Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Grid frequency control with electric vehicles by using of an optimized

fuzzy controller
Saber Falahati a, Seyed Abbas Taher a,, Mohammad Shahidehpour b
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Kashan, Iran
b
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

Charging of electric vehicles has imposed new loads on deregulated power systems.

These new loads have faced the frequency control of power systems with new challenge.

Using of vehicle to grid concept is one of ways to deal with this new challenge.

For grid frequency control, a new method for control of EVs charging is proposed.

A new method is based on optimized fuzzy controller.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nowadays, due to the increased price of fossil fuels and their decreasing resources on the one hand, and
Received 8 March 2016 the importance of environmental pollution on the other, use of electric vehicles (EVs) has been increased.
Received in revised form 3 May 2016 Charging of EVs has imposed new loads on power systems. These new and major loads along with the
Accepted 17 June 2016
deregulation of power systems, which introduces new uncertainties to grid, have caused new challenges
Available online 5 July 2016
for the frequency control and stability of power systems. Use of EVs as moving batteries in deregulated
power systems is one of the ways for dealing with this problem. In this method, charging EVs is controlled
Keywords:
and, when necessary, EV battery is discharged in grid. This concept is called vehicle to grid (V2G), which
Smart grid
Deregulated grid
was employed in this study for the control of the frequency of a smart deregulated grid. For this purpose,
Vehicle to grid an optimized fuzzy controller was used to control EVs. Using the proposed method, charging or discharg-
Optimized fuzzy control ing of batteries was carried out with respect to grid frequency and battery state of charge. To investigate
the proposed approach, a 35-bus system as a deregulated system was assumed. Then, this system was
converted into a three area system in order for the frequency analysis. Simulations were performed in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment and the results illustrated the good performance of the proposed
method in terms of frequency control of deregulated system. Moreover effect of proposed method on
under frequency load shedding was verified. It was illustrated that by using of proposed method under
frequency load shedding is postponed.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (IEA) has predicted the sales of passenger light-duty EV/plug-in

In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained renewed
interest in the global research and industrial sectors. The major
factor attracting the promotion of EVs is its pollution- and
emission-free transportation, which is a greatly needed global
necessity for sustainable future [1]. According to [2], the number
of EVs in the United States in 2020, 2030, and 2050 will reach
35%, 51%, and 62%, respectively. International Energy Agency
Corresponding author at: Department of Electrical Engineering, University of
Kashan, Kashan 87317-51167, Iran.
E-mail address: sataher@Kashanu.ac.ir (S.A. Taher).
hybrid EV will boost from 2020 on and might reach more than
100 million of EV/plug-in hybrid EV sold per year worldwide by
2050 (Fig. 1) [3]. High electric energy demand of plug-in EVs (PEVs)
on the one hand and their increasing number on the other hand
will impose a significant load on grids. This major load causes
new challenges for the frequency control and stability of power
systems. Moreover, by converting the conventional power systems
into deregulated ones in early decades, new uncertainties have
been introduced to power systems. In a traditional power system,
generation, transmission, and distribution are owned by a single
entity called a vertically integrated utility (VIU), which supplies
power to the customers at regulated rates. In an open energy

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.06.077
0306-2619/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928 919

Fig. 1. Passenger light-duty vehicle sales [3].

