Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation

ELECTROMAGNETIC NONDESTRUCTIVE
EVALUATION (XIV)
Studies in Applied Electromagnetics
and Mechanics
Series Editors: K. Miya, A.J. Moses, Y. Uchikawa, A. Bossavit, R. Collins, T. Honma,
G.A. Maugin, F.C. Moon, G. Rubinacci, H. Troger and S. A. Zhou
Volume 35
Previously published in this series:
Vol. 34. S. Wiak and E. Napieralska Juszczak (Eds.), Computer Field Models of
Electromagnetic Devices
Vol. 33. J. Knopp, M. Blodgett, B. Wincheski and N. Bowler (Eds.), Electromagnetic
Nondestructive Evaluation (XIII)
Vol. 32. Y. K. Shin, H. B. Lee and S. J. Song (Eds.), Electromagnetic Nondestructive
Evaluation (XII)
Vol. 31. A. Tamburrino, Y. Melikhov, Z. Chen and L. Udpa (Eds.), Electromagnetic
Nondestructive Evaluation (XI)
Vol. 30. S. Wiak, A. Krawczyk and I. Dolezel (Eds.), Advanced Computer Techniques in
Applied Electromagnetics
Vol. 29. A. Krawczyk, R. Kubacki, S. Wiak and C. Lemos Antunes (Eds.), Electromagnetic
Field, Health and Environment Proceedings of EHE07
Vol. 28. S. Takahashi and H. Kikuchi (Eds.), Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (X)
Vol. 27. A. Krawczyk, S. Wiak and X.M. Lopez Fernandez (Eds.), Electromagnetic Fields in
Mechatronics, Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Vol. 26. G. Dobmann (Ed.), Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (VII)
Vol. 25. L. Udpa and N. Bowler (Eds.), Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (IX)
Vol. 24. T. Sollier, D. Prmel and D. Lesselier (Eds.), Electromagnetic Nondestructive
Evaluation (VIII)
Vol. 23. F. Kojima, T. Takagi, S.S. Udpa and J. Pv (Eds.), Electromagnetic Nondestructive
Evaluation (VI)
Vol. 22. A. Krawczyk and S. Wiak (Eds.), Electromagnetic Fields in Electrical Engineering
Vol. 21. J. Pv, G. Vrtesy, T. Takagi and S.S. Udpa (Eds.), Electromagnetic Nondestructive
Evaluation (V)
Vol. 20. Z. Haznadar and . tih, Electromagnetic Fields, Waves and Numerical Methods
Vol. 19. J.S. Yang and G.A. Maugin (Eds.), Mechanics of Electromagnetic Materials and
Structures
Volumes 1 6 were published by Elsevier Science under the series title Elsevier Studies in
Applied Electromagnetics in Materials.
ISSN 1383 7281 (print)

ISSN 1879 8322 (online)
Electromagnetic Nondestructive
Evaluation (XIV)
Edited by
Tomasz Chady
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Stanisaw Gratkowski
Toshiyuki Takagi
Tohoku University, Japan
and
Satish S. Udpa
Michigan State University, USA
Amsterdam Berlin Tokyo Washington, DC

2011 The authors and IOS Press.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior written permission from the publisher.
ISBN 978 1 60750 749 9 (print)

ISBN 978 1 60750 750 5 (online)
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Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (XIV) v
T. Chady et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
Preface
This volume contains selected papers from the fifteenth International Workshop on
Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation, which was held in Szczecin, Poland, from
June 13 to 16, 2010.
Previous ENDE Workshops have been held in: London, United Kingdom (1995);
Tokyo, Japan (1996); Reggio Calabria, Italy (1997); Chatou, France (1998); Des
Moines, United States (1999); Budapest, Hungary (2000); Kobe, Japan (2001); Saar-
brcken, Germany (2002); Paris, France (2003); East Lansing, United States (2004);
Iwate, Japan (2006); Cardiff, United Kingdom (2007); Seoul, Korea (2008); Dayton,
United States (2009).
The aim of the workshop, organized by the West Pomeranian University of Tech-
nology, Szczecin, Poland and the Japanese Society of Maintenology, was to bring to-
gether scientists from universities and research institutions conducting in-depth re-
search into the basics of electromagnetic non-destructive evaluation (ENDE) on the one
hand, and engineers presenting practical problems and industrial applications on the
other.
Ninety nine participants from eleven European countries and from Algeria, Austra-
lia, Brazil, China, India, Japan, Korea, and the United States, were officially registered.
Eighty papers were presented in all, among them five invited papers, namely:
1. D.C. Jiles, .P. Mierczak, Y. Melikhov, Detection of Surface Condition in
Ground Steel Components Using Magnetic Barkhausen Measurements,
2. S. Honda, Pipe Wall Thickness Inspection with Current Driven Thermal
Method,
3. J.S. Knopp, M. Blodgett, J. Calzada, E. Lindgren, C. Buynak, J. Aldrin, Com-
putational Methods in ENDE: Revolutionary Capability for the Sustainment of
Aerospace Systems in the 21st Century,
4. Z. Chen, T. Hwang, L. Wang, S. Tian, N. Yusa, Investigation on the Features
of the Electric Conductivity Around a Stress Corrosion Crack,
5. S.C. Chan, R. Grimberg, J.A. Hejase, Z. Zeng, P. Lekeakatakunju, L. Udpa,
S.S. Udpa, Development of a Nonlinear Eddy Current Technique for Estimat-
ing Case Hardening Depths.
Short versions of all the contributions have been published in the Book of Ab-
stracts, and reviewed and accordingly revised full papers have been accepted and are
now included in this volume: Electromagnetic Non-Destructive Evaluation (XIV) pub-
lished by IOS Press in the series Studies in Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics.
In closing, we would like to thank the authors, session chairs, and reviewers for
conscientiously executing their duties to maintain the high scientific quality of the pa-
pers published in this volume. We believe that the readership of this book will find the
included papers interesting and inspiring.
T. Chady, S. Gratkowski, T. Takagi, S.S. Udpa

Co-Editors
This page intentionally left blank
vii
ENDE 2010 Szczecin Poland

Conference Organization
The 15th International Workshop on Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation,
Szczecin, Poland, June 1316, 2010.
Organized by
in Cooperation with
Japan Society of Maintenology, Tokyo, Japan
Co-Sponsors
Oddzia Szczeciski Stowarzyszenia Elektrykw Polskich, Szczecin, Poland
Federacja Stowarzysze Naukowo-Technicznych NOT w Szczecinie, Poland
ZAPOL grupa reklamowa, Szczecin, Poland
Technika Obliczeniowa, Krakw, Poland
Standing Committee
F. Kojima Japan
I. Altpeter Germany
J. Bowler USA
N. Bowler USA
T. Chady Poland
Z. Chen China
D. Jiles UK
J. Knopp USA
D. Lesselier France
K. Miya Japan
G.Z. Ni China
J. Pavo Hungary
G. Pichenot France
G. Rubinacci Italy
S.J. Song Korea
T. Takagi Japan
A. Tamburrino Italy
L. Udpa USA
S.S. Udpa USA
viii
List of Referees and Scientific Committee

P. Baniukiewicz L. Janousek K. Stawicki
C. Bardel T. Jayakumar G. Steffes
H. Brauer H. Kikuchi O. Stupakov
J.R. Bowler F. Kojima T. Takagi
K. Capova D. Lesselier A. Tamburrino
T. Chady P. Lekeaka-Takunju T. Uchimoto
S.C. Chan N. Mahapatra L. Udpa
Z. Chen A. Nishimizu S.S. Udpa
W. Chlewicki D. Premel G. Vertesy
Y. Goto J. Pavo T. Yamamoto
S. Gratkowski G. Psuj N. Yusa
R. Grimberg J.M.A. Rebello M. Zikowski
D. He M. Shiwa
H. Huang M. Smetana
Organizing Committee
Honorary Member: Rector ZUT Wodzimierz Kiernoycki
Chairman: Tomasz Chady
Co-Chairman: Stanisaw Gratkowski
Ryszard Sikora
Stefan Domek
Andrzej Brykalski
Members:
Piotr Baniukiewicz
Wojciech Chlewicki
Pawe Frankowski
Justyna Joczyk
Jacek Kowalczyk
Krzysztof Kujawski
Pawe Lesiecki
Przemysaw opato
Lech Napieraa
Marzena Olszewska
Grzegorz Psuj
Tomasz Pietrusewicz
Krzysztof Stawicki
Barbara Szymanik
Marcin Zikowski
ix
ENDE 2010 Szczecin Poland

List of Participants
Yuji Akiyama Iris Altpeter
Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Fraunhofer-Institut IZFP, Saarbrcken
Yokohama Campus E3.1
3-19-25 Shimosueyoshi, Tsurumu-ku D-66123 Saarbrcken
230-0012 Yokohama Germany
Japan iris.altpeter@izfp.fraunhofer.de
akiyama.sml@gmail.com
Piotr Baniukiewicz B.P.C. Rao

Department of Electrical Engineering NDE Division, Metallurgy and Materials
West Pomeranian University of Group,
Technology, Szczecin Indira Ghandi Centre Atomic Research
ul. Sikorskiego 37 603102 Kalpakkam
70-313 Szczecin India
Poland bpcrao@igcar.gov.in
piotr.baniukiewicz@zut.edu.pl
Bilicz Sndor Hartmut Brauer

Budapest University of Technology Ilmenau Univeristy of Technology
and Economics Helmholtzplatz 2, P.O.Box 100565
Egry Jzsef t 18 98684 Ilmenau
1521 Budapest Germany
Hungary hartmut.brauer@tu-ilmenau.de
bilicz@evt.bme.hu
Andrzej Brykalski Stephen Burke

Department of Electrical Engineering DSTO
West Pomeranian University of 506 Lorimer St
Technology, Szczecin VIC 3207 Fishermans Bend
ul. Sikorskiego 37 Australia
70-313 Szczecin steve.burke@dsto.defence.gov.au
Poland
Andrzej.Brykalski@zut.edu.pl
Flavio Calvano Juan Calzada

Universit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Air Force Research Laboratory
Via Claudio 21 2230 Tenth Street
80125 Naples 45433 WPAFB
Italy USA
flavio.calvano@unina.it juan.calzada@wpafb.af.mil
x
Klra pov Tomasz Chady

