Finnish phonology

Unless otherwise noted, statements in this article refer to
Standard Finnish, which is based on the dialect spoken
in Hme Province in central south Finland.[1] Standard
Finnish is used by professional speakers, such as the re-
porters and the news presenters on television.
1 Vowels
i y u to vowel height.
Open central [ ], i.e. intermediate in backness
between the default IPA values of the open
front [a] and open back [] vowels.[5]
Finnish makes phonemic contrasts between long and
short vowels, even in unstressed syllables, though long
mid vowels are more common in unstressed syllables.[6]
Each short monophthong has a long counterpart with no
real dierence in acoustic quality.[7] Long vowels are
phonemically perceived as two identical vowels in suc-
cession and vowel length is not a phonemic quality akin

1.1 Diphthongs
e o The table below lists the conventionally recognized
diphthongs in Finnish. In speech (i.e. phonetically speak-
ing) a diphthong does not sound like a sequence of two
dierent vowels; instead, the sound of the rst vowel
gradually glides into the sound of the second one with full
vocalization lasting through the whole sound. That is to
say, the two portions of the diphthong are not broken by
a pause or stress pattern. In Finnish, diphthongs are con-
sidered phonemic units, contrasting with both long vowels
Finnish vowel chart, from Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008:21) and with short vowels. Phonologically, however, Finnish
diphthongs usually are analyzed as sequences (this in con-
trast to languages like English, where the diphthongs are
The close vowels /i, u/ are similar to the correspond- best analyzed as independent phonemes (see International
ing cardinal vowels [i, u].[3] Phonetic Alphabet for English.)
The front rounded vowels /y, / are phonetically Diphthongs ending in i can occur in any syllable, but those
near-front [y, ], i.e. intermediate in backness be- ending in rounded vowels usually occur only in initial syl-
tween the default IPA values of the front [y, ] and lables, and rising diphthongs are conned to that sylla-
central [, ] vowels.[3] ble. It is usually taught that diphthongization occurs only
with the combinations listed. However, there are recog-
The mid vowels are phonetically mid [e, , o ], i.e. nized situations in which other vowel pairs diphthongize.
intermediate in height between the default IPA val- For example, in rapid speech the word ylosa ('upper
ues of the close-mid [e, , o] and open-mid [, , ] part', from yl-, 'upper' + osa, 'part') can be pronounced
vowels.[2][4] [ylo s] (with an /o/ diphthong). The proper pronun-
ciation is [yl.os] (with those vowels belonging to sep-
The open front unrounded vowel // is phonetically arate syllables).
near-open [], i.e. intermediate in height between
the default IPA values of the open-mid [] and fully The diphthongs /e/ and /i/ are quite rare and mostly
open [a] vowel.[3] found in derivative words, where a derivational af-
x starting with /y/ (or properly the vowel harmonic
The unrounded open vowel transcribed in IPA with archiphoneme /U/) fuses with the preceding vowel, e.g.
has been variously described as: pimeys 'darkness from pime 'dark' + -/(U)US/ '-ness and
siistiyty 'to tidy up oneself' from siisti 'tidy' + -/UTU/ (a
Near-open back [], i.e. intermediate in height kind of middle voice) + -/(d)A/ (innitive sux). Older
between the default IPA values of the open- *e and *i in initial syllables have been shifted to //
mid back [] and open back [] vowels.[3] and /y/.