market, generation companies (GENCOs) may or may not partici-
pate in the load frequency control (LFC) task. On the other hand,
a distribution company (Disco) may contract individually with
GENCOs or independent power producers (IPPs) for power in dif-
ferent areas [4]. So, in deregulated power systems, frequency con-
trol is more complex.
Control of EVs as controllable loads and using their batteries as
power balancing reserves in deregulated power systems are among
the solutions for the frequency control of deregulated power sys-
tems. In this method, EVs are connected to grid by bidirectional
converters. In this way, when load of grid is low, battery is charg-
ing; but, at the high loading of grid and when grid frequency is
under the nominal value, it may discharge in grid. This concept is
known as V2G (vehicle to grid) and, for first time, was used in
[5]. The idea behind V2G is that people usually do not use their cars
for long trips (Fig. 2); so, batteries are not fully discharged. Hence,
when EVs are connected to the grid, the remaining charge in their
batteries can be used for regulation purposes [2]. In Fig. 3, EV avail-
ability during daytime is shown. It can be seen in this figure that a
proper number of EVs are reachable during a day. Hence, V2G con-
cept can be used in ancillary services. In Ref. [6] future net revenue
and life cycle emissions savings of vehicle to grid technologies for
use in ancillary (regulation) services on a regional basis in the Uni-
ted States has been studied. The results have indicated that for a
single vehicle the net revenue of vehicle to grid services reaches
to approximately $42,000 per vehicle on average. Ref. [7] has con-
ducted a cost benefit analysis of owning and operating a V2G cap-
able electric school bus. It has described that electric school bus
fleets with V2G are cost effective with todays technology.
Since battery change rate is very fast, V2G concept can be
employed in frequency ancillary services [8]. V2G concept was
employed in several papers for the frequency control of grid [9
16]. In [9], V2G concept was used in order for grids frequency con-
trol along with proposing a scheduled charging method. In this ref-
erence, the controller was designed so that SOC of battery was
balanced around 50%. In [10], the coordinated V2G and conven-
tional frequency controllers for robust LFC in the smart grid with
large wind farms were focused on. In [11,12], V2G concept has
been used for secondary frequency control. In [11], use of plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) along with controllable loads for
frequency control was investigated and, in [12], a number of elec-
tric vehicles and heat pump water heaters were employed for load
frequency control. In [13], EVs were employed in secondary fre-
quency control along with battery energy storage stations (BESSs)
to control the grid frequency. Also, a coordinated control strategy
was presented for large-scale EVs, BESSs, and traditional frequency
regulation resources involved in automatic generation control
(AGC). In [14], a general dynamic EV frequency control strategy

Fig. 2. Individual driving distance distribution per day [2].

920 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928
Fig. 3. EV availability [2].
was proposed considering the traveling behavior of the EV users.
Further, a droop control was employed to regulate the EV
charging/discharging power according to the frequency signal.
Fuzzy control of photovoltaic systems along with using V2G for fre-
quency control was proposed in [15]. In this reference, EVs were
used in secondary frequency control and SOC of the batteries
was limited between 10% and 90%. In [16], decentralized V2G con-
trol was proposed for frequency regulation and a V2G control strat-
egy, called battery SOC holder (BSH), along with a smart charging
method, called charging with frequency regulation (CFR), was
introduced.
In this study, an optimized fuzzy controller is used for the con-
trol of EV charging in order to control the frequency of a deregu-
lated grid with respect to SOC of EV battery and frequency
deviation of grid. The general structure is represented in Fig. 4. In
this approach, each EV is connected to a charging station. Each
charging station communicates with grid through high speed links
so that, in this paper, no delay time is supposed in data transfer and
processing. EV battery information such as SOC from EV and grid
information such as frequency from smart grid are transferred to
charging station. Fig. 5 represents the structure of charging station.
In the charging station, processing is carried out based on fuzzy
control and the corresponding signals to bidirectional converter
are generated. With respect to the coming signals, the bidirectional
converter makes output power to grid or EV battery. Simulation
results indicate that proposed method is effective in the control
of system frequency.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In the second sec-
tion, the studied system and EVs modeling are presented. In the
third section, the proposed controller is explained. Simulations
are carried out and the results are analyzed in the fourth section.
Finally, in the fifth section, conclusion is expressed.
Data Transfer
EV Charging Station
Fig. 4. Employed V2G structure.
2. Modeling of system
Frequency control loops of a power system can be represented
as Fig. 6 [4]. In this figure, primary and secondary frequency con-
trol loops are performed on the generation side only, while tertiary
and emergency frequency control loops can be used on both gener-
ation and demand sides. In Fig. 7, the relation between frequency
deviation and control loops is shown. Values of Df1, Df2, Df3, and
Df4 are various in different grids [4]. Primary control is governor
control. If the value of the frequency deviation exceeds this certain
limit, then primary control will not be sufficient anymore and sec-
ondary frequency control or supplementary control should be
employed. Secondary control is called load frequency control. In
this study, in order for the frequency control of grid, V2G concept
based on fuzzy controller is employed in primary frequency
control.
The studied 35-bus system is shown in Fig. 8. In this power sys-
tem, in addition to the conventional plants, EV charging stations
are considered. In order for the frequency analysis, this system is
converted into a three-area deregulated system [4,15]. Area i of
the considered deregulated system is depicted in Fig. 9. In this fig-
ure, Ki(s) is controller of area i and a PI controller is used for this
purpose, similar to most of the conventional power systems. In
order for simplicity, the conventional generation resource is
assumed as a non-reheat steam unit. Governor and turbine units
are modeled as follows:
1
T Gov s 1
1 sT g
1
GTur s 2
1 sT t
Data Transfer
Smart Grid
 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928 921