DEBE, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering
University of ilina West Pomeranian University of
Univerzitn 1 Technology, Szczecin
SK-01026 ilina ul. Sikorskiego 37
Slovak Republik 70-313 Szczecin
capova@fel.uniza.sk Poland
tchady@zut.edu.pl
Zhenmao Chen Wojciech Chlewicki

Key Laboratory for Strength and Department of Electrical Engineering
Vibration, School of Aerospace, West Pomeranian University of
Xian Jiaotong University Technology, Szczecin
28 West Xianning Road ul. Sikorskiego 37
710049 Xi-an 70-313 Szczecin
China Poland
chenzm@mail.xjtu.edu.cn wojciech.chlewicki@zut.edu.pl
Georgios Christofi Thanh Long Cung

Department of Physics, SATIE ENS Cachan
University of Cyprus 61 avenue du prsident Wilson
Building: 02,20537 94230 Cachan
1676 Nicosia France
Cyprus cung@satie.ens-cachan.fr
ph05gc1@ucy.ac.cy
Rmi Douvenot Dagmar Faktorov

L2S-DRE University of ilina
(CNRS-SUPELEC-UNIV.PARIS SUD) Univerzitn 1
Joliot Curie 3 SK-01026 ilina
91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Slovak Republik
France faktor@fel.uniza.sk
remi.douvenot@lss.supelec.fr
Mouloud Feliachi Emna Amira Fnaiech

IREENA CEA List
CRTT, Bd de lUniversit Centre Saclay; Bt 611 PC120
44600 Saint Nazaire 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette
France France
mouloud.feliachi@univ-nantes.fr emna-amira.fnaiech@cea.fr
Bryan Foos Pawe Frankowski

First Principles Inc. Department of Electrical Engineering
800 Harman Ave West Pomeranian University of
45419-3432 Oakwood Technology, Szczecin
USA ul. Sikorskiego 37
foosbc@yahoo.com 70-313 Szczecin
Poland
dmode101@interia.pl
xi
Konstanty Marek Gawrylczyk Stanisaw Gratkowski

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering
West Pomeranian University of West Pomeranian University of
Technology, Szczecin Technology, Szczecin
ul. Sikorskiego 37 ul. Sikorskiego 37
70-313 Szczecin 70-313 Szczecin
Poland Poland
kmg@zut.edu.pl sgratkowski@zut.edu.pl
Raimond Grimberg Gyimthy Szabolcs

National Institute of Research and Budapest University of Technology
Development for Technical Physics and Economics
47 D.Mangeron Goldman Gy. tr 3
700050 Iasi 1111 Budapest
Romania Hungary
grimberg@phys-iasi.ro gyimothy@evt.bme.hu
Ammar Hamel He Dongfeng

A/Mira University, Bejaa National Institute for Materials Science
Route de Targa Ouzemour Sengen 1-2-1
06000 Bejaa 305-0047 Tsukuba
Algeria Japan
hamelkane@yahoo.fr he.dongfeng@nims.go.jp
Tommy Henrisson Susanne Hillmann

L2S-DRE Fraunhofer IZFP, Dresden
(CNRS-SUPELEC-UNIV.PARIS SUD) Maria-Reiche-Str. 2
Joliot Curie 3 01109 Dresden
91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Germany
France susanne.hillmann@izpf-d.fraunhofer.de
henriksson@lss.supelec.fr
Satoshi Honda Huang Haiying

Faculty of Science & Technology, University of Texas at Arlington
Keio University 500 W. First Street, WH211
Hiyoshi 3-14-1, Kohoku 76019 Arlington
223-8522 Yokohama USA
Japan huang@uta.edu
honda@appi.keio.ac.jp
Moayyed Hussain Ladislav Janouek

Benet Laboratoris DEBE, Faculty of Electrical
Watervliet Arsel Engineering, University of ilina
12189 Watervliet Univerzitn 1
USA SK-01026 ilina
mhussain@nycap.rr.com Slovak Republik
janousek@fel.uniza.sk
xii
David Jiles Hiroaki Kikuchi

Cardiff University Iwate University
CF24 3AA Cardiff 4-3-5 Ueda
United Kingdom 020-8551 Morioka
jilesd@cardiff.ac.uk Japan
hkiku@iwate-u.ac.jp
Kim Jungmin Kiss Imre

Chosun University Budapest University of Technology
Seosukdong 375 and Economics
501-759 Gwangju Egry Jzsef t 18
Korea 1111 Budapest
ekanus@naver.com Hungary
kiss@evt.bme.hu
Jeremy Knopp Satoru Kobayashi

AFRL/RXLP Iwate University
WPAFB, OH, 45433 4-3-5 Ueda
jeremy.knopp@wpafb.af.mil 020-8551 Morioka
Japan
koba@iwate-u.ac.jp
Fumio Kojima Eugeniusz Kornatowski

Kobe University Department of Electrical Engineering
Rokkodai 1-1, Nada West Pomeranian University of
657-8501 Kobe Technology, Szczecin
Japan ul. Sikorskiego 37
kojima@koala.kobe-u.ac.jp 70-313 Szczecin
Poland
KORN@zut.edu.pl
Jacek Kowalczyk Marc Kreutzbruck

Department of Electrical Engineering BAM Federal Institute for Materials
West Pomeranian University of Research and Testing
Technology, Szczecin Unter den Eichen 87
ul. Sikorskiego 37 12205 Berlin
70-313 Szczecin Germany
Poland marc.kreutzbruck@bam.de
sjk@zut.edu.pl
Marc Lambert Brian Larson

L2S-DRE Iowa State University
(CNRS-SUPELEC-UNIV.PARIS SUD) 175 ASC II
Joliot Curie 3 50011 Ames
91192 Gif-sur-Yvette USA
France blarson@iastate.edu
marc.lambert@lss.supelec.fr
xiii
Lee Jinyi Dominique Lesselier

Chosun University L2S-DRE
Seosukdong 375 (CNRS-SUPELEC-UNIV.PARIS SUD)
501-759 Gwangju Joliot Curie 3
Korea 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette
jinyilee@chosun.ac.kr France
lesselier@lss.supelec.fr
Przemysaw opato Lim Tekoing
Department of Electrical Engineering CEA Saclay
West Pomeranian University of Centre Saclay; Bt 611 PC120
Technology, Szczecin 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette
ul. Sikorskiego 37 France
70-313 Szczecin tekoing.lim@cea.fr
Poland
plopato@zut.edu.pl
Steve Mahaut Kenzo Miya
CEA Saclay Professor-emeritus of the University of
Centre Saclay; Bt 611 PC12D Tokyo
91191 Gif-sur-Yvette President of Japan Society of
France Maintenology (JSM)
steve.mahaut@cea.fr http://www.jsm.or.jp/jsm/en/index.html
Editor in Chief of E-Journal
of Advanced Maintenance (EJAM)
http://www.jsm.or.jp/ejam
miya@jsm.or.jp
Hassane Mohellebi Lech Napieraa
Electrical Engineering Laboratory Department of Electrical Engineering
Tizi-Ouzou University West Pomeranian University of
BP17RP Technology, Szczecin
15000 Tizi-Ouzou ul. Sikorskiego 37
Algeria 70-313 Szczecin
mohellebi@yahoo.fr Poland
lech.napierala@gmail.pl
Yoshihiro Nishimura Youngmin Park
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Chosun University
Science and Technology Seosukdong 375
1-2-1 Namiki 501-759 Gwangju
305-8564 Tsukuba Korea
Japan ekanus@naver.com
nishimura.yoshihiro@aist.go.jp
Jozsef Pavo Cuixiang Pei
Budapest University of Technology and Uesaka-Demachi Laboratary,
Economics The University of Tokyo
Goldman Gy. tr 3 2-11-16, Yayoi, Bunkyoku
1111 Budapest 113-0032 Tokyo
Hungary Japan
pavo@evt.bme.hu peicx@nuclear.jp
xiv
Matthias Pelkner Tomasz Pietrusewicz

BAM Federal Institute for Materials Department of Electrical Engineering
Research and Testing West Pomeranian University of
Unter den Eichen 87 Technology, Szczecin
12205 Berlin ul. Sikorskiego 37
Germany 70-313 Szczecin
matthias.pelkner@bam.de Poland
tp@zut.edu.pl
Denis Prmel Grzegorz Psuj

CEA List Department of Electrical Engineering
Centre Saclay; Bt 611 PC120 West Pomeranian University of
91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Technology, Szczecin
France ul. Sikorskiego 37
denis.premel@cea.fr 70-313 Szczecin
Poland
gpsuj@zut.edu.pl
Joao Rebello Verena Reimund

Federal University of Rio de Janeiro BAM Federal Institute for Materials
Ilha do Fundao CT Room F-210 Research and Testing
21941-972 Rio de Janeiro Unter den Eichen 87
Brasil 12205 Berlin
jmarcos@metalmat.ufrj.br Germany
verena.reimund@bam.de
Maciej Roskosz Guglielmo Rubinacci

Silesian University of Technology Universit degli Studi di Napoli
ul. Akademicka 2A Federico II
44-100 Gliwice Via Claudio 21
Poland 80125 Naples
maciej.roskosz@polsl.pl Italy
rubinacci@unina.it
Yasutomo Sakai Adriana Savin

Tohoku University National Institute of Research and
6-6-01-2, aramaki aza aoba, aoba ward Development for Technical Physics
980-8579 Sendai 47 D. Mangeron
Japan 700050 Iasi
ysaka@karma.qse.tohoku.ac.jp Romania
asavin@phys-iasi.ro
Hans-Peter Schmidt Karl Schmidt

UAS Amberg Weiden (HAW) Evisive, Inc.,
Kaiser Wilhelm Ring 23 8867 Highland Road,
D-92224 Amberg #378, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 70808
Germany USA
h.schmidt@haw-aw.de karl@evisive.com
xv
Jan Sikora Ryszard Sikora

Lublin University of Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering and West Pomeranian University of
Computer Science Faculty Technology, Szczecin
20-618 Lublin ul. Sikorskiego 37
38A Nadbystrzycka Str. 70-313 Szczecin
Poland Poland
sik59@wp.pl rs@zut.edu.pl
Christian Seibold Kisu Shin