1
2 2 CONSONANTS

Opening diphthongs are in standard Finnish only found forms kellossa 'in a clock' and tuulessa 'in a wind'. In the
in root-initial syllables like in words tiet 'to know', absence of back vowels, /i/ and /e/ count as front vow-
takapyr 'rear wheel' (from taka- 'back, rear' + pyr els, e.g. tie tiell ('road' 'on the road'). For another,
'wheel'; the latter part is secondarily stressed) or luo 'to- compound words do not have vowel harmony across the
wards. This might make them easier to pronounce as true compound boundary;[11] e.g. seinkello 'wall clock' (from
opening diphthongs [uo ie y] (in some accents even [u sein, 'wall' and kello, 'clock') has back /o/ cooccurring
i i y][8] ) and not as centering diphthongs [u i y], with front //. In the case of compound words, the choice
which are more common in the worlds languages. The between back and front sux alternants is determined by
opening diphthongs come from earlier long mid vowels: the immediately preceding element of the compound; e.g.
*o > [uo ], *e > [ie], * > [y]. Since that time new 'in a wall clock' is seinkellossa, not seinkelloss.
long mid vowels have come to the language from various
New loan words may exhibit vowel disharmony; for ex-
sources. ample, olympialaiset ('Olympic games) and sekundri-
Among the phonological processes operating in Finnish nen ('secondary') have both front and back vowels. In
dialects are diphthongization and diphthong reduction. standard Finnish, these words are pronounced as they
For example, Savo Finnish has the phonemic contrast of are spelled, but many speakers apply vowel harmony
// vs. /u/ vs. // instead of standard language contrast olumpialaiset, and sekundaarinen or sekyndrinen.
of // vs. // vs. /w/.