Battery SOC
Optimized Bidirectional
Output power
Grid Frequency fuzzy controller converter
deviation

Fig. 5. Charging station structure.

characteristic, equivalent damping coefficient, inertia constant,

and frequency bias of area i, respectively. aik in Fig. 9 represents
the participation factor of GENCO k of area i in load frequency
control.
There can be various combinations of contracts between each
Disco and available GENCOs. On the other hand, each GENCO can
contract with various Discos. Generation participation matrix
(GPM) concept is defined to visualize these bilateral contracts con-
veniently in the generalized model. The GPM shows the participa-
tion factor of each GENCO in the considered control areas, and each
control area is determined by a Disco. The rows of a GPM corre-
spond to GENCOs and the columns to control areas that contract
power [4]. In this paper, GMP matrix is considered as shown
following:
2 3 2 3
gpf11 gpf12 gpf13 0:25 0:25 0
6 gpf gpf23 7 6 0 7
6 21 gpf22 7 6 0:5 0 7
6 7 6 7
6 gpf31 gpf32 gpf33 7 6 0 0:25 0:75 7
GPM 6
6 gpf
76
7 6
7 5
Fig. 6. Frequency control loops in a power system [4].
6 41 gpf42 gpf43 7 6 0:25 0:25 0 77
6 7 6 7
4 gpf51 gpf52 gpf53 5 4 0 0:25 0 5
gpf61 gpf62 gpf63 0 0 0:25
In the above equation, Tg and Tt are governor and turbine time
constants, respectively. In Fig. 9, DPTie,i and Tij represent the actual where gpfki refers to generation participation factor and shows the
tie line power of area i and synchronous torque factor between participation factor of GENCO k in the load following area i. V1i in
areas i and j, respectively. It can be shown that DPTie,i and Tij are Fig. 9 is obtained as follows:
obtained from the following equations [4]:
2 3 V 1i DPLi DPdi 6
X
N
2p 6XN XN
7 where DPLi and DPdi are local contracted and disturbance load of
DPTie;i DPtie;ij 4 T ij Df i  T ij Df j 5 3
j1;
s j1; j1;
area i, respectively. V2i is interface effects between each control area
ji ji ji
and other areas, which is computed as follows:

jV i jjV j j X
N
T ij cosd0i  d0j 4 V 2i T ij Df j 7
X ij j1;
ji
In Eq. (3), N is equal to the number of areas. In Eq. (4), Vi and di
show terminal voltage and phase of area i respectively, and Xij is In Fig. 2, V3i is scheduled tie-line power, which can be general-
reactance between areas i and j. In Fig. 9, Ri, Di, Hi, and bi are droop ized for an N control area as follows:

Emergency
control

Tertiary control

Secondary
control

Primary control

f 4 f 3 f 2 f 1 f 1 f 2 f 3 f 4
f0 f0 f0 f0 f0 f0 + f0 + f0 + f0 +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Fig. 7. Relationship between frequency deviation and control loops.

922 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928

`
G7
<1> Area 2 <7> <11>

<5> <10>

<2> <9> <12>

<8>

G6
<3> <6>
EVs23

<4> <32>
EVs21

G5

EVs22 <31>
EVs33
<33>
<13>
<27>
<19> Area 1 EVs32
<35>
<34>
G3
<24> EVs31
<18> <26>
<14> <29>
<17> <30>
<22> <25>
<16>
<23>
<15> <20> EVs12 <28>
EVs13

G4

G1
<21> Area 3
EVs11 G2

Fig. 8. 35-bus system in the presence of EVs.

Fig. 9. Area i of three-area model.