UAS Amberg Weiden (HAW) Korea Nationa Defense University
Kaiser Wilhelm Ring 23 205 Susaek-dong
D-92224 Amberg 122-875 Seoul
Germany Korea
c.seibold@haw-aw.de ksshin@kndu.ac.kr
Marek Smaga Milan Smetana

University of Kaiserlautern DEBE, Faculty of Electrical
Gottlieb-Daimler-Strae Engineering,
67663 Kaiserlautern University of ilina
Germany Univerzitn 1
smaga@mv.uni-kl.de SK-01026 ilina
Slovak Republik
smetana@fel.uniza.sk
Thierry Sollier Krzysztof Stawicki

IRSN Department of Electrical Engineering
31, av. de la Division Leclerc BP 17 West Pomeranian University of
92262 Fontenay-aux-Roses Technology, Szczecin
France ul. Sikorskiego 37
thierry.sollier@irsn.fr 70-313 Szczecin
Poland
ks@zut.edu.pl
Tatiana Strapov Barbara Szymanik

DEBE, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering
University of ilina West Pomeranian University of
Univerzitn 1 Technology, Szczecin
SK-01026 ilina ul. Sikorskiego 37
Slovak Republik 70-313 Szczecin
strapacova@fel.uniza.sk Poland
szymanik@zut.edu.pl
Toshiyuki Takagi Antonello Tamburrino

Tohoku University University of Cassino
Katahira 2-1-1, Aoba-ku V.G. Di Biasio, 43
980-8577 Sendai 03043 Cassino
Japan Italy
takagi@ifs.tohoku.ac.jp tamburrino@unicas.it
xvi
Theodoros Theodoulidis Tetsuya Uchimoto

University of Western Macedonia Tohoku University
Bakola & Sialvera 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi
50100 Kozani 980-8577 Sendai
Greece Japan
theodoul@uowm.gr uchimoto@ifs.tohoku.ac.jp
Lalita Udpa Satish S. Udpa
Michigan State University Michigan State University
2100C Engineering Building 3410 Engineering Building
48824-1226 East Lansing 48824-1226 East Lansing
USA USA
udpal@egr.msu.edu udpa@egr.msu.edu
Elmar van den Elzen Vertesy Gabor
Lismar Engineering BV Research institute for Technical Physics
Ambachtenstraat 55 and Materials Science
1191JM Ouderkerk a.d. Amstel Konkoly Thege Mikls ut 29-33
Netherlands H-1121 Budapest
c.m.j.vandenelzen@lismar.com Hungary
vertesyg@mfa.kfki.hu
Xie Shejuan Katsuhiko Yamaguchi
Tohoku University Fukushima University
2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 1 Kanayagawa
980-8577 Sendai 960-1296 Fukushima
Japan Japan
xie@wert.ifs.tohoku.ac.jp yama@sss.fukushima-u.ac.jp
Toshihiro Yamamoto Noritaka Yusa
JAPEIC Tohoku University
14-1 Benten-cho, Tsurumi-ku 6-6 Aramaki, Aza Aoba Aoba, Sendai
230-0044 Yokohama 980-8579 Miyagi
Japan Japan
toshihiro@japeic.or.jp noritaka.yusa@qse.tohoku.ac.jp
Marcin Zikowski Chiara Zorni
Department of Electrical Engineering CEA Saclay
West Pomeranian University of Centre Saclay; Bt 611 PC120
Technology, Szczecin 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette
ul. Sikorskiego 37 France
70-313 Szczecin chara.zorni@cea.fr
Poland
marcin.ziolkowski@zut.edu.pl
Marek Zikowski
Ilmenau Univeristy of Technology
Helmholtzplatz 2, P.O.Box 100565
98684 Ilmenau
Germany
marek.ziolkowski@tu-ilmenau.de
xvii
Contents
Preface v
T. Chady, S. Gratkowski, T. Takagi and S.S. Udpa
Conference Organization vii
List of Participants ix
Keynote Lecture
Pipe Wall Thickness Inspection with Current Driven Thermal Method 3

Satoshi Honda
Modeling and Inverse Problems
Modeling and Signal Processing Sensor Tilt in Eddy Current-GMR Inspection 13

G. Yang, Z. Zeng, L. Udpa and S.S. Udpa
Non-Iterative MUSIC-Type Algorithm for Eddy-Current Nondestructive
Evaluation of Metal Plates 22
Tommy Henriksson, Marc Lambert and Dominique Lesselier
Identification of Defects in 3D Space Using Computer Radiography System 30
Wojciech Chlewicki, Piotr Baniukiewicz, Tomasz Chady and
Andrzej Brykalski
A Thin-Skin Model for Eddy-Current NDE of Cracks in a Borehole 36
S.K. Burke
Magnetic Response Field of Spherical Defects Within Conductive Components 44
M. Kreutzbruck, H.-M. Thomas, R. Casperson, V. Reimund and M. Pelkner
Decreasing Uncertainty in Size Estimation of Stress Corrosion Cracking from
Eddy-Current Signals 53
Ladislav Janousek, Milan Smetana and Marcel Alman
Semi-Discrete Time-Domain Sensitivity Analysis for Cracks Recognition 61
Konstanty M. Gawrylczyk
Metamodel as Input of an Optimization Algorithm for Solving an Inverse
Eddy-Current Testing Problem 71
Rmi Douvenot, Marc Lambert and Dominique Lesselier
Fast Multipole Method for 3D Electromagnetic Boundary Integral Equations.
Application to Non Destructive Testing on Complex 3D Geometries 79
Tekoing Lim, Gregoire Pichenot and Marc Bonnet
Computation of the Magnetostatic Field in Nonlinear Media via the Integral
Equation Formalism: Application to the Characterization of Magnetic Flux
Leakage NDT System 87
Emna Amira Fnaiech, Denis Prmel, Claude Marchand and
Bernard Bisiaux
Efficient Computation of Eddy Current Crack Signals 96
Theodoros Theodoulidis
xviii
Experimental Validation of a Fast Non-Iterative Imaging Algorithm for Eddy

Current Tomography 103
Salvatore Ventre, Flavio Calvano, Guglielmo Rubinacci and
Antonello Tamburrino
Numerical Evaluation of Microwave Testing for Pipe Thinning 111
Yasutomo Sakai, Noritaka Yusa and Hidetoshi Hasizume
Parallelization of Crack Signal Calculation Using CUDA 117
Imre Kiss, Jzsef Pv and Szabolcs Gyimthy
Electromagnetic-Acoustic Transducers Modeling in Time Domain Using
the Finite Element Method 125
Marcin Ziolkowski and Stanislaw Gratkowski
Eddy Current Testing of Ferromagnetic Materials: Modelling of Flaws in a
Planar Medium 134
Chiara Zorni, Christophe Reboud, Marc Lambert and
Jean-Marc Decitre
Efficient Propagation of Uncertainty in Simulations via the Probabilistic
Collocation Method 141
Jeremy S. Knopp, John C. Aldrin and Mark P. Blodgett
Computation of the Magnetic Field Due to a Defect Embedded in a Planar
Stratified Media: Application to AC Field Measurement Techniques 149
Denis Prmel and Grgoire Pichenot
Automatic Detection and Identification of Image Quality Indicators in
Radiograms 157
Piotr Baniukiewicz and Ryszard Sikora
Numerical Simulation of Acoustoelastic Effect in Pre-Stressed Media 164
Cuixiang Pei and Kazuyuki Demachi
BEMLAB Universal, Open Source, Boundary Element Method Library
Applied in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems 173
Pawe Wieleba and Jan Sikora
Use of Half-Analytical Method for the Detection of Defects in Diet Pulses 183
Hassane Mohellebi, Ferroudja Bouali and Mouloud Feliachi
Imperialist Competitive Algorithm Applied to Eddy Current Nondestructive
Evaluation 192
Ammar Hamel, Hassane Mohellebi and Mouloud Feliachi
Transducers and Techniques
Pulsed ECT Method for Evaluation of Pipe Wall-Thinning of Nuclear Power

Plants Using Magnetic Sensor 203
Shejuan Xie, Toshihiro Yamamoto, Toshiyuki Takagi and
Tetsuya Uchimoto
Developing ECT System with AMR Sensor for Combustion Chamber 211
Dongfeng He, Mitsuhara Shiwa, Jianping Jia, Hisashi Yamawaki,
Ichizo Uetake, Junji Takatsubo, Shinichi Moriya and Koichi Okita
Flux Leakage Measurements for Defect Characterization Using NDT Adapted
GMR Sensors 217
Matthias Pelkner, Andreas Neubauer, Mark Blome, Verena Reimund,
Hans-Martin Thomas and Marc Kreutzbruck
xix
Evaluation of EMAT Signals Using Magnetostrictives for Imaging 225

Yoshihiro Nishimura, Akira Sasamoto and Takayuki Suzuki
Pulsed Eddy Current Testing Application to Defect Evaluation 233
Milan Smetana, Ladislav Janousek, Klara Capova and
Maria Michniakova
An ECT Probe with Widely Spaced Coils for Local Wall Thinning in Nuclear
Power Plants 241
Toshihiro Yamamoto, Tetsuya Uchimoto and Toshiyuki Takagi
PLL Based Eddy Current Measuring System for Inspection of Outer Flaw in
Titanium Alloy Plate 249
Tomasz Chady, Jacek Kowalczyk, Leon Nawos-Wysocki, Grzegorz Psuj
and Ireneusz Spychalski
Giant Magneto-Resistive Sensor Based Magnetic Flux Leakage Technique for
Inspection of Track Ropes 256
W. Sharatchandra Singh, B.P.C. Rao, S. Mahadevan, T. Jayakumar and
Baldev Raj
Application of Electromagnetic Nondestructive Techniques
Pipe Wall Thickness Measurement by Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer

Using Band Exciting Method 267
Daigo Kosaka, Fumio Kojima and Kosuke Umetani
Applicability of Magnetic Flux Leakage Method for Wall Thinning Monitoring
in Nuclear Power Plants 275
Hiroaki Kikuchi, Isamu Shimizu, Katsuyuki Ara, Yasuhiro Kamada and
Satoru Kobayashi
Stress Corrosion Cracks Evaluation in 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel Plate 282
Tomasz Chady, Jacek Kowalczyk and Grzegorz Psuj
Multi-Frequency Eddy Current NDE of the Distance Between Parts in
Aeronautical Assemblies 288
Thanh Long Cung, Pierre Yves Joubert and Eric Vourch
Artificial Heart Valve Testing Using Electromagnetic Method 296
Tatiana Strapacova, Klara Capova, Ladislav Janousek and Milan Smetana
Conceptual Design of an Industrial System for Automatic Radiogram Analysis 302
Ryszard Sikora, Tomasz Chady, Piotr Baniukiewicz, Marcin Caryk,
Przemysaw opato, Lech Napieraa, Tomasz Pietrusewicz and
Grzegorz Psuj
Material Characterization
Quantification of Sigma Phase Precipitation by Magnetic Non Destructive

Testing 311
Joo M.A. Rebello, Rodrigo Sacramento, Maria C.L. Areiza and
K. Santos de Assis
Nondestructive Characterization of Neutron Induced Embrittlement in Nuclear
Pressure Vessel Steel Microstructure by Using Electromagnetic Testing 322
I. Altpeter, G. Dobmann, G. Hbschen, M. Kopp and R. Tschuncky
xx
In-Line Thin Film Characterization Using Eddy Current Techniques 330

Susanne Hillmann, Marcus Klein and Henning Heuer
Feasibility of Stress State Assessment on the Grounds of Measurements of
the Strength of the Residual Magnetic Field of Ferromagnetics 339
Maciej Roskosz
Magnetic Characterization of Material Degradation Using Dynamical Minor
Loops 347
Satoru Kobayashi, Shinichi Tsukidate, Hiroyuki Okazaki,
Yasuhiro Kamada, Hiroaki Kikuchi and Toshihiro Ohtani
Local Magnetic Properties and Magnetic Particle Distribution Due to Cr
Depletion in Sensitized Ni Based Alloy 355
K. Yamaguchi, K. Suzuki, T. Takase, T. Takara, O. Nittono, T. Uchimoto
and T. Takagi
Metamaterials in Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation 362
Adriana Savin, Rozina Steigmann, Alina Bruma, Nicoleta Iftimie and
Raimond Grimberg
Evaluation of Plastic Deformation in Steels by Magnetic Hysteresis
Measurements 371
Gbor Vrtesy, Shuzo Ueda, Tetsuya Uchimoto, Toshiyuki Takagi,
Ivan Tom and Zofia Vrtesy
High Frequency Techniques and Others
GPR for UXO Recognition 381

Raimond Grimberg, Adriana Savin, Nicoleta Iftimie, Sorin Leitoiu and
Aurel Andreescu
Application of Microwave Interferometry in Complex Engineered Dielectric
Materials 389
Karl Schmidt and Jack Little
Detection of Concealed, Graphite Containing Frescos, Using Microwave
Enhanced Infrared Thermography 402
Pawe Lesiecki and Barbara Szymanik
Solid Materials Complex Permittivity and Inhomogenities Determination in
High Frequency Range 410
Dagmar Faktorov
Terahertz Time Domain Inspection of Composite Coatings for Corrosion
Protection 417
Przemyslaw Lopato, Tomasz Chady and Joao M.A. Rebello
Simulation Assisted Diagnostic of Switching Arcs 425
Hans-Peter Schmidt, Michael Anheuser and Sylvio Kosse
Studies on Analysis Technique of Commutation Phenomena for Cleaners
Universal Motor Using the State Variable Method 432
Yuji Akiyama and Yuta Niwa
Propositions for the Analysis of Commutation Phenomena of Universal
Motors Using the State Function Method 439
Yuji Akiyama and Yuta Niwa
xxi
Detection of CFRPs Degradation Through Electromagnetic Procedures 447

Bogdan Serghiac, Daniel Petrica Salavastru, Paul Doru Barsanescu,
Adriana Savin, Rozina Steigmann and Raimond Grimberg
Microwave Antenna Sensors for Fatigue Crack Monitoring Under Lap-Joints 456
Justin Erdmann and Haiying Huang
Subject Index 467
Author Index 471
Keynote Lecture
Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (XIV) 3
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-3
Pipe Wall Thickness Inspection with

Current Driven Thermal Method
Satoshi HONDA a,1
a
Faculty of Science & Engineering, Keio University, Japan
Abstract. Electric potential dierence(EPD) method is widely used for

diagnosing and monitoring ow conduits. Theoretical analysis and the
exact solution of the electrical potential eld in pipe wall have been
given, and 2D approximation is eective for small pipe wall thickness
there. This study proposes to use temperature distribution driven by
Joule heat with the electric current other than electrical potential dier-
ence. Under thin wall approximation, 2D electric and thermal problems
are analyzed and exact solutions are given.
Keywords. Nondestructive test, pipe wall thinning, forward analysis,
electric potential dierence
Introduction
Electric potential dierence(EPD) method is widely used for diagnosing and mon-
itoring ow conduits [1]. It applies large electric currents between a pair of elec-
trodes on pipe wall surface, and the electrical potentials are measured with mul-
tiple potential electrodes. Since the localized pipe wall thinning or a wall crack
deforms the potential eld, we can monitor and/or diagnose pipe wall condition
under test.
The method is also required to evaluate pipe wall thinning in larger span. We
have studied the prospect of the method to evaluate pipe wall thinning. Based
on the work on non-intrusive resistance thermometer for fast breeder reactor[2,3],
theoretical analysis and the exact solution of the electrical potential eld in pipe
wall have been proposed[4], and 2D approximation is eective for small pipe wall
thickness.
We propose in the paper to use temperature distribution driven by Joule heat
with the electric current other than electrical potential dierence. Under thin
wall approximation, 2D electric and thermal problems are analyzed and exact
solutions are given.
1 Corresponding Author: Satoshi Honda, Faculty of Science & Technology, Keio University,
Hiyoshi 3-14-1, Kohoku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan; Email: honda@appi.keio.ac.jp

4 S. Honda / Pipe Wall Thickness Inspection with Current Driven Thermal Method
1. Analysis of Wall Potential Problem for EPD Method
1.1. 3D Analysis
Let the electric potential inside the uid be 1 (, , z), and the one inside the
pipe wall, 2 (, , z), where cylindrical coordinates are adopted with pipe axis as
z coordinate. Electrical current is fed between a pair of rectangular electrodes of
bwbw on the outer surface (b, 0, 0). If we let 1 and 2 be electrical conductivities
of the uid and the pipe wall, the following potential problem is formulated.
2 = 0, a<<b (1)
1 = 0, <a (2)

2 i0
= rect(; w) rect(z; bw), (3)
=b 2

2 1 2
1 |rho=a = 2 |=a 2 , 1 = 2 , (4)
=a =a =a
where rect(; ) denotes the rectangular shape of the electrodes

1, |x| w/2
rect(x; w) (5)
0, |x| > w/2
and i0 , the driving current density. In order to solve the problem, we introduce
the potential distribution 0 for the bulk cylinder of the radius b:
0 = 0, <b (6)

0 i0
= rect(; w) rect(z; bw), (7)
=b 2
This potential 0 is obtained by using Greens function G(, , z; , , z ) corre-

sponding to this Neumann problem which satises,
1
G = ( ) ( )(z z ), (8)

G
=0 (9)
=b
The Greens function is given as,

m Km (b)
G(, , z; , , z ) = cos m(
) Km (
) (b) m
I (
)
m=0
2 2 0 Im
Im () cos (z z ) d
(10)
S. Honda / Pipe Wall Thickness Inspection with Current Driven Thermal Method 5
where Im () and Km () denote m-th order modied Bessel functions of rst and
second kinds, respectively, and m , Neumann factor. This Greens function gives
the potential 0 for the simplied model:

i0
0 = G(, , z; b, , z ) rect( ; w) rect(z ; bw)bd dz
S 2

mw

i0 m Im () bw
= cos m sinc (b)
cos z sinc d,
2 m=0 2 2 2 0 bIm 2
(11)
Due to the linearity of the original potential problem, we assume the following
solution:
2 = 0 + 2

m
= 0 + cos m [dm Km () + cm Im ()] cos z d, (12)
m=0
2 2 0

m
1 = cos m fm Im () cos z d (13)
m=0
2 2 0
Since 0 has already accounted for the current feeding electrodes, the boundary
condition for the potential 2 reads as follows:

2
= 0. (14)

=b
From three boundary conditions (4) and (14), we obtain three independent equa-
tions for the coecients cm , dm , fm of series expansions, which evaluate the coef-
cients.
When we put a pair of current feeding electrodes on = 0, , the exact form
of the potential distribution is,
1
Im () Am ()
2 = cos m (b)
+ Wm () cos z d (15)
2 0 bIm Bm ()
m:odd

1 Km (b)
Am () Im (a) + Im (a) Km () Im () (16)
b b Im (b)

Im (a)
Bm () + [Im (b)Km (a) Im (a)Km (b)]
Im (a)

+ [Im (a)Km (b) Im (b)Km (a)] (17)
1.2. Application to Evaluation of Pipe Wall Thinning
For the convenience, let us normalize the variables here in order to evaluate surface
potential, as b, a/b.. In the limit case of the conductivities being
0 1 2 and of very thin pipe wall, the potential distribution on the wall
reduces to,
mw
z
i0 2 w
2 (b, , z) = cos msinc Q m () sinc cos d
2 b 2 2 0 2 b
m:odd
(18)
Im () I () 1
Qm ()
2m () K ()I ()
(19)
Im () Im () Km ()Im m m
ba
Since = 1 is small, dropping higher order term of in Taylor series
b
expansion of each function of Qm gives the following simplication.