1.2 Vowel harmony
e a
o consonant gradation, and thus in occurs only
y i u lhde 'fountain, spring, source'; cf. lhte 'to
A diagram illustrating the vowel groups in Finnish.
Finnish, like many other Uralic languages, has the phe-
nomenon called vowel harmony, which restricts the cooc-
currence in a word of vowels belonging to dierent artic-
ulatory subgroups. Vowels within a word harmonize to
be either all front or all back.[9] In particular, no native
noncompound word can contain vowels from the group
{a, o, u} together with vowels from the group {, , y}.
Vowel harmony aects inectional suxes and deriva-
tional suxes, which have two forms, one for use with
back vowels, and the other with front vowels. Compare,
for example, the following pair of abstract nouns: hal-
litus 'government' (from hallita, 'to reign') versus terveys
'health' (from terve, healthy).
There are exceptions to the constraint of vowel harmony.
For one, there are two front vowels that lack back counter-
parts: /i/ and /e/. Therefore, words like kello 'clock' (with
a front vowel in a nonnal syllable) and tuuli 'wind' (with
a front vowel in the nal syllable), which contain /i/ or /e/
together with a back vowel, count as back vowel words; /i/
and /e/ are eectively neutral in regard to vowel harmony
in such words.[10] Kello and tuuli yield the inectional
2 Consonants
For most speakers, /t/ is dental [t],[12] whereas /n/[13]
and /d/ are alveolar.[14]
/d/ is closer to a ap or tap [] than a true
plosive [d], and the dialectal realization varies
widely; see below. In native vocabulary
it is the equivalent of /t/ under weakening
word-medially, either by itself (e.g. sade 'rain';
cf. sataa 'to rain') or in the cluster /hd/ (e.g.
depart'). In recent loanwords and technical vo-
cabulary the sound can occur somewhat freely
(e.g. addiktio, adverbi, anekdootti, bulevardi,
demoni, formaldehydi, sandaali), likewise in
slang vocabulary (e.g. dorka 'idiot', kondis
'condition').
/s/ is frequently retracted alveolar [s].[12]
The glottal stop can only appear at word boundaries
as a result of certain sandhi phenomena, and it is
not indicated in spelling: e.g. /annaolla/ 'let it be',
orthographically anna olla. Moreover, this sound is
not used in all dialects.
The velar nasal // is also heavily limited in occur-
rence in native vocabulary: it is found only word-
medially, either in the consonant cluster /k/ (writ-
ten nk), or as geminate // (written ng), the latter
being the counterpart of the former under consonant
gradation (type of lenition). In recent loanwords //
may also occur in other environments; e.g. mag-
neetti /manetti/, pingviini /piini/.
[f] appears in native words only in the Southwestern di-
alects, but is reliably distinguished by Finnish speakers.
Other foreign fricatives are not. '' or 'sh' [] appears
only in non-native words, often pronounced 's, although
2.2 Consonant gradation
some educated speakers make a distinction between e.g.
akki 'chess and sakki 'a gang (of people)'. The orthogra-
phy also includes the letters 'z' and '', although their use
is marginal, and they have no phonemic status. For ex-
ample, azeri and donkki may be pronounced [seri] and
[tsokki] without fear of confusion. The letter 'z', found
mostly in foreign words and names such as Zulu, may also
be pronounced as [ts] following the inuence of German,
thus Zulu /tsulu/.
With the phoneme /h/, speakers add weak frication con-
sistent with the vowel, producing a voiceless fricative /h/.
Friction tends to be strongest when the phoneme occurs
between a vowel and a consonant, e.g. mahti, 'might'.
The friction is pharyngeal [] next to //, labiovelar [x]
next to /u/, palatal [] next to /i/ and with intermediate
quality next to other vowels. Additionally, between vow-
els a breathy or murmured [f] can occur. For example,
mahti can be pronounced [mti] or [mhti], while maha
('stomach') can be [m].
2.1 Voiced plosives
The following is a partial list of strongweak correspon-
For more details on this topic, see Finnish orthography dences.
Voiced plosives.
Traditionally, /b/ and // were not counted as Finnish
phonemes, since they appear only in loanwords. How-
ever, these borrowings being relatively common, they are
nowadays considered part of the educated norm. The fail-
ure to use them correctly is often ridiculed in the media,
e.g. if a news reporter or a high ocial consistently and
publicly realises Belgia ('Belgium') as Pelkia. Even many
educated speakers, however, still make no distinction be-
tween voiced and voiceless plosives in regular speech if
there is no fear of confusion. Minimal pairs do exist:
/busi/ 'a bus vs. /pusi/ 'a bag', /oril/ 'a gorilla' vs.
/kori-l/ 'on a basket'.
The status of /d/ is somewhat dierent from /b/ and //,
since it also appears in native Finnish words, as a regular
'weak' correspondence of the voiceless /t/ (see Consonant
gradation below). Historically, this sound was a fricative,
// ('th' as in English the). It has become a plosive in stan-
dard Finnish, in part because when mass elementary edu-
cation was instituted in Finland, the spelling 'd' in Finnish
texts was mispronounced as a plosive, under the inuence
of how Swedish speakers would pronounce this letter.[15]
(In the close to seven centuries during which Finland was
under rst Swedish, then Russian rule, Swedish speak-
ers dominated the government and economy.) Initially,
few native speakers of Finnish acquired the foreign plo-
sive realisation of the native phoneme. As for loanwords,
/d/ was often assimilated as /t/. Even well into the 20th
century it was not entirely exceptional to hear loanwords
like deodorantti ('a deodorant') pronounced as teotorantti,
while native Finnish words with a /d/ were pronounced
in the usual dialectal way. Due to diusion of the stan-
3
dard language through mass media and basic education,
and due to the dialectal prestige of the capital area, the
plosive [d] can now be heard in all parts of the country,
at least in loanwords and in formal speech.
2.2 Consonant gradation
Main article: Finnish consonant gradation
Consonant gradation is the term used for a set of alter-
nations which pervade the language, between a strong
grade and a weak grade. These alternations are always
conditioned by both phonology and morphosyntax. The
phonological factor which triggers the weak grade is the
syllable structure of closed syllable. However, there are
contexts where weak grade fails to occur in a closed syl-
lable, and there are contexts where the weak grade occurs
in an open syllable. Morphosyntactically, the weak grade
occurs in nominals (nouns, pronouns, adjectives) usually
only before case suxes, and in verbs usually only before
person agreement suxes.
2.3 Other consonant alternations
Many of the remaining irregular patterns of Finnish
noun and verb inection are explained by a change of
a historical *ti to /si/. The change from *ti to /si/, a
type of assibilation, is unconnected to consonant grada-
tion, and dates back already to Proto-Finnic. In modern
Finnish the alternation is not productive, due to new cases
of the sequence /ti/ having been introduced by later sound
changes and loanwords, and assibilation therefore occurs
only in certain morphologically dened positions.
Words having this particular alternation are still subject
to consonant gradation in forms that lack assibilation.
Finnish words may thus have two, and sometimes three
stems: a word such as vesi 'water (sg. nom.)' may pro-
duce veden (sg. gen.) : veten (sg. ess.) : vesiss (pl.
iness.); because the change from t to s has only occurred
in front of i. When a vowel other than i occurs, words like
vesi inect just like other nouns with a single t alternating
with the consonant gradated d.
This pattern has, however, been reverted in some cases.
Variation appears in particular in past tense verb forms,
e.g. kielt : kielsi ('to deny', 'denied') but st : sti
('to adjust', 'adjusted'). Both alternate forms (kielti and
ssi) can also be found in dialects. Apparently this was
caused by word pairs such as noutaa : nouti ('bring') and
nousta : nousi ('rise'), which were felt important enough
to keep them contrastive.
Assibilation occurred prior to the change of the original
consonants cluster *kt to /ht/, which can be seen in the
inection of the numerals yksi and kaksi: yhden, kahden.
4 4 PHONOTACTICS