X
V 3i Total export power  Total import power V4i is a vector that includes the contracted demands of other
DISCOs from GENCOs of area i:
0 1
! 8 V 4i V 4i1 V 4i2 . . . V 4in  10
X
N X
n X
n
BXN
C
gpfkj DPLj  @ gpfjk ADPLi where
X
j1; k1 k2 j1;
N
v 4i1
ji ji
gpf1j DPLj
j1
Tie line power deviation is obtained by .. 11
.
X
N
DPTiei;error DP Tie;i  V 3i 9 v 4in gpfnj DPLj
j1
 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928
Generation of each GENCO should track the contracted
demands of Discos in a steady state. The desired total power gen-
eration of GENCO i in terms of GPM entries can be calculated as:
X
N Q1  Q2
DPmi gpfij DP Lj
j1
In this study, plug-in electric vehicles are used for verifying fre-
quency control of grid in the proposed method. Different battery
technologies such as NiMH, Li-ion, and lithium polymer can be
employed for EVs [3]. In some literatures battery wearing and
influence of V2G concept on aging of batteries have been studied
[17,18] but in this study, ideal batteries with no losses and wears
have been supposed for EVs. Since purpose of this paper is verify-
ing performance of proposed controller, there is no concentration
on modeling of arrival time and departure time of EVs, although
it can be done by using normal distribution. In this paper, basically,
each charging station charges one EV by one controller, but in
order to simplify the simulations and reduce the burden of calcu-
lations, three categories of EVs are considered for each area in
MATLAB/SIMULNK. EVs in each category has the same features,
so it is possible to use one controller for each category and, then,
the output of the controller can be multiplied by the number of
EVs in that category to show the effect of all EVs in that category.
As mentioned above, EV charging is carried out by bidirectional
power electronic converters. A schematic diagram of a battery and
a bidirectional converter coupled with the distribution node via
line reactance X are represented in Fig. 10. Power delivered by
the battery storage can be written as:
SEV VI
where
E\d  V\0
I 14
jX
In Eqs. (13) and (14), SEV and I are the power and current sup-
plied by the battery, respectively. E and V are the voltages at the
sending and receiving ends, respectively. d is the angle between
E and V. X is the line reactance between the converter and utility
node. It can be demonstrated that active and reactive powers are
obtained as [19]:
EV sind
PEV
X accuracy in finding the solutions of optimization problems; the
E2  EV cosd
Q EV
X egory of EVs with 70% initial SOC, 10 kW h battery capacity, and
Fig. 10. EVs battery used as distributed energy source [19].
923
It has been assumed that power electronic converters are con-
trolled so that QEV = 0. Fast dynamics of converters have not been
modeled in simulations. Battery SOC is calculated by:
12 SOC 17
Q1
where Q1 represents battery capacity and Q2 is output energy.
3. Design of controller
A fuzzy logic control consists of four principle controls: a fuzzi-
fication interface, a rule base, inference logic, and a defuzzification
interface. The schematic structure of a fuzzy logic control is shown
in Fig. 11. The fuzzification interface converts binary values into
fuzzy values. Defuzzification interface does the converse. This con-
version is achieved by means of a membership function. The rule
base is a collection of IF-THEN rules that describe the control strat-
egy. The output from each rule in the rule base is deduced by the
inference logic to arrive at a value for each output membership
function [19].
In this paper, the fuzzy controller has two inputs. As can be seen
in Fig. 5, two variables of SOC of battery and frequency deviation of
grid are the inputs to the fuzzy controller. In the next step, with
respect to these inputs and the corresponding membership func-
tions and fuzzy rules, charging and/or discharging power of each
EV battery is determined. Fig. 12 represents the membership func-
tions of variables. In Fig. 12a, frequency deviation membership
function is shown. Input frequency deviation is fuzzified into the
corresponding fuzzy signals with seven linguistic variables: very
13 low (VL), medium low (ML), small low (SL), medium (M), small
high (SH), medium high (MH), and very high (VH). In Fig. 12B, bat-
tery SOC membership functions are displayed. Input SOC is fuzzi-
fied into the fuzzy regions with five linguistic variables: very low
(VL), low (L), medium (M), high (H), and very high (VH). In
Fig. 12A and B upper, lower and middle limits are considered con-
stants and parameters a, b, c, d, e and f are considered as optimiza-
tion variables. They are optimized with imperialist competitive
algorithm (ICA) [20] so that minimize following fitness function:
Z
F jDf jtdt 18
ICA has been used in various papers owing to its high speed and
15
theory of this method has been described in detail in the related
literatures [21,22]. In order to optimize a one area grid and one cat-
16
total number of EVs equal to 1000 in the absence of secondary fre-
quency controller is considered. A load with the size of 0.1 pu is
applied to this system at 0 s. Fitness function of Eq. (18) along with
the following limits has been used for optimizing the aforemen-
tioned parameters:
0:4 6 a 6 0:2; 0:2 6 b 6 0; 0 6 c 6 0:2; 0:2 6 d
6 0:4; 20 6 e 6 40; 60 6 f 6 80
Results of the optimization are obtained as follows:
a 0:3; b 0; c 0:16; d 0:25; e 28:19; f 60:
Membership functions of power are represented in Fig. 12. The
power is fuzzified into nine fuzzy regions represented by linguistic
variables: very negative high (VNH), negative high (NH), negative
medium (NM), negative low (NL), zero (Z), positive low (PL), posi-
tive medium (PM), positive high (PH), and very positive high (VPH).
In this figure, the negative sign means that battery is charged.
Membership functions of power are attained by both analysis
and trial-and-error.
924 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928