Im () Im () Im () 1
Qm () = ()
()
()I () K ()I ()]
Im 2 Im [Km m m m
1 a 1
= = 2 (20)
2 2
( + m ) b a + m2
At the reduction to this nal form, we have adopted formulas for modied Bessel
functions. From Eq.(20), the surface potential distribution is also reduced to,
a i0 2 mw
2 (b, , z) = 2 cos m sinc
b a b 2 2
m:odd
w z
1
sinc cos d (21)
0 2 + m2 2 b
Let the pipe wall thickness be t b a. If we make the size w of the current
feeding electrode innitesimally small, sinc(, w) approaches to unity. Therefore,
in this limit case surface potential can be evaluated as follows.
z
i0 2 1
2 (b, , z) = 2 cos m 2 2
cos d
2 t 0 +m b
m:odd
z
1 i0 cosh cos
= log zb (22)
4 2 t cosh + cos
b
The denominator, 2 t, implies that we can model thinning pipe wall as the region
with reduced conductivity. Consequently, reduced 2-D problem can be analyzed
in the complex plane,
Z = X + iY, z X, b Y (23)
The following conformal mapping

Z
= exp , Z = b log (24)
b

/

z/b
Figure 1. Complex potential evaluation for symmetric excitation Fs (Z).
transforms cylindrical surface of pipe, 0 2, to whole complex plane.

And hence, 2D potential distributions on the circular cylinder can be easily ob-
tained by analytic functions in whole plane as complex potentials. Since current
feeding electrodes are represented by electric charges with corresponding polari-
ties, log( 1) reproduces 2D approximation of 3D exact solution to wall potential
distributions in Eq.(22). Fig.1 shows current eld streamlines on the pipe wall,
where a pair of current electrodes are set at (4b, 0) : (4b, 0), and the correspond-
ing analytic function is

Z
sinh 4b
b
Fs (Z) = log
(25)
Z
sinh + 4b
b
From the gure, we conclude that the current distribution is uniform in the region
far from the current feeding electrodes.
2. Thinning Pipe Evaluation with Joule Heating
Joule heat generated by the driving current varies with wall pipe thickness, or
conductivity. Thus the resulting temperature distribution changes with the wall
thickness. In order to analyze the resulting temperature distribution, Joule heat
distribution is modeled beforehand.
We model the thinning wall region as small circle with the radius of a at the
origin in whole 2D plane far from the current feeding electrodes. Then Joule heat
distribution is obtained from the following 2D potential problem:
1 = 0, a<r (26)
2 = 0, r<a (27)

1 2
1 |r=a = 2 |r=a , 1 = 2 , (28)
r r=a r r=a
where the same symbols 1 , 2 as in the previous section are used for describing
the electric potentials on the innite 2D plate. As in the case of 3D analysis, we
expand the potentials in series of ( ar )n , cos n, sin n, and the boundary condi-
tions determine the coecients of the series expansion to give the following simple
solutions.
1 a2
1 = E0 r cos E0 cos + c0 , ra (29)
1+ r
2
2 = E0 r cos + c0 , r<a (30)
1+
The resulting Joule heat reads,
P1 = j 1 E 1 = 1 (grad 1 ) (grad 1 )

2 4
1 a2 1 a
= 1 E0 1
2
2 cos 2 + , (31)
1 + r2 1+ r4
4
P2 = j 2 E 2 = 2 (grad 2 ) (grad 2 ) = 1 E02 , (32)
(1 + )2
This Joule heat generates the temperature distribution u according to the
following heat transfer equation:
u
= 2 u 2 u + P (33)
t

a2 2 a
4
P = H(r a)P0 2 2 cos 2 + 4 ,
2
(34)
r r
where H() denotes Heaviside function and (1 )/(1 + ). In order to avoid

divergent solution, the second term in the right hand side of Eq.(33) is introduced
and the origin of the temperature is shifted to simplify the third term by linearity.
The Greens function satisfying the following dierential equation

1 2
2 G(r, t ; r , t ) = (r r ) (t t ) (35)
t 2
is given by

1 r2 2rr cos( ) + r2
G = H(t t ) exp 2
(t t
) . (36)
4(t t ) 42 (t t )
By using this Greens function, we obtain the temperature distribution as the
three-fold integration with respect to t , , r , as follows:
t 2
u(r, , t) = G(r, t ; r , t ) P r dr d dt
0 0 0
t

2
P0 r2 2rr cos( ) + r2
= exp (t t )
2
0 0 a 4(t t ) 42 (t t )

a2 a4
2 2 2 cos 2 + 2 4 r dr d dt (37)
r r
We start the evaluation of the outermost integration with respect to t . The

factor relating to the variable t is picked up and dened as T (t):
t

1
T (t) = exp (t t )
2
dt (38)
0 4(t t )2 t t
1
(r2 2rr cos( ) + r2 )
42
Since the stationary state is of main interest, we evaluate the integration with t
to innity and change the variable p = t t :

1 1 1
T () = exp 2 p dp = 2K0 (2 )
420 p p 4 2

1 2 2
= K0 r 2rr cos( ) + r . (39)
2
In order to evaluate the remaining integrals, let us normalize the variables:

r = , r = , a = a. Then the integration comes to,
2
P0
u (r, ) u(r, , ) = K 0 2 2 cos( ) + 2
0 a 2 2

a2 2 a
4
2 2 cos 2 + 4 d d
2
(40)

Since the addition theorem holds for modied Bessel function:

Kn ()Jn ( ) ein( ) (|| | |)

n=
K0 2 2 cos( ) + 2 =

Kn ( )Jn () ein( ) (| | ||)

n=
(41)
integration with respect to remains only for n = 0, 2. And nally, after the
evaluation of the last integral with respect to , we obtain,

1 1
u (r, ) = P 0 2
aJ0 () K 1 (a) + a 3
K 0 (
)d
2 a 3
1
P0 2a2 cos 2J2 ()K1 (a), (r < a) (42)
2

1 2 3 1
u (r, ) = 2 P0 aJ0 () K1 () + a K0 ( )d
3
1
P0 2a2 cos 2J2 ()K1 ()
2

1 1
+ 2 P0 K0 () aJ1 (a) J1 () + a
2 4
J0 ( )d
a 3

1 1 1
2 P0 2a cos 2K2 ()
2
J1 (a) J1 () , (r a) (43)
a
An example shape of the Joule heat distribution is shown in Fig.2(a), and the
corresponding temperature distribution, in Fig.2(b).
Figure 2. Stationary temperature and heat distributions are numerically evaluated from Eqs.(42)
& (43).(a)Joule heat distribution. (b)3D plot. First quadrant is shown due to the symmetry.
3. Conclusion
We have presented the analytical solution for temperature distribution driven by

Joule heat over the pipe wall. This exact solution of the forward problem with
the local wall thinning is eective and applicable to wide range diagnosis of pipe
wall anomaly. It, however, should be concidered the eect of mass reduction to
heat conduction, which was neglected in the formulation.
References
[1] A. M. Pritchard and P. Webb Use of the FSM Technique in the Laboratory to Measure
Corrosion Inhibitor Performance in Multiphase Flow Proc. CORROSION/98, paper no.8
[2] H. Yamasaki, S. Honda, M. Ueda, A. Endou, M. Fueki A Novel Non-intrusive Resistance
Thermometer for Fast Breeder Reactor Proc. SICE2003 Annual Conf. Fukui pp 519 /
523(2003)
[3] H. Yamasaki, S. Honda, M. Ueda, A. Endou, M. Fueki A Novel Non-intrusive Resistance
Thermometer for Fast Breeder Reactor Trans. SICE, vol.43, No.9, pp 756 / 761(2007)
[4] S.Honda Thinning Pipe Wall Evaluation by using Electric Potential Dierence Method
Proc. SICE2008 Annual Conf. Tokyo pp 520 / 529(2008)
Modeling and Inverse Problems
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-13
Modeling and Signal Processing Sensor

Tilt in Eddy Current-GMR Inspection
G. YANG1,Z. ZENG 2,L. UDPA1*, and S. S. UDPA1
1
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan 48824, U.S.A2 Department of Aeronautics, Xiamen University,
Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China
Abstract. In any NDE application, the availability of a theoretical model is very