In many recent loanwords, there is vacillation between Pori, or town Kristiinankaupunki ('Kristinestad'). Nowa-
representing an original voiceless consonant as single or days the overwhelming majority of Finns have adopted
geminate: this is the case for example kalsium (~ kals- initial consonant clusters in their speech.
sium) and kantarelli (~ kanttarelli). The orthography gen-
erally favors the single form, if it exists. (More com-
pletely assimilated loans such as farssi, minuutti, ooppera 4.1 Consonant phonotactics
generally have settled on geminates.)
Consonant phonotactics are as follows.[16]
Word-nal consonants
3 Length
Only /t, s, n, r, l/.
All phonemes (including // and /j/, see below) can occur
Glottal stop // occurs almost exclusively at word
doubled phonemically as a phonetic increase in length.
boundaries, replacing what used to be word-nal
Consonant doubling always occurs at the boundary of a
consonants /k/ and /h/.
syllable in accordance with the rules of Finnish syllable
structure.
Word-initial consonants
Some example sets of words:
Only /d/ and // cannot occur word initially (except
tuli = re, tuuli = wind, tulli = customs /d/ in loan words).
muta = mud, muuta = other (partitive sg.),
mutta = but, muuttaa = to change or to move Word-initial consonant clusters

A double /h/ is rare in standard Finnish, but possible, e.g. Only stop+liquid combinations are allowed, which
hihhuli, a derogatory term for a religious fanatic. In some is a result of the inuence of mostly post-WWII
dialects, e.g. Savo, it is common: rahhoo, or standard loanwords (e.g. /klinikka/ = 'clinic', /planetta/ =
Finnish rahaa 'money' (in the partitive case). The distinc- 'planet').
tion between /d/ and /d/ is found only in foreign words;
natively 'd' occurs only in the short form. While // and
Word-nal consonant clusters
/j/ may appear as geminates when spoken (e.g. vauva
[u], raijata [rijt]), this distinction is not phone-
mic, and is not indicated in spelling. None, except in dialects via vowel dropping.