Inputs Fuzzification Inference defuzzification Outputs

Fuzzy
rules

Fig. 11. A typical structure of fuzzy logic control.

where Lx and My denote the antecedents and the Zl is consequent

VL ML SL Z SH MH VH
1
part. Fuzzy controllers output PI is calculated by
,
X
35 X35
PI xi Z l xi 20
i1 i1

where xi denotes the grade for the antecedent and is obtained by:
a b c d
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 xi xDfi xSi 21
f ( Hz )
A where xDfi and xSi are the grade of antecedents for each rule.

VL L Z H VH
1
4. Simulation results and discussion

4.1. Effect of proposed method on grid frequency control

4.1.1. Case study 1

There are several charging strategies for charging EVs, namely
e f dumb charging, dual-tariff, smart charging, V2G charging, etc. In
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 this paper, to investigate the proposed method, the system shown
SOC (%) in Fig. 10 is considered and EV charging is carried out using the
B proposed method and dumb charging. In dumb charging, typically
VNH NH NM NL Z PL PM PH V PH after the last trip of the day or when a charging point is available,
1
EVs connect to grid and, without any consideration, begin to
charge. For each area, a lumped variable load is assumed. For sim-
plicity in this paper, parameters such as daily travel distance, EV
connectivity, and charging station technologies are not considered
[3,24]. It has been supposed that EVs with the same battery capac-
ity in each area begin to charge simultaneously. 3 kW power limit
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
is supposed for charging and discharging of EVs. It has been
Power (pu)
assumed that each area has three categories of EVs with 10, 12,
C and 16 kW h battery capacities. In Table 2, the number of EVs
Fig. 12. Membership functions; (A) grid frequency deviation, (B) battery SOC, and and initial SOC for all types of batteries in each area is provided.
(C) power. Frequency deviations for all the areas are represented in Fig. 13
for two types of charging policies. As can be seen in Fig. 13AC, by
using of proposed method, frequency deviations in all the areas are
Fuzzy rules of fuzzy controller are presented in Table 1. These reduced significantly. By applying dumb charging, maximum fre-
rules are achieved by logic and analysis. Fuzzy rule i in this con- quency deviations of areas 1, 2, and 3 are 0.2754 Hz, 0.2685 Hz,
troller is expressed as follows [23]: and 0.2891 Hz, respectively; but, by utilizing the proposed method,
Rule i : IF DF isLx and SOC is M y ; THEN PI is Z l 19 they are 0.1121 Hz, 0.0718 Hz, and 0.1039 Hz, respectively, which
show approximately 59% reduction in area 1, 73% in area 2, and
x 1; 2; . . . ; 7; y 1; 2; . . . ; 5; l 1; 2; 3; . . . ; 9 64% in area 3. In Table 3, values of maximum frequency deviations

Table 2
EVs in each area.
Table 1
Fuzzy rules of controller. EVs with 16 kW h EVs with 12 kW h EVs with 10 kW h Area
battery battery battery
SOC/Df VL ML SL Z SH MH VH
Initial Number Initial Number Initial Number
VL Z Z Z NL NM NH VNH
SOC (%) of EVs SOC (%) of EVs SOC (%) of EVs
L Z Z Z NL NL NM NH
Z Z Z Z Z NL NM NH 75 950 50 900 30 1000 Area 1
H PH PH PH Z Z NL NM 60 1100 70 1200 20 800 Area 2
VH VPH VPH PH Z Z Z Z 55 850 65 1050 40 1150 Area 3
 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928 925

0.15 Table 4
RMS and maximum values of frequency deviations using the proposed method and
0.1 V2G controller in [10].

0.05 Area Method RMS value of Maximum value

Frequency deviation (Hz)

frequency of frequency
0 deviation (Hz) deviation (Hz)

-0.05 Area 1 Proposed method 0.0306 0.1120

V2G controller in [10] 0.0256 0.1189
-0.1
Area 2 Proposed method 0.0150 0.0718
-0.15 V2G controller in [10] 0.0208 0.0918
Area 3 Proposed method 0.0239 0.1039
-0.2 Proposed method
V2G controller in [10] 0.0264 0.1207
-0.25 Dumb charging
-0.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
r
Time (s) 1 XN
A RMS kui tk2 22
N i1