useful in understanding the capability of the system since it can enable the
visualization of field/flaw interaction for different flaw and sensor geometries. A
numerical model capable of simulating inspection of multi layered structures using
eddy current excitation and magneto resistive sensing is developed to predict 2D
image data of rivet locations. The model is used to study particularly the effect of
sensor tilt on the probability of detection (POD) of defects at rivet sites. The
modeling of sensor tilt during inspection around rivet sites has to take into account
finite source coil and meshing of the finite source coil at each scan position. This
paper presents a finite element (FE) model formulation using reduced magnetic
vector potential and electric scalar potential in a way that does not require meshing
source coils. In addition to simulating the effect of sensor tilt on the signal, this
paper also describes features in the signal that are invariant to sensor tilt but
sensitive to defect parameters.
Keywords. Eddy current, Giant magnetoresistive sensor, sensor tilt, multi layered
structure
Introduction
The detection of hidden cracks around fastener sites in multi-layered structures poses a
major challenge in the aviation industry [1]. Although, eddy current testing methods
have been used extensively in this application, the skin depth or penetration depth of
the fields has limited their use in detecting 2nd and 3rd layer defects under fastener
heads. With the development of magnetoresistive (MR) sensors, eddy current
inspection system combined with MR sensors is finding increasing use in detecting
directly the magnetic field associated with the induced currents. An eddy current - giant
magnetoresistive (GMR) sensor system has been developed and shown to be effective
in detecting subsurface cracks in a multilayer structure. A schematic of the sensor, with
linear multiline currents and GMR sensor on the line of symmetry, is shown in Figure 1.
In the presence of fasteners and/or cracks, a non-zero normal magnetic field is
produced at the center of the source coil and is picked up by the GMR sensor. The
GMR signal comprises measurement of normal component of magnetic flux density
associated with induced eddy currents in the sample [2].
*
Corresponding Author: udpal@egr.msu.edu
14 G. Yang et al. / Modeling and Signal Processing Sensor Tilt in Eddy Current-GMR Inspection
Figure 1. The EC GMR sensor: (a) the excitation coil with a GMR sensor and the tested sample; (b)
schematic of operation of sensor for crack detection.
In a practical inspection scenario, variations in several experimental parameters
such as lift off, top and bottom layer conductivity, edge effect can alter the measured
signal and hence the POD of a subsurface defect. This paper presents the modeling of
defect signals in the presence of sensor tilt during the measurement process. Further
the signals generated are used to derive discriminatory features that enhance the
detection probability of subsurface defects in the presence of sensor tilt. The detection
of detects based on the asymmetry of two lobes of the rivet signal using model-based
methods has been reported in [3-4]. In these studies, the source current is modeled as
an infinite coil, obviating the need for modeling the scanning operation which is a time
intensive process. However modeling of sensor tilt is rendered complex because of the
need to model a finite source coil and the re-meshing at each scan position of the
sensor.
This paper presents the application of a finite element formulation using reduced
magnetic vector potential and electric scalar potential [5-6] for simulating the multi-
line coil motion across the sample without re-meshing the source coil which results in
significant computational savings. The feature based defect detection and classification
using multi-component signal features that are insensitive to sensor-tilt effect validate
the EC - GMR sensor system for the application considered.
1. Numerical Model and Sensor-tilt Parametric Study
1.1 System and Test Geometry
A multi-line coil producing uniform eddy current across the test rivet structure,
sketched schematically in Fig. 1 (a), is employed as the current source. In the absence
G. Yang et al. / Modeling and Signal Processing Sensor Tilt in Eddy Current-GMR Inspection 15
of any discontinuity, the symmetry of the coil geometry results in zero normal
component of magnetic field at the line of symmetry on the center of the source coil. In
the presence of a rivet and/or crack, the uniform magnetic field is distorted to yield the
nonzero normal component response. A GMR sensor is placed at the center location to
measure this normal flux density Bz due to the perturbation in induced current. The
analysis of nonzero signal measured by the GMR sensor can be used to detect and
characterize cracks around rivet sites.
The sample consisting of three aluminum layers riveted together is studied in this
paper. The rivets are drilled through three layers and cracks of different sizes are
machined in the 3rd layer plate around rivet sites. A single frequency excitation current
is applied to the multi-line coil and the changes in magnetic field are collected by the
GMR sensor.
1.2 Reduced Vector Potential Formulation based Numerical Model
Finite element formulation of 3-D eddy current testing problems is typically based on
magnetic vector potential A and electric scalar potential V. However this formulation
requires generating a mesh for the excitation foil/coil together with the test sample and
the domain has to be remeshed for each coil position. This can result in excessive
computation time and error. Finite element model based on a formulation using the
reduced magnetic vector potential and the electric scalar potential
( Ar V Ar formulation) has been proposed to simulate the EC-GMR inspection
signals [5-6]. The advantage of this formulation is that the source coil is not meshed
and hence there is no need for re-meshing the source current during scanning. The
mesh and system matrix remain unchanged with different coil motion. The
implementation of the system matrix pre-conditioner is performed only once during the
entire scan.
The formulation model defines the reduced magnetic vector potential by the
decomposition of the magnetic flux density B into two parts:
B = Bs + Br = 0 H s + Br (1)
where Bs and Hs are the flux density and field density due to the source in free space,
and Br is the flux density due to induced current or magnetization. Considering the field
equations together:
Bs = 0 , Hs = Js , Br = B Bs = 0 ,
A s = Bs , A r = Br (2)
The magnetic vector potential A is correspondingly decomposed into As and Ar

where As is the vector potential in air due to excitation current and Ar is the vector
potential due to induced and/or magnetization currents. Generally, Hs and As can be
evaluated by Biot-Savarts law. Hs is calculated by
1 r r
Hs = J s (r) d (3)
4
r r
3
The magnetic vector potential As is:
0 J s (r)
As =
4 r r
d (4)
where is the volume of the current source; 0 is the free-space permeability. r and r
denote the coordinates of observation and source points, respectively.
Correspondingly, the governing equations using this formulation can be written as:
2 A r + j A r + V = (1 vr ) H s j A s
( jA r + V ) = jA s (5)
Note that the weak form of (5) is written as
(N jA + N V )d + N [ j (A

i r i

i r + A s ) V ] n d
= N j A d
i s (6)

where N i ( i= 1,2, N with N the number of nodes) are shape functions, the
solution domain, conductor surface, and n the unit outward normal vector of . By
neglecting the surface integral in (6), we implicitly set the normal component of
induced currents on conductor surface to 0.
The cost of the new formulation is that besides H s , H s in presence of magnetic
materials and A s must be evaluated. However, evaluating these analytical values takes
much less time than that required for performing the incomplete factorization in each
coil position. The model has been validated by comparing model predicted signal and
experimental signal as shown in Figure 2. The Figure 2 (a) presents the model
validation in terms of defective rivet detection. The geometry of this sample is two
layers (6mm and 4mm thickness) with a 2nd layer radial crack of length 5mm at a rivet
site. The 1D signal measured in a scan across the rivet in X direction is plotted and the
same trend and asymmetry is observed in both simulated and experimental signals. The
Figure 2 (b) presents validation of the model for a cylindrical geometry; air core
pancake probe inspection of a tube with an OD axial notch at 100KHz single frequency
excitation.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
(a) 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 Numerical 1D scan

Experimental 1D scan
0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
(b)
Figure 2. Model validation: comparison of 1D model simulated signal (red) with experimental measurement
(blue) (a) 3rd layer crack in multilayer sample (b) OD axial notch in a tube.
2. Simulation Results and Feature-based Crack Detection
2.1 Sensor-tilt Parametric Study
The FE model using reduced vector potential formulation was used to conduct a
systematic study of the effect of increasing sensor tilt on the defect signal. Three layer
Aluminum sample, each layer of 1 mm thickness, with rivets and 3rd layer sub-surface
defect was modeled. Two radial defects of 3mm length and 0.1mm width and two
different depths of 20%, and 30% wall thickness were modeled with simulation
frequency of 2kHz. The sensor was moved in a linear scan across the rivet and defect
and the GMR signals measuring the normal and tangential components were generated.
In order to separate the effect of sensor tilt and defect, four different cases were studied,
namely, i) no crack ; no sensor-tilt, ii) no crack ; with sensor-tilt, iii) crack; no sensor-
tilt and iv) crack ; with sensor-tilt. The tilt parameter was varied from 00 to 50 for two
different defects.
The Figure 3 shows the geometry of sensor tilt, where the sensor measures both
normal and tangential components in contrast to measuring only normal component
when there is no tilt. Hence, if two components of the magnetic field were measured,
the magnitude of the tangential component will contain information about sensor tilt
and the normal component will contain defect information. Both components of the
magnetic fields were measured and studied. The signals ( Bz and Bx components) due
0
to 20% depth subsurface defect with 1 sensor-tilt are shown in Figure 4. The real part
of Bx component is seen to be sensitive to defect but insensitive to sensor tilt, whereas
the imaginary part of Bz component is seen to be more sensitive to sensor tilt. This
offers the potential of detecting defects in the presence of sensor tilt using two
component signals.
Figure 3. Field measurement with tilted GMR sensor.
2.2 Feature Analysis and Crack Detection
As presented in the Figure 4, the real part of Bx component and imaginary part of
Bz component carry discriminatory information about presence of defect and sensor tilt.
In particular, the peak magnitude and slope of peak to peak variation of these signal
components have been selected as useful features for classification. The peak
magnitude of real part of Bx component is extracted as feature F1 and the slope of peak
to peak variation of imaginary part of Bz component represents feature F2. These
features are illustrated in Figure 5. The two defined features were calculated from the
two defect signals with 10 sensor tilt shown in Figure 4. The features are plotted in the
feature space in Figure 6. It is seen that the 4 cases considered ((i) no crack ; no sensor-
tilt, ii) no crack ; with sensor-tilt, iii) crack; no sensor-tilt and iv) crack ; with sensor-
tilt ) are clearly separated in the feature space. Similarly the signals from the two
defects (depth 20%) and (depth 30%) with 30 sensor tilt were calculated using the
simulation model. The features from these signals are calculated and plotted in Figure 7.
It is seen that as the sensor tilt increases, the 4 cases described in section 2.1 are still
distinguishable but the separation is lesser that what seen in Figure 6.
Figure 4. Field measured by the tilted GMR sensor: B z and B x components.
Figure 5. The extracted features based on Bz and B x components.
Figure 6. Features derived from signals in Figure 4 plotted in the two dimensional feature space.
Figure 7. Features derived from simulated signals with 3 0 sensor tilt , plotted in the two dimensional feature
space.
3. Conclusion
An efficient finite element model using reduced magnetic vector potential formulation
is presented. The model was validated and used for studying the effect of varying
degrees of sensor tilt on EC-GMR signals. Features in GMR output signals were
extracted and their ability to distinguish defect signals from sensor-tilt signals were
demonstrated for two different tilt angle values. More extensive validation of the
approach on experimental signals is under way. A more powerful approach involving
invariance transformation using independent component analysis (ICA) is also being
investigated for transforming the measured signal so that the transformed signal is
invariant to sensor tilt. A sensor system measuring two components of the magnetic
field will be built to for experimental validation of the approach.
References
[1] Aging of U.S. Air Force Aircraft, National Research Council Final Report, Publication NMAB 488 2,
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1997
[2] N. V. Nair, V. R. Melapudi, H. R. Jiminez, X. Liu, Y. Deng, Z. Zeng, L. Udpa, T. J. Moran, and S. S.
Udpa, "A GMR based eddy current system for NDE of aircraft structures," IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics, vol. 42, no. 10, 2006, pp. 3312 3314
[3] J. C. Aldrin, J. S. Knopp, "Method for crack characterization with noise invariance for eddy current
inspection of fastener sites, " Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, vol. 25,
2006, pp. 315 322
[4] X. Liu, Y. Deng, Z. Zeng, L. Udpa, and J. S. Knopp, "Model based inversion technique of GMR signal
using element free Galerkin method," Proceedings of the Annual Review of Progress in Applied
Computational Electromagnetics, 2008, pp. 221 226
[5] Z. Zeng, X. Liu, Y. Deng, and L. Udpa, "Reduced magnetic vector potential and electric scalar potential
formulation for eddy current modeling," Przeglad Elektrotechniczny, vol. 83, no. 6, 2007, pp. 35 37
[6] Z. Zeng, L. Udpa, S. S. Udpa, and M. S. C. Chan, "Reduced magnetic vector potential formulation in the
finite element analysis of eddy current nondestructive testing," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol.
45, no. 3, 2009, pp. 964 967
22 Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (XIV)
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-22
Non-Iterative MUSIC-Type Algorithm for