In dialects or in colloquial Finnish, //, /d/, and /j/ can

Word-medial consonant clusters
have distinctive length, especially due to nal consonant
mutation, e.g. sevverran (sen verran), kuvvoo (kuvaa),
teijjn (teidn). The following clusters are not possible in Finnish:
any exceeding 3 consonants
stop + nasal
4 Phonotactics
labial stop + non-labial stop
The phonemic template of a syllable in Finnish is CVC, non-dental stop + semivowel
in which C can be an obstruent or a liquid consonant. V nasal + non-homorganic obstruent (except
can be is realized as a long vowel or a diphthong. A nal /nh/)
consonant of a Finnish word, though not a syllable, must nasal + sonorant
be a coronal one.
liquid + liquid
Originally Finnish syllables could not start with two con-
semivowel + consonant
sonants but many loans containing these have added this
to the inventory. This is observable in older loans such
as ranska < Swedish franska ('French') contrasting newer 4.2 Vowel phonotactics
loans presidentti < Swedish president ('president'). In past
decades, it was common to hear these clusters simpli- Vowel phonotactics are as follows.[17]
ed in speech (resitentti), particularly, though not exclu-
sively, by either rural Finns or Finns who knew little or no Word-nal and word-initial vowels
Swedish or English. Even then, the Southwestern dialects
formed an exception: consonant clusters, especially those Any of the vowels can be found in this position.
with plosives, trills or nasals, are common: examples in-
clude place names Friitala and Preiviiki near the town Vowel sequences
5.2 Timing 5

Double/long vowels 5.2 Timing

Usually only the vowels /a, , i, y, u/ are long. Finnish is not really isochronic at any level. For exam-
ple, huutelu ('shouting') and huuhtelu ('ushing') are dis-
Sometimes the mid vowels /e, o, / can be long
tinct words, where the initial syllables huu- and huuh- are
in cases of contraction.
of dierent length. Additionally, acoustic measurements
show that the rst syllable of a word is (physically) longer
Diphthongs than other syllables, in addition to its phonemic length
(long or short). Thus, there are four distinct phonetic
Of the 17 diphthongs, 14 are formed from any lengths.
vowel followed by a close vowel. The 3 excep-
tions are /uo, y, ie/.

Vowel combinations 6 Sandhi

Approximately 20 combinations, always at syl- Finnish sandhi is extremely frequent, appearing between
lable boundaries. many words and morphemes, in formal standard language
and in everyday spoken language. In most registers, it
Unlike diphthongs, the second vowel is longer,
is never written down; only dialectal transcriptions pre-
as is expected, and it can be open // or //.
serve it, the rest settling for a morphemic notation. There
Sometimes 34 vowels can occur in a sequence are two processes. The rst is simple assimilation with
if a medial consonant has disappeared. respect to place of articulation (e.g. np > mp). The sec-
ond is predictive gemination of initial consonants on mor-
pheme boundaries.

5 Prosody Simple phonetic incomplete assimilations include:

5.1 Stress /n + k/ /k/, velarization due to 'k', e.g. sen kanssa

/se kns/
Stress in Finnish is non-phonemic. Like Hungarian and
/n + p/ /mp/, labialization due to 'p' e.g. menenp
Icelandic, Finnish always places the primary stress on the
/menemp/
rst syllable of a word.[18] Secondary stress normally falls
on odd syllables. Contrary to primary stress, Finnish sec- /V + V/ /VV/, dissimilation of a sequence of in-
ondary stress is quantity sensitive. Thus, if secondary dividual vowels (compared to diphthongs) by adding
stress would fall on a light (CV.) syllable, with a heavy a glottal stop, e.g. kuorma-auto /kuo rmwto/ (not
(CVV. or CVC.) syllable following, then the secondary obligatory)
stress is moved one syllable to the right, and the pre-
ceding foot (syllable group) will contain three syllables.
Thus, omenanani as my apple contains light syllables Gemination of a morpheme-initial consonant occurs
only, and has primary stress on the rst syllable and sec- when the morpheme preceding it ends in a vowel and be-
ondary on the third, as expected: mennani. In ome- longs to one of certain morphological classes. Gemina-
nanamme ('as our apple'), on the other hand, the third tion or a tendency of a morpheme to cause gemination is
syllable (na) is light and the fourth heavy (nam), thus sec- sometimes indicated with a superscripted x, e.g. vene
ondary stress falls on the fourth syllable: menanmme. /ene/. Examples of gemination:
Certain Finnish dialects also have quantity-sensitive main
stress pattern, but instead of moving the initial stress, they nouns in -e (apart from some new loanwords)
geminate the consonant, so that e.g. light-heavy CV.CVV
becomes heavy-heavy CVCCVV, e.g. the partitive form
e.g. hakelava /hkel/ ('open-
of sh is pronounced kalaa in the quantity-insensitive
box bed for wood chips)
dialects but kallaa in the quantity-sensitive ones (cf. also
the examples under the Length section).
imperatives and connegative imperatives of the
Secondary stress falls on the rst syllable on non-initial
second-person singular, as well as the negative form
parts of compounds, for example the compound puu-
of the present indicative (these three are always sim-
naama, meaning wooden face (from puu, 'tree' and
ilar to each other)
naama, 'face'), is pronounced [pu-n-m] but puu-
naama, meaning which was cleaned (...preceded by an
agent in genitive, by someone), is pronounced [pu- e.g. osta vene /o stene/ ('buy a
n-m]. boat')
6 8 NOTES

