TRNSYS and IDA-ICE.
One of the main advantages of TABS are
4
needed to remove latent heat from heating and cooling systems Part 2: Determination of the design heating and cooling capacity.
the space and control air humidity level, while the hydronic systems Part 1: Definition, symbols, and comfort criteria.
7. ISO 11855-2:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
system supplies or removes the sensible heat depending on ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling sys-
the seasonal conditions. In the cooling mode, the air system tems Part 2: Determination of the design and heating and cooling capacity.
can play a key role in avoiding surface condensation. 8. 8. ISO 11855-3:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimen-
sioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
Part 2 of this article will cover control, operation, systems Part 3: Design and dimensioning.
installation and application of the system. 9. ISO 11855-4:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 4: Dimensioning and calculation of the dynamic heating and
Acknowledgments cooling capacity of Thermo Active Building Systems (TABS).
This article was supported by VELUX guest professorship, and a grant 10. ISO 11855-5:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
Korean government (MEST) (No. 2014-050381). systems Part 5: Installation.
11. ISO 11855-6:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
References ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
1. Bean, R., Olesen, B.W., Kim, K. W. 2010. History of Radiant systems Part 6: Control.
Heating & Cooling Systems, Part 1. ASHRAE Journal (1):4046. 12. ASHRAE Standard 55-2010, Thermal Environmental Conditions for
2. Bean, R., Olesen, B.W., Kim, K. W. 2010. History of Radiant Human Occupancy.
Heating & Cooling Systems, Part 2. ASHRAE Journal (2):5055. 13. ISO EN 7730-2005, Moderate thermal environmentsdetermination of
3. REHVA. 2007. Guidebook No 7: Low Temperature Heating and the PMV and PPD indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort.
High Temperature Cooling. 14. 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment.
4. Olesen, B.W. 1997. Possibilities and limitations of radiant floor 15. ISO EN 7726-1998, Ergonomics of the thermal environment- Instru-
cooling. ASHRAE Transactions 103(1):4248. ments for measuring physical quantities.
5. Olesen, B.W., Michel, E., Bonnefoi, F., De Carli, M. 2000. Heat 16. Weitzmann, P., Pittarello, E., Olesen, B.W. 2008. The cooling
exchange coefficient between floor surface and space by floor cool- capacity of the thermo active building system combined with acous-
ing: theory or a question of definition. ASHRAE Transactions, Part I. tic ceiling. Presented at Nordic Symposium on Building Physics.
6. ISO 11855-1:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension- 17. Olesen, B.W. 2012. Thermo active building systems using
ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling building mass to heat and cool. ASHRAE Journal 54(2):4452.