Series, Operators, and Differential Equations

Vivek Kaushik
August 30, 2017

1 Introduction
We consider the sums

X (1)nk
S(k) = , k N \ {1},
n=0
(2n + 1)k

which we obtain by finding the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of an integral operator on L2 [0, 1].
The eigenvalue problem is tantamount to solving a second order homogeneous linear differential
equation with sinusoidal solutions. We then analyze the powers of this linear operator, which
we show can be written as a linear combination of the eigenfunctions. Noam Elkies [1] uses this
approach.

2 The Operator
Define the characteristic function of the isosceles triangle in R2 with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1) by
(
1 u + v < 1, u, v > 0
K(u, v) =
0 else.

Then define the linear operator T : L2 [0, 1] L2 [0, 1], where

Z 1
T (f ) = f (v)K(u, v) dv.
0

Given this definition, we see

Z 1u
(T (f ))(u) = f (v) dv. (1)
0

First, T is compact since it is a Hilbert-schmidt operator (K(u, v) is square integrable over

[0, 1]2 .) Next, we see that K(u, v) = K(v, u), which implies T is self adjoint. Thus, the spectral
theorem implies T has eigenfunctions and real eigenvalues.

3 The Differential Equation

Suppose R is an eigenvalue for T. Then

(T (f ))(u) = f (u). (2)

We see by inspection (T (f ))(1) = 0, so

f (1) = 0.
Differentiating both sides of (2) once, we see

f (1 u) = f 0 (u). (3)

Since f (1) = 0, we see

f 0 (0) = 0.

1
Defining the shift map u 7 1 u, we see (3) is equivalent to
f (u) = f 0 (1 u). (4)
Differentiating both sides of (4), we find

f 0 (u) = f 00 (1 u). (5)

Using the shift map u 7 1 u again on (5), we find

f 0 (1 u) = f 00 (u). (6)
Thus, (4) and (6) give rise to the second order linear differential equation

2 f 00 (u) + f (u) = 0, f (1) = f 0 (0) = 0. (7)

ru
Letting f (u) = e , we find the roots of the characteristic polynomial (in r) for (7), which is
2 r2 + 1,
has imaginary roots. Hence, the general solution for (7) takes on the form
u u
f (u) = A cos + B sin

for some A, B R. The initial conditions imply
u 2
f (u) = A cos , A 6= 0, = , n Z.
(2n + 1)
For simplicity, we take A = 1.
Checking if f (u) satisfies (2), we find the left hand side of (2) is
Z 1u v  
2 (2n + 1)
cos dv = sin (1 u)
0 (2n + 1) 2
2(1)n
= f (u).
(2n + 1)
Thus, we immediately see the eigenfunctions of T are
 
(2n + 1)
fn (u) = (1)n cos u , n Z.
2

4 The Orthonormal Eigenbasis

Now we wish to write T k , which is T composed itself k times, as a linear combination of all fn .
0.
Since fn = fn , we restrict n
It can be verified that { 2fn (u)}n0 is an orthonormal basis for L2 [0, 1], in which the inner
product is Z 1
hf (u), g(u)i = f (u)g(u) du.
0
If f (u) L2 [0, 1] is arbitrary, this means that

X
f (u) = 2 hf (u), fn (u)i fn (u).
n=0

Consider the function (T k (f ))(u). Since T is self-adjoint,

k
(T (f ))(u), fn (u) = h(f (u), (T k (fn ))(u)i


= k hf (u), fn (u)i
2k (1)n(k+1) 1
Z  
(2n + 1)
= f (u) cos u du.
(2n + 1)k k 0 2

2
 Now let f (u) = 1. By our computation, we see

2k+1 (1)n(k+2)
(T k (1))(u), fn (u) =


.
(2n + 1)k+1 k+1

Thus

2k+2 (1)n(k+3)
 
X (2n + 1)
T k (1)(u) = cos u . (8)
n=0
(2n + 1)k+1 k+1 2

Integrating both sides of (8) over [0, 1], we have an interesting relation.
1
2k+3 X (1)nk
Z
T k (1)(u) du = . (9)
0 k+2 n=0 (2n + 1)k+2

Examining the left hand side of (9), we see upon setting u = u1 , it is the same as
Z 1 Z 1u1 Z 1u2 Z 1uk1
duk . . . du1 ,
0 0 0 0
which, geometrically is the volume of a k dimensional pyramid.
Remark. Noam Elkies [1] connects this to finding the volume of the polytope

k = {(u1 , . . . , uk ) Rk : ui + ui+1 < 1, ui > 0, 1 i k},

by which uk+1 := u1 . It turns out to be exactly 21 the volume of the aforementioned pyramid.
There is also another differential equations method, used by Richard Stanley [2], which shows that
Vol(k ), for each k 2, is a coefficient for the Maclaurin Series of y = sec(x) + tan(x).

References
P
[1] N. D. Elkies, On the sums k= (4k + 1)n , The American Mathematical Monthly, 110
(2003), pp. 561573.
[2] R. P. Stanley, Two poset polytopes, Discrete & Computational Geometry, 1 (1986), pp. 923.