connegative imperatives of the third-person singu- which appear only as gemination of the following con-
lar, rst-person plural, second-person plural and sonant, cf. French liaison. For example, the standard
third-person plural. word for 'now' nyt has lost its t and become ny in Helsinki
speech. However, /ny/ + /se/ ('now it [does something]')
lk tehkkn sit /tehkkn/ is pronounced [nyse] and not *[nyse] (although the latter
('actually, don't do it') would be permissible in the dialect of Turku).
Similar remnants of a lost word nal /n/ can be seen in
rst innitives (the dictionary form) dialects, where e.g. the genitive form of the rst singular
pronoun is regularly /mu/ (standard language minun): /se/
+ /on/ + /mu/ [seomu] ('it is mine'). Preceding an ap-
e.g. tytyy menn kymn /t-
proximant, the /n/ is completely assimilated: [mujmo]
tymenkmn/
('my wife'). Preceding a vowel, however, the /n/ however
appears in a dierent form: /mu/ + /om/ [munom]
noun cases in -e: allative -lle as well as the more or even [munom] ('my own').
marginal sublative -nne (as in tnne) and prolative
-tse (as in postitse); not the instructive, though

some other words such as kai 'probably', luo ('to, to- 7 See also
wards [a person or place]'), tai 'or'
Finnish orthography
The gemination can occur between morphemes of a sin-
gle word as in /minule/ + /kin/ /minulekin/ ('to
me too'; orthographically minullekin), between parts of 8 Notes
a compound word as in /perhe/ + /pleri/ [per-
hepleri] ('family meeting'; orthographically perhep- [1] Iivonen & Harnud (2005:60)
alaveri), or between separate words as in /tule/ + /tne/
[tuletne] ('come here!'). In elaborate standard lan- [2] Iivonen & Harnud (2005:60, 66)
guage, the gemination aects even morphemes with a
vowel beginning: /ot/ + /omen/ [otomen] or [3] Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008:21)
[otomen] ('take an apple!'). In casual speech, this is
[4] Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008:2021)
however often rendered as [otomen] without a glottal
stop. [5] Maddieson (1984), cited in Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo
These rules are generally valid for the standard language, (2008:21)
although many Southwestern dialects, for instance, do not
[6] Iivonen & Harnud (2005:6061)
recognise the phenomenon at all. Even in the standard
language there is idiolectal variation (disagreement be- [7] Iivonen & Harnud (2005:66)
tween dierent speakers); e.g. whether kolme ('three')
should cause a gemination of the following initial con- [8] In these dialects, ie may be reected as either [i] or [i]
sonant or not: [kolmerist] or [kolmerist] ('three depending on vowel harmony.)
crows). Both forms occur and neither one of them is
[9] van der Hulst & van de Weijer (1995:498)
standardised, since in any case it does not aect writing.
In some dictionaries compiled for foreigners or linguists, [10] van der Hulst & van de Weijer (1995:498499)
however, the tendency of geminating the following con-
sonant is marked by a superscript x as in perhex . [11] Hellstrom (1976:86)
Historically, morpheme-boundary gemination is the re- [12] Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008:27)
sult of regressive assimilation. The preceding word origi-
nally ended in /h/. For instance, the modern Finnish word [13] Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008:28-29)
for 'boat' vene used to be veneh (a form still existing in the
closely related Karelian language). At some point in time, [14] Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008:33-35)
these /h/'s were assimilated by the initial consonant of a
[15] Campbell 2004:79
following word, e.g. veneh kulkevi ('the boat is moving').
Here we get the modern Finnish form [enekulke] (or- [16] Sulkala, Helena; Merja Karjalainen (1992). Finnish.
thographically vene kulkee), even though the independent London: Routledge. pp. 369372. ISBN 0415026431.
form [ene] has no sign of the old nal consonant /h/.
[17] Sulkaka, Helena; Merja Karjalainen (1992). Finnish.
In many Finnish dialects, including that of Helsinki, the London: Routledge. pp. 372374. ISBN 0415026431.
gemination at morpheme boundaries has become more
widespread due to the loss of additional nal consonants, [18] Iivonen & Harnud (2005:59, 61)
 7

