INTRODUCTION

Bernoullis theorem, in fluid dynamics, relation among the pressure, velocity, and
elevation in a moving fluid (liquid or gas), the compressibility and viscosity (internal
friction) of which are negligible and the flow of which is steady, or laminar. First
derived by the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli on 1738, the theorem states, in
effect, that the total mechanical energy of the flowing fluid, comprising the energy
associated with fluid pressure, the gravitational potential energy of elevation, and the
kinetic energy of fluid motion, remains constant. Bernoullis theorem is the principle of
energy conservation for ideal fluids in steady, or streamline, flow and is the basis for
many engineering applications.

Bernoullis theorem implies, therefore, that the fluid flows horizontally so that no
change in gravitational potential energy occurs, then a decrease in fluid exerts is least
where the cross section is smallest. This phenomenon is sometimes called the Venturi
effect, after the Italian scientist G.B. Venturi (1746-1822), who first noted the effects
of constricted channels on fluid flow.

Bernoullis principle can be derived from the principle of conversation of energy

and demonstrated by the Bernoulli equation as written in equation 1 below. The
Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, As a fluid passes through a pipe that narrows or widens, the velocity and
pressure of the fluid vary; as the pipe narrows, the fluid flows more quickly and
inversely.

1
 However, Bernoullis Principle can only be applied under particular conditions. The
conditions to which Bernoullis equation applies are the fluid must be friction-less (in
viscid) and of constant density; the flow must be steady, continuous, incompressible,
non-vicious fluid flow, the total energy or total head remains constant at all the section
along the fluid flow provided there is no loss or addition of energy.

The Bernoulli equation:

v2
z - total head - constant ----------- (equation 1)
y 2g

v2
Where, = Pressure Head (m), = Velocity or kinetic head (m) (v-Q/A-m/s), and
y 2g
Z = Potential head (Height above some assumed level)

2
ABSTRACT

This experiment is about Bernoullis Theorem. The objective of this experiment is to

apply and demonstrate the Bernoullis Theorem. Using the Bernoullis Theorem
Demonstration Apparatus such as venture meter, pad of manometer tube, pump, and
water tank equipped with pump water controller, water host and tubes to compute the
experiment. This experiment uses the venturi meter to measure the fluid flow through
a pipe where the venturi tube has diverging and converging portion that function of
decreasing and increasing the velocity of fluid and higher and lower the static pressure
respectively. The experiment is conducted for several times with different flow rates
starting the first after the level pressure of each manometer A,B,C,D,E and F is equal
and stable. The flow rate was taken as the water indicator reached at fixed volume of
water level. Level pressure of each manometer is measured as head loss. From the
experiment conducted, we observed that when fluids moves from a region of higher
pressure to lower pressure, the velocity of the fluid increase. The pressure level and
velocity reading for part A to F of the tube is recorded. Apply the Bernoulli equation to
find the velocity of the moving fluid by using the data recorded. Bernoulli theory states
that the relation between the increase and decrease in the pressure value is inversely
proportional to its velocity which indicate as the fluid flows more quickly through the
narrow sections, the pressure actually decreases rather than increases. Thus, it proves
the validity of Bernoullis theorem.

3
OBJECTIVE

This aim of the experiment is to determine Bernoullis theorem which can be applied to
a venturi meter consist of converging portion and diverging cone and also to study the
effect of area of the flow velocity and fluid pressure. The experiment also aims to
utilize Bernoullis equation to compare the behaviour of ideal and real fluid

Theory

Bernoullis principle is basically is a work energy conservation principle that states that
an ideal fluid or for situations where effects of viscosity are neglected, with no work
being performed on the fluid, the total energy remains constant. This principle
additionally states that the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid flowing along an
enclosed path is the same at any two points in that path.

The pressure, speed and height (h) at two points in a steady-flowing, non-viscous,
incompressible fluid are related by the equation:

1 2 1
1 + 1 + 1 = 2 + 22 + 2
2 2

when liquid flow, the mechanical energy of liquid flow will exist in three different kinds
of form. The three different kinds of forms are potential energy, pressure energy and
kinetic energy. And these three different kinds of form can be converted to each other.
In the ideal situation, which without flow energy loss. The total energy of these three
different kinds of form is constant. Both sides of the equation, which is shown above,
are divided by g.

The continuity equation of continuity states that for an incompressible fluid flowing in a
tube of varying cross-section, the mass flow rate is the same everywhere in the tube.
The equation of continuity can be written as:

1 1 1 = 2 2 2

= density , A = cross sectional area , v = velocity

The density stay at the constant and then it is simply the flow rate (Av) that is constant.
The velocity of fluid is greater in the narrow section as we applied the continuity
equation.

4
Bernoulli's principle also states that if a non-viscous flow along a pipe of varying cross
section. Then, an increment in the speed of the fluid simultaneously with a drop in
pressure or a decrease in the fluids potential energy and the pressure increases when
the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Thus, pressure would decreases when the
velocity increases.