Eddy-Current Nondestructive Evaluation
of Metal Plates
Tommy HENRIKSSON a , Marc LAMBERT a and Dominique LESSELIER a,1
a
Dpartement de recherche en lectromagntisme,
Laboratoire des signaux et systmes (CNRS - SUPELEC - Univ Paris-Sud),
3, rue Joliot-Curie, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
Abstract. A non iterative MUSIC type imaging algorithm for time harmonic
eddy current testing of a damaged conductive plate is considered. The method is
based (i) on a rst order asymptotic formulation of the secondary magnetic eld
observed outside the plate and induced by volumetric defects within it, which is
valid when those are small enough with respect to the skin depth at the frequency of
operation, and (ii) on the singular value decomposition of the multistatic response
matrix that can be collected using an appropriate source and sensor array. Herein,
the asymptotic eld formulation is validated by comparing the results with those
provided by means of the CIVA platform in a realistic case. Further, the singular
value pattern and MUSIC images are investigated, for a small spherical void placed
at different locations inside a plate. A Gaussian distributed noise is added to the
asymptotic data during the initial investigation, to alleviate inverse crime at least
in part (more complex arrangements of source/sensor arrays and defects will be
considered with external data in a later stage). Yet, these preliminary results as ex
hibited indicate the potential of the method to locate small defects in conductive
materials in a typical eddy current testing conguration
Keywords. Eddy current testing, non iterative inversion, MUSIC type algorithm,
Detection of small defects
Introduction
Eddy-Current (EC) Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) of metal plates is of interest in a

wide range of applications such as quality control in production lines or in-service in-
spection of industrial facilities. Both tube and plate congurations have been studied
earlier, by using different iterative optimization processes [1,2]. Yet, these solutions are
computation-heavy and time-consuming, and in many practical situations the processing
time certainly is a critical criterion, thus a quicker non-iterative method might be more
appropriate, even at the loss of some accuracy in the mapping of the anomalies within
the tested workpieces. So, an alternative method could be to solve the inverse problem
1 Corresponding Author: Dpartement de recherche en lectromagntisme, Laboratoire des signaux et
systmes (CNRS SUPELEC Univ Paris Sud), 3 rue Joliot Curie, 91192 Gif sur Yvette cedex, France; E
mail: lesselier@lss.supelec.fr
T. Henriksson et al. / Non-Iterative MUSIC-Type Algorithm 23
by interpolation within an off-line database as is discussed in [3]. Indeed, in general,

only the position, and a gross shape of the defect (with the useful distinction between
volumetric and crack-like defects also) is of real relevance to EC-NDT. In this case a lin-
earized non-iterative method could be suitable, since implemented with a quasi-real-time
functionality, provided that it yields satisfactory results upon position, in particular.
In the present study a non-iterative MUSIC (MUltiple SIgnal Classication)-type
imaging algorithm is investigated for the detection of small void defects inside a con-
ducting plate. The method has been presented theoretically in the general case of di-
electric and/or magnetic volumetric inclusions in free space and full three-dimensional
Maxwells equations in [4], and it has in particular been successfully developed for the
detection of one or several small defects within a dielectric (and possibly lossy) half-
space, in the MHz region [5]. However, to the knowledge of the authors this is the rst
time that the technique is employed in the low-frequency region (kHz) for EC-NDT, here
to image small voids inside a conducting plate.
The paper is organized as follows. The setup with the bobbin array, the conducting
plate and the void defect is described in section 1. In section 2 the formulation is given
for this particular case. In section 3 preliminary results are shown under the form of
validation of the asymptotic formulation of the secondary magnetic eld by comparing it
with the results provided by the simulation tools of the CIVA platform [6], and MUSIC
images for a defect at different positions are given for illustration. Some conclusions and
perspectives follow.
1. Source-sensor arrangement
For illustration of the feasibility of a MUSIC-type algorithm in the EC domain, a compact

bobbin array is considered in free space (region 1, 1 = 0 ), and operated at a frequency
of 100 kHz, as is sketched in Figure 1. It is placed parallel with and above a conducting
plate (region 2, Inconel 600, 2 = 1.02 106 S m1 ), wherein the skin-depth is s =
1.58 mm at 100 kHz. To simplify, the plate is assumed non-magnetic (2 = 0 ) and
linear isotropic with complex permittivity 2 = 0 + i2 as the time-dependency eit is
considered in practice, the dielectric permittivity can be neglected. Also, in the present
study, the plate is considered thick enough to be seen as a half-space.
The bobbin array as chosen consists of 7 7 transmitting/receiving small coils with
inner and outer radii bn = s /8 ( 0.20 mm), cn = s /6.5 ( 0.25 mm), respectively,
and a height H = 0.1 mm. The separation between each coil is s /2 ( 0.8 mm) along
both the x- and y-axis, and the lift-off of the array is 0.1 mm. During inspection each coil
n is transmitting one at the time while all coils including the n one are acting as sensors.
The defect within the metal is taken as a small spherical void (j = 0 ) with a diameter
of aj = s /10 (0.16 mm) and we consider that it is a priori located inside a 21 21 21
cell cubic search domain of s s s extending right under the centre of the bobbin
array.
All dimensions of coils and defect are small with respect to the skin-depth s . Within
this constraint the bobbin array can be suitably approximated as an array of magnetic
dipoles. Then, the impedance variation due to the defect is equivalent to the variation of
(n)
the z-polarized magnetic eld Hs (r) z at the center of the coil located at r (again it
might be the centre of the emitting coil as well as the centre of all other non-emitting
24 T. Henriksson et al. / Non-Iterative MUSIC-Type Algorithm
Figure 1. The arrangement for the eddy current MUSIC type algorithm investigation is sketched: a 7 7
(or 3 5 inside the dark rectangle) bobbin array above a non magnetic conducting plate affected by a small
spherical defect (with radius aj ) inside the search domain somewhere under the array.
(n)
coils). Similarly, the primary electric eld E0 (xj ) inside the search region may be com-
puted by using the appropriate dyadic Greens function Gem t (xj , r) of the conguration.
The small size of the defect keeps the asymptotic formulation of the secondary magnetic
eld valid, as is seen next. Otherwise, it could be argued that the overall dimensions of
the array are not that large (side of 3s ); yet number and location of coils as hypothesized
remain realistic in view of the technology whilst most of the anomalous eld due to the
assumed defect under it appears to be collected (in practice also an array will be moved
step by step in either direction to cover a wider zone).
2. Mathematical formulation
The MUSIC algorithm herein is based upon a rst-order asymptotic formulation of the
secondary magnetic eld outside the plate induced by volumetric defects within it, which
is valid when those are small enough with respect to the skin-depth at the frequency of
operation, and on the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) of the so-called Multistatic
Response (MSR) matrix collected using, e.g., the bobbin array.The method is briey
described below for the particular case of ECT. A detailed description of the MUSIC
algorithm in the small-defect framework for the full Maxwells equations is found for the
general case in [4], with [5] as an illustration in a stratied-space case similar with ours
save made in the propagative (microwave) regime here only diffusion occurs.
2.1. Asymptotic formula secondary magnetic eld
Considering P small spherical voids centered at xj and with radii aj s , the asymp-
(n)
totic formulation of the secondary magnetic eld Hs (r) may be formed as
P

(n) j (n)
Hs(n) (r) =H (n)
(r) H0 (r) = i2 Gme
r (r, xj ) Mj , Vj E0 (xj ) ,
j=1
2
(1)
where n is the transmitter index (centered at rn ). Letting I be the identity tensor, the
polarization tensor Mj for such void spherical defects (j = 0 ) is given by

j 3(j 2 ) 4a3j
Mj , Vj = |Vj |I, where |Vj | = . (2)
2 22 + j 3
The Gmer (r, xj ) term is the dyadic Greens function between the defect and the
receiving bobbin array; it satises the following differential equation
Gme 2 me
r (r, xj ) k Gr (r, xj ) = I(r xj ), (3)
considering the defect as an electric impulse current, with usual magnetic-type boundary
conditions, k free-space (air) wavenumber.
Since the radius of each bobbin array element is bn s the dyadic Greens func-
tion Gem
t (xj , rn ) between the n transmitting coil of the array placed at rn and the
th
(n)
defect can be used to compute the primary magnetic eld E0 (xj ) as
(n)
E0 (xj ) = Gem
t (xj , rn ) z, (4)
where the differential equation satised for a magnetic impulse current source is
Gem 2 em
t (xj , rn ) k Gt (xj , rn ) = I(xj rn ), (5)
with usual electric-type boundary conditions.
2.2. MUSIC imaging
From the secondary magnetic eld the Multistatic Response matrix A is given as

P
A= G me em
r (xj ) Mj G t (xj ), (6)
j=1
where the matrices G me em

r (xj ), a M 3 matrix, and G t (xj ), a 3 N matrix, are con-
structed from the dyadic Greens functions as
me
G r (xj ) = k 2 [Gme me
r (r1 , xj ) z, . . . , Gr (rM , xj ) z] ,
t
(7)

G em 2 em em
t (xj ) = k [Gt (xj , r1 ) z, . . . , Gt (xj , rN ) z] .
t
M and N are the numbers of receiving and transmitting array elements, respectively
(they are not necessarily equal), t denoting the transpose. Since the MSR matrix has the
dimension N M is it possible to apply the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)
A = UV , (8)
where denotes transpose conjugation. The number of nonzero singular values s in ,

for the j th defect, depends upon the rank of the matrices G me em
r (xj ) and G t (xj ). In our
case, to each defect, will correspond only two singular values since only magnetic
elds are collected, referring to [4] for further mathematical analysis as numerically
illustrated later on in section 3.2. By the rst s columns of U and V (Us , Vs ) the
orthogonal projection onto the left and right signal space can be dened as
Pr = (I Us Us ), (9)
Pt = (I Vs Vs ). (10)
When M = N , the imaging function W(x) is given by
1 1
W(x) = + , (11)
||Pr (G me
r (x) a)||2 ||Pt (G em
t (x) a)||2
where a = (1, 1, 1) [4]. Other values of a could be considered, taking different eld
components into account, how to achieve the best choice of a needing further analysis.
3. Results
The results presented next validate the framework of analysis considering only one spher-
ical void inside the plate in account with the material shown in section 1.
3.1. Numerical Validation - CIVA
The asymptotic formulation of the secondary magnetic eld is validated by compar-

ing the results with those achieved via modeling tools of the CIVA platform [6]. The
impedance variations due to a defect of volume Vj are obtained by a proper calculation
of the volume integral