9 References
Campbell, Lyle. 2004. Historical linguistics. 2nd
ed. MIT Press.
Hellstrom, Robert W. (1976), Finglish, Ameri-
can Speech 51 (1/2): 8593, doi:10.2307/455358,
JSTOR 455358

Iivonen, Antti; Harnud, Huhe (2005), Acousti-

cal comparison of the monophthong systems in
Finnish, Mongolian and Udmurt, Journal of the
International Phonetic Association 35 (1): 5971,
doi:10.1017/S002510030500191X

Maddieson, Ian (1984), Patterns of Sounds, Cam-

bridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-
26536-3
Suomi, Kari; Toivanen, Juhani; Ylitalo, Riikka
(2008), Finnish sound structure, ISBN 978-951-42-
8983-5

van der Hulst, Harry; van de Weijer, Jeroen (1995),

Vowel Harmony, in Goldsmith, John A., The
Handbook of Phonological Theory, Blackwell Hand-
books in Linguistics, Blackwell Publishers, pp.
495534
8 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text
Finnish phonology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_phonology?oldid=714378881 Contributors: SteveDay, DopeshJustin,
Sannse, Jpatokal, Nohat, Haukurth, Pablo-ores, Jyril, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Eequor, Pne, J. 'mach' wust, Florian Blaschke, Hapsiainen,
Kwamikagami, Mairi, Circeus, Samulili, Alcarilinque, Espoo, Hoary, Oghmoir, Vuo, TShilo12, Angr, Mandarax, JIP, Roeheat, Cas-
sowary, Malhonen, RussBot, Trondtr, Aeusoes1, Ptcamn, S. Neuman, Rallette, Fram, Curpsbot-unicodify, Tropylium, Kungfuadam, Nick-
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ehi1, Munci, Felix ahlner, WereSpielChequers, Anchor Link Bot, Timeineurope, Kanguole, TomoFR, Heyzeuss, Jafeluv, Lexicographer93,
CanadianLinuxUser, Erutuon, Legobot, Rajakhr, Klimenok, Mahmudmasri, LilHelpa, Dale Chock, Lundgren8, Citation bot 1, Rantatero,
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10.2 Images
File:Finnish_monophthongs_chart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Finnish_monophthongs_chart.
svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work, based on the vowel chart in Finnish Sound Structure. Phonetics, phonology, phono-
tactics and prosody. by K. Suomi, J. Toivanen and R. Ylitalo, page 21. Original artist: Peter238
File:Finnish_vowel_harmony_Venn_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Finnish_vowel_
harmony_Venn_diagram.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Made in Inkscape, based on Image:Finnish vowal harmony venn di-
agram.GIF. Original artist: w:User:Mysid, original by User:159753
File:Parentesi_Quadre.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Parentesi_Quadre.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: GJo
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007

10.3 Content license

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