0.15 where N represents the number of samples and u(t) is considered a

signal. It should be noted that RMS values are calculated for 30 s. It
0.1
can be found that, by using the proposed method, RMS values of fre-
0.05 quency deviations for all the areas are reduced significantly. By
Frequency deviation (Hz)

0
employing the proposed method, RMS values of frequency devia-
tions of areas 1, 2, and 3 are 0.0306 Hz, 0.0150 Hz and 0.0239 Hz
-0.05 respectively but by dumb charging they are 0.0725 Hz, 0.0663 Hz
-0.1 and 0.0820 Hz respectively so proposed method has reduced
RMS value of frequency deviations by 58%, 77%, and 71%,
-0.15 respectively.
-0.2 Proposed method
4.1.2. Case study 2
-0.25 Dumb charging In order for the comparison, the proposed method is compared
-0.3 with V2G controller in [10]. The test system is considered as in Sec-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
tion 4.1.1. RMS and maximum values of frequency deviations of
Time (s)
areas 13 are given in Table 4 and the frequency deviations of all
B areas with the proposed method and V2G controller in [10] are
0.2 demonstrated in Fig. 14AC. It can be found that maximum values
0.15 of frequency deviations of areas 13 using the proposed method
are reduced by 6%, 22%, and 14%, respectively, compared with
0.1
the case of using V2G controller in [10]. Although the performance
Frequency deviation (Hz)

0.05 of V2G controller in [10] is better in area 1 than that of the pro-
0 posed method, the latter has better responses than V2G controller
in [10] in areas 2 and 3; this issue can be concluded with respective
-0.05
to RMS values of frequency deviations of areas 2 and 3. Table 4
-0.1 shows that RMS values of frequency deviations of areas 2 and 3
-0.15 are reduced by 28% and 10%, respectively, compared with using
Proposed method the V2G controller in [10].
-0.2

-0.25 Dumb charging 4.1.3. Case study 3

-0.3 In this case study, simulations are carried out by an optimized
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 PI controller and the results are compared with the proposed
Time (s) method. In order to optimize the PI controller, a three area
C deregulated power system is considered and PI controller is
optimized using imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA) by
Fig. 13. Frequency deviation; (A) area 1, (B) area 2, and (C) area 3.
applying 0.1 pu step load to all the areas with respect to following
fitness function:
Z
along with their RMS values for the proposed method and dumb FF jDf 1 j jDf 2 j jDf 3 jtdt 23
charging are provided. RMS values are calculated by:

Table 3
Maximum and RMS values of frequency deviations.

Area Area 1 Area 2 Area 3

Method Proposed method Dumb charging Proposed method Dumb charging Proposed method Dumb charging
Maximum frequency deviation 0.1120 0.2754 0.0718 0.2685 0.1039 0.2891
RMS value of frequency deviation 0.0306 0.0725 0.0150 0.0663 0.0239 0.0820
926 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928

0.15 0.15
Proposed method
0.1 0.1
Optimized PI controller
Frequency deviation (Hz)

Frequency deviation (Hz)

0.05 0.05

0 0

-0.05 -0.05

-0.1 -0.1
Proposed method
-0.15 -0.15
V2G controller of Ref. [10]
-0.2 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)
A A
0.1 0.15
Proposed method
0.1
Optimized PI controller
Frequency deviation (Hz)

Frequency deviation (Hz)

0.05
0.05

0
0
-0.05

-0.1
-0.05
Proposed method
-0.15
V2G controller of Ref. [10]
-0.1 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)
B B
0.15 0.15
Proposed method
0.1
Optimized PI controller
Frequency deviation (Hz)

0.1
Frequency deviation (Hz)

0.05

0.05
0

-0.05
0

-0.1
-0.05 Proposed method
-0.15
V2G controller of Ref. [10]
-0.1 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)
C C

Fig. 14. Frequency deviations of all the areas using the proposed method and V2G Fig. 15. Frequency deviations of the areas by the proposed method and optimized
controller in [10]; (A) area 1, (B) area 2, and (C) area 3. PI controller; (A) area 1, (B) area 2, and (C) area 3.

