Chapter 4

Sampling and
Generalizability

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Populations and Samples

Probability Sampling Strategies

Nonprobability Sampling Strategies

Sampling, Sample Size, and Sampling Error

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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 POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES

Inferential method is based on inferring from a

sample to a population

Samplea representative subset of the population

Populationthe entire set of participants of interest

Generalizabilitythe ability to infer population
characteristics based on the sample

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 CHOOSING A
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

Probability samplingthe likelihood of any
member of the population being selected is
known

Nonprobability samplingthe likelihood of

any member of the population being selected
is unknown

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
STRATEGIES

Simple random sampling
 Each member of the population has an equal and
independent chance of being chosen
 The sample should be very representative of the
population

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 CHOOSING A SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE
1. Jane 18. Steve 35. Fred
2. Bill 19. Sam 36. Mike
3. Harriet 20. Marvin 37. Doug 1. Define the population
4. Leni 21. Ed. T. 38. Ed M. 2. List all members of
5. Micah 22. Jerry 39. Tom
6. Sara 23. Chitra 40. Mike G.
the population
7. Terri 24. Clenna 41. Nathan 3. Assign numbers to
8. Joan 25. Misty 42. Peggy each member of the
9. Jim 26. Cindy 43. Heather
10. Terrill 27. Sy 44. Debbie
population
11. Susie 28. Phyllis 45. Cheryl 4. Use criterion to select
12. Nona 29. Jerry 46. Wes a sample
13. Doug 30. Harry 47. Genna
14. John S. 31. Dana 48. Ellie
15. Bruce A. 32. Bruce M. 49. Alex
16. Larry 33. Daphne 50. John D.
17. Bob 34. Phil

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 USING A TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS

23157 48559 01837 25993

1. Select a starting point
05545 50430 10537 43508
2. The first two digit
14871 03650 32404 36223
number is 68 (not
38976 49751 94051 75853 used)
97312 17618 99755 30870 3. The next number, 48,
is used
11742 69183 44339 47512
4. Continue until sample
43361 82859 11016 45623
is complete
93806 04338 38268 04491

49540 31181 08429 84187

36768 76233 37948 21569

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 KEYS TO SUCCESS IN SIMPLE
RANDOM SAMPLING

Distribution of numbers in table is random

Members of population are listed randomly

Selection criterion should not be related to
factor of interest!!

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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 USING SPSS TO GENERATE
RANDOM SAMPLES
1. Be sure that youre in a data
file
2. Click Data > Select Cases
3. Click Random sample of
Cases
4. Click the Sample Button
5. Define Sample Size
a. Click Continue
b. Click OK (in next dialog
box)

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
1. Jane 18. Steve 35. Fred
2. Bill 19. Sam 36. Mike
3. Harriet 20. Marvin 37. Doug
4. Leni 21. Ed. T. 38. Ed M.
1. Divide the population by
5. Micah 22. Jerry 39. Tom
6. Sara 23. Chitra 40. Mike G.
the size of the desired
7. Terri 24. Clenna 41. Nathan sample: e.g., 50/10 = 5
8. Joan 25. Misty 42. Peggy
2. Select a starting point at
9. Jim 26. Cindy 43. Heather
10. Terrill 27. Sy 44. Debbie
random: e.g., 43 =
11. Susie 28. Phyllis 45. Cheryl
Heather
12. Nona 29. Jerry 46. Wes
3. Select every 5th name
13. Doug 30. Harry 47. Genna
from the starting point
14. John S. 31. Dana 48. Ellie
15. Bruce A. 32. Bruce M. 49. Alex
16. Larry 33. Daphne 50. John D.
17. Bob 34. Phil

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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

The goal of sampling is to select a sample

that is representative of the population

But suppose
 That people in the population differ systematically
along some characteristic?
 And this characteristic relates to the factors being
studied?

Then stratified sampling is one solution

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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

The characteristic(s) of interest are identified (e.g.,
gender)

The individuals in the population are listed
separately according to their classification (e.g.,
females and males)

The proportional representation of each class is
determined (e.g., 40% females & 60% males)

A random sample is selected that reflects the
proportions in the population(e.g., 4 females & 6
males)
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 CLUSTER SAMPLING

Instead of randomly selecting individuals

 Units (groups) of individuals are identified
 A random sample of units is then selected
 All individuals in each unit are assigned to one of
the treatment conditions

Units must be homogeneous in order to avoid

bias

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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NONPROBABILITY
SAMPLING STRATEGIES

Convenience sampling
 Captive or easily sampled population
 Not random
 Weak representativeness

Quota sampling
 Proportional stratified sampling is desired but not
possible
 Participants with the characteristic of interest are non-
randomly selected until a set quota is met

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 Summary of
the different
types of
probability
and
nonprobabilit
y strategies

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 SAMPLES, SAMPLE SIZE,
AND SAMPLING ERROR

Sampling error = difference between
sample and population characteristics

Reducing sampling error is the goal of any
sampling technique

As sample size increases, sampling error
decreases

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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 HOW BIG IS BIG?

The goal is to select a representative

sample
 Larger samples are usually more representative
 But larger samples are also more expensive
 And larger samples ignore the power of scientific
inference

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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 ESTIMATING SAMPLE SIZE

Generally, larger samples are needed when

 Variability within each group is great
 Differences between groups are smaller

Because
 As a group becomes more diverse, more data points are
needed to represent the group
 As the difference between groups becomes smaller, more
participants are needed to reach critical mass to detect
the difference

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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 HAVE WE MET THE
OBJECTIVES? CAN YOU:

Apply the following concepts?
 Population
 Sample

 Random

 Generalization (generalizability)

Differentiate between probability and

nonprobability sampling techniques?
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 OBJECTIVES, CONTINUED
CAN YOU:

Identify four (4) probability sampling strategies?
 Simple Random Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling

Identify two (2) nonprobability sampling
strategies?
 Convenience Sampling
 Quota Sampling

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 OBJECTIVES, CONTINUED
CAN YOU:

Explain sampling error?
 List ways researchers can reduce sampling
error
 Summarize the effect of sample size on

sampling error

2009 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

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