This is expressed with the following equation:

p v2
z h * Constant
g 2g

Where,

p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section

= Density of the flowing fluid

g = Acceleration due to gravity

v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section

z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum

h* = Total (stagnation) head

The sum of the pressure head (h), velocity head (hv ) and the elevation head (z) is
known as the total head (h*). The total head h* at any cross section is constant
according to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe. The results will
deviate from the theoretical ones in real flow due to friction, other imperfections and
the measurement uncertainties.

The centreline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same horizontal
plane (which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the z values are zeros
so that the above equation reduces to:

p v2
h * Constant
g 2g

This represents the total head at cross section.

5
Venturi Meter

The venturi meter is a tool used to measure the flow through a pipeline. This
apparatus consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube
has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure below.
The converging portions function is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its
static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed,
which pressure difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone
serves to change the area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity
head into pressure head.

Figure 1: A Venturi Meter Tube

6
APPARATUS

Bernoullis Theorem Demostration Unit (FM 24)

Figure 1: Parts Identification Diagram

1 Manometer

2 Test Section

3 Water Inlet

4 Unions

5 Air Bleed Screw

6 Discharge Valve

7 Gland Nut

8 Hypodermic Probe

9 Adjustable Feet

7
PROCEDURE

Apparatus Set-Up Procedures

1. The clear acrylic is ensured that the test section is installed with the converging
section upstream. The unions are tighten.

2. The apparatus is located on the flat top of the bench.

3. A spirit level is attached to baseboard and on top of the bench is levelled by

adjusting the feet.

4. The flexible inlet tube is connected using the quick release coupling in the bed
of the channel.

5. A flexible hose is connected to the outlet and directed into the channel.

6. The outlet flow control valve at the Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit is
gradually opened to allow the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench is filled.

7. The water is allowed to fill in the manometer tubes until all trapped air is
removed.

8. Air bleed screw is opened and controlled to get a certain volumetric flow. The
screw is re-tightened when the manometer has reached a convenient height.

Experimental Procedures

1. The apparatus set-up procedures is performed.

2. All manometer tubes are checked properly connected to the corresponding

pressure taps and are air-bubble free.

3. The discharged valve is adjusted to a high measureable flow rate.

4. After the level is stabilized, the water flow rate is measured using volumetric
method.

5. The hyperdomic tube connected to manometer G is gently slide, so that the

cross section of venturi tube at A reached its end.

6. Step 5 is repeated for other cross sections (B, C, D, E and F)

7. Step 3 to 6 is repeated with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the
venturi discharged.

8
 8. The velocity,VIB is calculated using the Bernoullis equation where;

9. The velocity, VIC is calculated using the continuity equation where;

10. The difference between two calculated velocities is determined.

General Shut-down Procedures

1. Water supply valve and venturi discharge valve are closed.

2. The water supply pump is turned off.

3. Water from the unit is drained off when not in use.

9
RESULTS

1st trial

Volume of water: 3L
Time taken: 43.2 s
Flowrate: 6.944 x 10-5 m3/s

Cross
Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference
Section

=
2
i = 2( = =
4
(mm) (m/s)
(mm) (m/s) (2 ) (m/s)

A 161 156 0.3132 0.000531 0.1308 0.1824

B 159 154 0.3132 0.1897 0.1235

0.000366

C 158 145 0.505 0.3455 0.1595

0.000201

D 157 150 0.3706 0.2211 0.1495

0.000314

E 156 151 0.3132 0.1827 0.1305

0.000380

F 156 153 0.2426 0.1308 0.1118

0.000531

10
2nd Trial

Volume of water: 3L

Time taken: 31.55 s

Flowrate: 9.509 x 10-5 m3/s

Cross
Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference
Section

=
2
i = 2( = =
4
(mm) (m/s)
(mm) (m/s) (2 ) (m/s)

A 162 155 0.3706 0.000531 0.1791 0.1915

B 160 154 0.3431 0.2598 0.0833

0.000366

C 158 117 0.8969 0.4731 0.4238

0.000201

D 156 146 0.4429 0.3028 0.1401

0.000314

E 156 140 0.5609 0.2502 0.3107

0.000380

F 154 144 0.4429 0.1791 0.2638

0.000531

11
3rd Trial

Volume of water: 3L
Time taken: 9.30 s
Flowrate: 3.226 x 10-4 m3/s

Cross
Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference
Section

=
2
i = 2( = =
4
(mm) (m/s)
(mm) (m/s) (2 ) (m/s)

A 209 184 0.7003 0.000531 0.6075 0.0928

B 205 164 0.8968 0.8814 0.0154

0.000366

C 200 68 1.6093 1.6049 0.0044

0.000201

D 188 135 1.0197 1.0273 -0.0076

0.000314

E 185 148 0.8520 0.8489 0.0031

0.000380

F 184 160 0.6862 0.6075 0,0787

0.000531

12
Calculations

During the experiment, reading of h*, hi, and time taken of water to be filled until 3L
are recorded. There are a few things need to be calculated in order to determine the
difference value between ViB and Vic:

1. Calculate ViB, using the Bernoullis equation

p v2
z h * Constant
g 2g

We eliminate the pressure and z, thus we have this equation:

= 2( )

As for example, we calculated the ViB of the cross section A of the 1st trial experiment;

g = 9.81 m/s2

= 2 (9.81)(161 156)

= 0.3132 m/s

2. The area of each cross section of the tube are calculated using this
equation

2
= 4

(26)2
As for example; DA = 26 m therefore = 4 = 0.000531 m2

DB = 21.6 m

DC = 16.0 m

DD = 20.0 m

DE = 22.0 m

DF = 26.0 m

13
 3. Volumetric flow rate of each trial (1st, 2nd and 3rd) are calculated using
equation;

(3 )
= ()

As for example we calculated the Q of the cross section A of the 1st trial
experiment;

0.0033
= 43.20

= 6.944 10-5 m3/s

4. Lastly, we substituted the value of Ai and Q into the continuity equation

Thus Vic = 0.3108 m/s

We calculated the difference value between ViB and Vic. For cross section
A;

ViB - Vic = 0.1824 m/s

All of the calculations are repeated for every trial.

14
DISCUSSION

We had demonstrated the Bernoullis Theorem and from the result we had calculated
that when the diameter of the cross section smaller, there were increasing in velocities
along the distribution tube. The smallest cross section (which is cross section C) gave
huge pressure difference and had the highest velocities. The results had shown that
larger pressure difference gave out the most speed of fluid flow. Furthermore, through
the experiment, we had observed as fluid flow through the venture meter, the head is
higher at the narrower tube and vice versa. The narrower tube leads to high velocities
and low pressure.

The volumetric flow rates are calculated for each trial. The speed of water was
controlled by using valve and times taken are recorded as the volumetric tank reached
3L. Every trial had different volumetric flow rate as to manipulate the result of the
velocities and the calculated volumetric flow rates were substituted into the continuity
equation to determine the velocities. From the calculation, the highest volumetric flow
rates gave the highest velocities.

In order to determine the velocities of each cross section, two different equations
were used; by using Bernoullis Equation (ViB) and by using continuity equation (ViC).
From the calculations we observed that all of calculated ViB had highest value
compared to ViC. The continuity equation is the conservation of mass on a steady flow
process through a control volume. With uniform density of water, the velocity is equal
to volumetric flow rate over area. ViC took area of cross section into consideration,
which when area increase velocity decrease. ViC is directly proportional to area.

Whereas the Bernoullis equation is when an increment in the speed of the fluid
simultaneously with a drop in pressure and the pressure increases when the pipe
opens out and the fluid stagnate. Thus, pressure would decrease when the velocity
increases. This equation took pressure difference into consideration. As we discussed
about both equations, both equations were suitable to be used to calculate the
velocities. However, there some parameters needed to be considered like pressure
difference and area.

We also had calculated the difference between ViB and ViC (ViB - ViC), to show that
the value of ViB are greater than Vic as we calculated, there was one negative value
which was should not happen. This may be because of parallax error during taking the
reading and air bubble trapped inside the tube.

15
CONCLUSION:

Bernoulli state high velocity of fluid flow result in low pressure and based on continuity
equation, smaller area result in high velocity. Within the context of this experiment,
the measurement of static head, the relationship between the static head and the
kinetic head is existing according to Bernoullis equation. Even the value is not exactly
the same, but the pattern of increasing and decreasing at the converging and
diverging portion is same. So that, as the velocity increases, the total head pressure
also increases for both convergent and divergent flow.

16
REFERENCES:

1. Mannymax(2007)Bernoullis law derivation diagram,available

at:https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.svg (Accessed:1st November 2015)

2. Elementary Fluid Mechanics 7th Edition, Robert L. Street, Gary Z. Watters, John
K. Vennard, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

3. Bernoullis Equation from

http://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/Bernoulli.html. Retrieved on
18th May 2014

4. Atta, E. T. (2016). Bernoulli Experiment Lab Report. Retrieved November 24,

2017, from
http://www.green-mechanic.com/2016/10/bernoulli-experiment-lab-report.ht
ml
5. Bernoulli's Principle Demonstration (Lab Report). (n.d.). Retrieved November
24, 2017, from
https://.scribd.com/doc/246653261/Bernoulli-s-Principle-Demonstration-Lab
-Report
6. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2016, October 26). Bernoulli's
theorem. Retrieved November 24, 2017, from
https://www.britannica.com/science/Bernoullis-theorem
7. Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Lab Report Uitm. (n.d.). Retrieved
November 24, 2017, from
https://www.scribd.com/document/188076875/Bernoulli-s-Theorem-Demonst
ration-Lab-Report-Uitm
8. Bernoulli's principle. (2017, November 27). Retrieved November 27, 2017,
from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle

17