After the optimization, the following values have been obtained
for the parameters of PI controllers:
Kp 0:3175; Ki 0:2504:
In Fig. 15AC, the frequency deviations of all areas by the pro-
posed method and optimized PI controller are shown and, in
Table 5, RMS and maximum values of the frequency deviations of
areas 13 using the proposed method and optimized PI controller
are given. It can be found that, using the proposed method, RMS
values of the frequency deviations of area 13 are reduced by
41%, 64%, and 59%, respectively, compared with the optimized PI
controller. Moreover, by employing the proposed method,
maximum values of the frequency deviations of areas 13 are
decreased by 22%, 36%, and 34%, respectively, compared with the
optimized PI controller.
 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928 927

Table 5 60.2
RMS and maximum values of frequency deviations using the proposed method and
Proposed method
optimized PI controller.
60
Without EVs
Area Method Maximum frequency RMS value of frequency
deviation deviation 59.8 Dumb charging

Frequency (Hz)
Area 1 Proposed 0.1120 0.0306
method 59.6
Optimized PI 0.1439 0.0515
controller
59.4
Area 2 Proposed 0.0718 0.0150
method
59.2
Optimized PI 0.1129 0.0420
controller
59
Area 3 Proposed 0.1039 0.0239
method
Optimized PI 0.1583 0.0587 58.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
controller
Time (s)
A
60
Proposed method
4.2. Effect of proposed method on load shedding 59.8
Without EVs

4.2.1. Case study 4 59.6 Dumb charging

In this case study effect of proposed method on under
Frequency (Hz)
frequency load shedding is investigated. For this purpose a 59.4
three area power system in absence of secondary frequency
control is supposed. The nominal frequency is considered 59.2
60 Hz and configuration of EVs is assumed as Table 2. It is
assumed that if frequency of area reaches to 59 Hz, 40% of load 59
is shed. If minimum of frequency reaches to 58.5 Hz, another
30% of load is shed and if frequency decreasing continues and 58.8
it reaches to 58 Hz, remaining 30% of load is shed. For
investigating performance of proposed method, step loads by 58.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
size of 0.05 pu, 0.1 pu, 0.2 pu and 0.3 pu are applied to all areas Time (s)
respectively. Minimum frequency of all areas by using of B
proposed method, dumb charging and without using of EVs
are given in Table 6. As can be seen when EVs are charged 60.2
by dumb charging, areas 1 and 2 are subjected to load shedding Proposed method
with 0.2 pu step load, and with 0.3 pu step load all areas are 60
Without EVs
subjected to load shedding. But by V2G concept and using of
proposed method, load shedding do not occur in no one of 59.8 Dumb charging
Frequency (Hz)

areas even with applying 0.3 pu step load.

Minimum frequency of areas for all cases when there is no EV 59.6
in grid has been computed in order to comparison. It can be
found from Table 6 that no one of areas are subjected to load 59.4
shedding when size of step load is 0.2 pu that shows better
59.2
results in comparison to dumb charging. But with 0.3 pu step
load, areas 1 and 2 are subjected to load shedding that shows
59
worse results in comparison to proposed method that has no load
shedding.
58.8
For better show of changes of frequencies, frequency of areas 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
13 for applying 0.3 pu step load are displayed in Fig. 16AC. Time (s)
Load shedding of areas 1 and 2 without using of EVs and load C
shedding of areas 13 by dumb charging are obvious in these
figures. Fig. 16. Changes of frequency by applying 0.3 pu step load; (A) area 1, (B) area 2,
and (C) area 3.

Table 6
Minimum frequency by applying step loads.

