introduction

A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and
manipulates it for some result based on a program or sequence of instructions on how
the data is to be processed. Complex computers also include the means for storing data
(including the program, which is also a form of data) for some necessary duration. A
program may be invariable and built into the computer (and called logic circuitry as it is
on microprocessors) or different programs may be provided to the computer (loaded
into its storage and then started by an administrator or user). Today's computers have
both kinds of programming.

Historical Development of Computers

We are living in the computer age. Most of our day to day jobs are being influenced by
the use of computers. It is used increasingly in each and every field of our life. In the
areas of science and technology improvements can not be achieved without the use of
computers. Hence it has become necessary to have basic knowledge about computers.

Strictly speaking, computer is a calculating device having certain important

characteristics like speed, storage capacity, accuracy etc. But, now days it is used for
many more applications other than computing. It has become an indispensible tool in
the field of communications.

History of Computers
Historians start the history of calculations with the abacus, a wooden frame with balls or
beads strung on parallel wires. But, principally first such machine having principles of
todays computing machines, was developed by Charles Babbage in Nineteenth
Century. It had certain basic ideas of stored computer programs in the machine. Such a
machine was devised by Babbage in the year 1822 and was called difference engine. It
was used to perform simple arithmetic computation needed for setting up of
trigonometric and logarithmic tables. Further he developed and analytical engine around
1871 that was a prototype computer.

Meanwhile an important theoretical development occurred, around 1850, when Geroge

Boole, a mathematician developed an algebraic system which is now called as Boolian
Algebra. This Boolian algebraic system is used to represent quantities as binary
numbers i.e 0s and 1s and also represent and manipulate logical expressions.

The significance of Boolian Algebra was not utilized at that time. In the nineteenth
Century, around 1880, Hollerith developed techniques and machine that had significant
impact on the future design of computers. He designed a machine in which data was
represented in the form of punched holes on paper cards. This machine could work with
punched cards and handled 50-80 punched cards per minute. The punched cards
contained 80 columns and rectangular punches. These machines were called
tabulators. These machines were also used for semiautomatic selection and sorting of
cards. He set up his own company Computer Tabulating Recording Company which
eventually became International Business Machine Corporation (IBM). Today, IBM is
one of the largest companies in the computer world.

Early Computers:

In, 1937, Howard Alken, of Harward University, designed a huge mechanical calculator
called MARK I with a number of switches, mechanical relays and cards. The size was
15X 2.4 m X 0.6 m. This was the immediate predecessor of automatic electronic
computers. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) designed in
1946was the first electronic calculator. It occupied a room of 15X 9m and its weight was
30 tons. It was water cooled and much faster than MARKXI.

Generations of computers
First Generation of Computers (1946-55):
The computers manufactured between 1945 -55 are called first Generation Computers.
They were extremely large in size with vacuum tubes in their circuitry which generated
considerable heat. Hence, special air conditioning arrangements were required to
dissipate this heat.

They were extremely slow and their storage capacity was also very less compared to
todays computers. In these computers punched cards were used to enter data in to the
computer. These were cards with rectangular holes punched in them using some
punching devices. UNIVACI was the first commercially available computer, built in 1951
by Remington Rand Company. It had storage capacity of about 2000 words. These
were used mostly for payroll, billing and some mathematical computing.

Advantages

These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages

*They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.

*They were not very reliable.

*Air conditioning was required.

*Constant maintenance was required.

Second Generation Computers (1956-1965):

The computers, in which vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors made from
semiconductors, were called second generation computers. The use of transistors
reduced the heat generated during the operation. It also decreased the size and
increased storage capacity. It required less power to operate and were much faster than
first generation computers. Magnetic media was being used as an auxiliary storage of
data. These computers used high level languages for writing computer programs.

Advantages

Used less energy and were not heated.

Wider commercial use
Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.

Disadvantages

*Commercial production was difficult

*Only used for specific purposes

Third Generation Computers (1966-1976):

The third generation computers started in 1966 with incorporation of integrated circuits
(IC) in the circuitry. IC is a monolithic circuit comprising a circuitry equivalent to tens of
transistors on a single chip of semiconductor having a small area a number of pins for
external circuit connections.
IBM 360 series computers in this generation had provision for facilitating time sharing
and multiprograms also.

These were small size and cost effective computers compared to Second generation
computers. Storage capacity and speed of these computers was increased many folds
as include user friendly package programs, word processing and remote terminals.
Remote terminals could use central computer facilities and get the result,
instantaneously.

Advantages

Used less energy

Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
 Fourth Generation Computers:
Fourth Generation Computers were introduced after 1976 and in these computers
electronic components were further miniaturized through Large Scale Integration (LSI)
techniques Microprocessor which are programmable Ics fabricated using LSI technique
are used in these computers. Micro computers were developed by combing
microprocessor with other LSI Chips, with compact size, increased speed and increased
storage capacity. In recent days, Ics fabricated using VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integration) techniques are used in Computers. Through this techniques, the storage
capacity is increased many folds. Not only that, the speed of these computers is also
very high as compared to earlier computers.

During 1980s, some computers called as super computers were introduced in the
market. These computers perform operation with exceptionally high speed (approx 100
million operations per sec). This speed is attained by employing number of
microprocessors consequently there cost is also very high. These are normally used in
very complex application like artificial intelligence etc.

Advantages

Fast processing power with less power consumption

Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.

Disadvantages

*The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to
make artificial intelligence a reality