Method Proposed method Without using of EVs Dumb charging

Step load (pu) 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3
Area 1 59.971 59.825 59.491 59.157 59.827 59.637 59.307 Load shedding 59.511 59.337 Load shedding Load shedding
Area 2 59.994 59.796 59.407 59.018 59.806 59.611 59.222 Load shedding 59.458 59.264 Load shedding Load shedding
Area 3 59.980 59.829 59.479 59.116 59.818 59.653 59.273 59.0805 59.487 59.306 59.048 Load shedding
928 S. Falahati et al. / Applied Energy 178 (2016) 918928
5. Conclusion
In this paper, in order for the grid frequency control in the pres-
ence of EVs in a smart deregulated power system, a new V2G
method was offered. In this method, EVs were controlled by opti-
mized fuzzy logic controllers. Two variables of SOC of batteries
and grid frequency deviation were considered as inputs of fuzzy
controllers. With respect to these inputs and considered member-
ship functions and fuzzy rules, charge or discharge power of EVs
batteries was determined. To investigate the proposed controller,
a deregulated 35-bus smart grid in the presence of EV charging
stations was assumed. In order for the frequency analysis, this sys-
tem was converted into a three-area power system and, for each
area, three categories of EVs with different number and initial
SOC and capacity were assumed. Simulations were carried out in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment and the results illustrated that,
by using the proposed method, frequency deviation of grid was
reduced than dumb charging. Effect of proposed method on under
frequency load shedding was verified in a three area power system
without using of secondary load frequency control. It was illus-
trated that by V2G concept and using of proposed method load
shedding is postponed and so loads can be kept more.
References
[1] Pillai JR. Electric vehicle based battery storages for large scale wind power
integration in Denmark. PhD thesis. Aalborg, Denmark; December 2010.
[2] Dn A, Farkas C, Prikler L. V2G effects on frequency regulation and under-
frequency load shedding in a quasi-islanded grid. In: IEEE Grenoble
PowerTech. p. 16.
[3] Garcia-Valle R, Pecas Lopes JA. Electric vehicle integration into modern power
networks. Springer; 2013.
[4] Bevrani H. Robust power system frequency control. 1st ed. Springer; 2009.
[5] Kempton W, Letendre SE. Electric vehicles as a new power source for electric
utilities. Transp Res D 1997;2(3):15775.
[6] Noori M, Zhao Y, Onat NC, Gardner S, Tatari O. Light-duty electric vehicles to
improve the integrity of the electricity grid through vehicle-to-grid
technology: analysis of regional net revenue and emissions savings. Appl
Energy 2016;168(April):14658.
[7] Kempton W, Tomic J. Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals: calculating
capacity and net revenue. Power Sources 2005;144(1):26879.
[8] Noel L, McCormack R. A cost benefit analysis of a V2G-capable electric school
bus compared to a traditional diesel school bus. Appl Energy 2014;126
(August):24655.
[9] Ota Y, Taniguchi H, Nakajima T, Liyanage KM, Baba J, Yokoyama A.
Autonomous distributed V2G (vehicle-to-grid) satisfying scheduled charging.
IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2012;3(1).
[10] Vachirasricirikul S, Ngamroo I. Robust LFC in a smart grid with wind power
penetration by coordinated V2G control and frequency controller. IEEE Trans
Smart Grid 2014;5(1).
[11] Galus MD, Koch S, Andersson G. Provision of load frequency control by PHEVs,
controllable loads, and a cogeneration unit. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2011;58
(10).
[12] Masuta T, Yokoyama A. Supplementary load frequency control by use of a
number of both electric vehicles and heat pump water heaters. IEEE Trans
Smart Grid 2012;3(3).
[13] Zhong J, He L, Li C, Cao Y, Wang J, Fang B, et al. Coordinated control for large-
scale EV charging facilities and energy storage devices participating in
frequency regulation. Appl Energy 2014;123:25362.
[14] Meng J, Mu Y, Jia H, Wu J, Yu X, Qu B. Dynamic frequency response from
electric vehicles considering travelling behavior in the Great Britain power
system. Appl Energy 2016;162:96679.
[15] Datta M, Senjyu T. Fuzzy control of distributed PV inverters/energy storage
systems/electric vehicles for frequency regulation in a large power system.
IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2013;4(1).
[16] Liu H, Hu ZC, Song YH, Lin J. Decentralized vehicle-to-grid control for primary
frequency regulation considering charging demands. IEEE Trans Power Syst
2013;28(3):34809.
[17] Han S, Han S, Aki H. A practical battery wear model for electric vehicle
charging applications. Appl Energy 2014;113(January):11008.
[18] Marongiu A, Roscher M, Sauer DU. Influence of the vehicle-to-grid strategy on
the aging behavior of lithium battery electric vehicles. Appl Energy
2015;137:899912.
[19] Singh M, Kumar P, Kar I. Implementation of vehicle to grid infrastructure using
fuzzy logic controller. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2012;3(1):56577.
[20] Atashpaz-Gargari E, Lucas C. Imperialist competitive algorithm: an algorithm
for optimization inspired by imperialistic competition. In: IEEE congress on
evolutionary computation. p. 46617.
[21] Taher SA, HajiakbariFini M, FalahatiAliabadi S. Fractional order PID controller
design for LFC in electric power systems using imperialist competitive
algorithm. Ain Shams Eng J 2014;5:12135.
[22] Hadji MM, Vahidi B. A solution to the unit commitment problem using
imperialistic competition algorithm. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2012;27
(1):11724.
[23] Datta M. Fuzzy logic based frequency control by V2G aggregators. In: 5th
International symposium on power electronics for distributed generation
systems (PEDG). IEEE; 2014. p. 18.
[24] Speidel S, Brun Th. Driving and charging patterns of electric vehicles for
energy usage. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;40(December):97110.