1 (m) (n)
Znm = E0 (r) Jj (r)dr, (12)
In Im Vj
letting In and Im the currents in the emitting coil n and the receiving coil m (consid-
(m)
ered as a ctitious emitter), E0 (r) the primary eld due to the coil m and Jj (r) the
volumetric eddy-current in Vj due to the source n [2]. Since the radius of the bobbin
element bn s , the z-polarized magnetic eld from the asymptotic
formulation should

(n)
be equivalent to the CIVA-computed impedance variation, Hs (rm ) z Znm .
To verify this, a smaller 3 5 bobbin array (depicted in Figure 1) is used with the void
(a = s /10) at the centre of the search region (s /2 depth). The spherical void is mod-
eled as a cube discretized by 5 5 5 cells in the CIVA model, which gives a RMS error
less than 0.2% on the computed results, compared to using a higher number of cells.
The comparison in magnitude between the z-polarized magnetic eld from the
asymptotic formulation and the impedance variation from CIVA is illustrated in Figure 2,
6 different coils in the bobbin array transmitting (specied as bobbin 1 3 and 8 10 in
Figure 1). The asymptotic results () t very well with the CIVA results () in all cases
except when the transmitting coil is right over the void (Figure 2 (d)). In this case indeed,
(8)
the primary eld E0 (x1 ) is very small at the center of the defect. Since the asymptotic
formulations are only using this central value, the result is quite different from the one
yielded by carrying out the volume integral. However, except this peculiar point, it ap-
pears that the asymptotic formulation and the more brute-force approach via a CIVA tool
provide very close results.
3.2. Construction of the images - MUSIC
Once the asymptotic formulation has been validated, it can thus be used to compute the
MSR matrix A for the 7 7 bobbin array. To minimize the inverse crime a Gaussian
distributed complex noise is added onto the data (SNR = 10 dB) as
Anoise = A + , (13)
where is a M N matrix lled with normal distributed pseudorandom complex values,

with an average of zero, and the variance dened as

|A|2

10 log10 10
= MN . (14)
2
The same void is to be retrieved at two different depths (s /4 and 3s /4). In Fig-
ure 3 both the singular value distribution and the MUSIC image are depicted, for both
positions. As expected, the void is associated with two nonzero singular values (much
larger than all others, which should ideally be zero, and for all what matters very small
compared to the two main ones), where the amplitudes are decreasing with the depth
of the defect. However in this investigation the SNR of the data has been kept constant
between both positions, which might not be so realistic.
The MUSIC images are iso-surface plots of W(x) with an iso-level of 70%. The
position of the void appears well retrieved for both locations inside the search region,
which is also the case (examples not shown) everywhere inside the search region. How-
ever, with increasing depth the reconstruction along the z-axis gets more blurred (less
powerful signal is acquired, and the aperture angle under which the defect is seen is
getting smaller and smaller).
4. Conclusion and future work
A non-iterative MUSIC-type imaging algorithm has been introduced in the framework

of EC-NDT of a conductive plate. The asymptotic eld formulation on which it is based
has been validated by comparing asymptotic results with those provided by simulation
tools of the CIVA platform where the interaction is simulated from a full eld integral
4 4
x 10 x 10
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(a) (b)
4 4
x 10 x 10
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(c) (d)
4 4
x 10 x 10
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(e) (f)
Figure 2. Comparison in magnitude between the variation of impedance computed via CIVA ( ) and the
z polarized magnetic eld from the asymptotic formulation with a computed primary eld E0 using Gem t (),
along the 15 (3 5) receiving coils when transmitting from (a) coil 1, (b) coil 2, (c) coil 3, (d) coil 8, (e) coil
9, (f) coil 10.
formulation using a method of moments. Preliminary results for a single small spherical
void have been presented, as illustration of the good potential of the method. The position
of the void is indeed successfully retrieved along all three axes, with high accuracy even
in presence of strong noise, whatever its location within the plate.
Future work should involve more complex arrangements of the bobbin array and
several small defects, and also multi-frequency data. The inverse crime should be fur-
ther minimized by constructing the MSR matrix from CIVA data. More complex defects
Figure 3. Singular value distribution and images for two positions of the void (a s /10), with the 7 7
bobbin array setup. (left) at (0.3, 0, 0.3)s and (right) at (0.3, 0.3, 0.3)s . The exact voids are displayed
as transparent spheres as well.
should be investigated in order to see whether their size can be approached to an ex-
tent via a determination of their polarization tensor, main emphasis being however on
the investigation of crack-like defects, for which the theoretical machinery might still be
incomplete (which does not preclude useful numerical experimentation).
References
[1] D. Dos Reis, M. Lambert, and D. Lesselier. Eddy current evaluation of three dimensional defects in a
metal plate. Inverse Problems, 18:1857 1871, 2002.
[2] J. F. P. J. Abascal, M. Lambert, D. Lesselier, and O. Dorn. 3 D eddy current imaging of metal tubes by
gradient based, controlled evolution of level sets. IEEE Trans. Magn., 44:4721 4729, 2008.
[3] S. Bilicz, M. Lambert, and S. Gyimthy. Kriging based generation of optimal databases as forward and
inverse surrogate models. Inverse Problems, 26(7):074012, July 2010.
[4] H. Ammari, E. Iakovleva, D. Lesselier, and G. Perrusson. Music type electromagnetic imaging of a
collection of small three dimensional inclusions. SIAM J. Sci. Comput., 29:674 709, 2007.
[5] S. Gdoura, D. Lesselier, P. C. Chaumet, and G. Perrusson. Imaging of a small dielectic sphere buried in
a half space. ESAIM:Proceedings, 26:123 134, 2009.
[6] CIVA: State of the art simulation platform for NDE. http://www civa.cea.fr.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-30
Identification of Defects in 3D Space Using

Computer Radiography System
Wojciech CHLEWICKI1, Piotr BANIUKIEWICZ, Tomasz CHADY and Andrzej
BRYKALSKI
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, al. Piastow 17, 70-310
Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. A radiographic system for identification of defects in three-dimensional

space has been built and tested. It is a cost effective alternative to sophisticated
fully three-dimensional tomography systems. We present initial results of using the
extended radiographic system for the images of the phantom made of wood and
pieces of copper.
Keywords. Radiography, computed tomography
Introduction
Fully three-dimensional tomographic X-ray inspection of an object requires projections

to be taken around 360 degrees. This is not possible in many circumstances due to time
and accessibility restrictions and can only be obtained using sophisticated computed
tomography (CT) systems. A much simpler (and cheaper) way for doing radiographic
inspection is using digital radiography systems. However, the output of digital
radiography is a two dimensional image which is a projection of three-dimensional
objects.
In nondestructive testing this could be a strong limitation. Firstly, the information
about the depth is lost. Secondly, the defects at different depth may overlap, i.e. they
may appear as one defect in the radiographic projection. Thirdly, planar defects can be
positioned parallel to irradiating X-rays and hence would not be detected in the image.
Lastly, there are strong requirements on maximal time of acquisition and reconstruction,
which limits the use of CT systems.
In this paper we present initial results of using the extended radiographic system
for identification of defects in three-dimensional space. The system is a cost effective
alternative to sophisticated fully three-dimensional tomography systems. The initial
results of recovering the position in three dimensions are presented. The abilities and
limitations of the system are discussed.
1
Corresponding author. E-mail address: chlewi@zut.edu.pl
W. Chlewicki et al. / Identication of Defects in 3D Space Using Computer Radiography System 31
1. System description
1.1. Image acquisition
Projection data have been acquired using the system presented in Figure 1. The system
consists of a X-ray source CP1201, a digital detector Shad-o-Box1024, a manual
positioning system, a frame grabber and a PC workstation. In the near future the
manual positioning system will be replaced with motorized one.
The acquisition of radiographic projections has been performed along a linear
trajectory. The X-ray source is moved above the object whose position is fixed in space.
Such an image acquisition scheme is an equivalent to limited angle tomography which
was shown by Zhou et al. [1] and confirmed by Gondrom et al. [2]. Their systems,
however, are characterized by a linear translation of the object instead of a motion of
the detector like in our system.
1.2. Image reconstruction
Approximate three-dimensional image reconstruction from projections has been carried

out using iterative algorithms. An adaptation of Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques
(ART) [3] has been implemented in order to perform reconstruction from projections. It
takes into account the linear source detector trajectory. ART is an iterative-type image
reconstruction algorithm that has been proven superior to the widely used Filtered
Backprojection algorithm in case of limited angle tomography [4]. The ART algorithm
consists of a series of successive projections and backprojections (of the correction) of
the reconstructed image. Each step within the algorithm is detailed in the scheme
depicted in Figure 2. As a result, we obtained a volume which possibly fits all acquired
X-ray projections. The correction formula of ART is presented below
N
pi winvn( k )
v(jk +1) = v (jk ) + n =1
N
wij
w
n =1
2
in
(1)
where vj is a reconstructed volume element, pi is a projection element, win is an element

of the system matrix and is a relaxation coefficient.
The algorithm has been implemented in 64-bit Visual C++. The three-dimensional
projection mechanism is using tri-linear interpolation. The size of the reconstructed
volume has been set to 1024x1024x1024. Our experiments showed that the number of
2 iterations is sufficient.
32 W. Chlewicki et al. / Identication of Defects in 3D Space Using Computer Radiography System
Figure 1. The radiographic system.
Figure 2. Iteration scheme of the image reconstruction algorithm.
1.3. Depth identification
The root mean square (RMS) contrast has been used to calculate the contrast of the
Region of Interest (ROI) containing the inclusion for all slices. It is defined as the
standard deviation of the pixel intensities. Maximum of the Crms stands for the inclusion
being in focus:
N 1 M 1
( I (i , j ) I (i , j ) )
1 2
C RMS = (2)
MN i=0 j =0
where: Crms is the root mean square contrast function, M and N stand for width and
height of the ROI respectively and I is a map of pixel's intensity of the ROI. The RMS
contrast does not depend upon the spatial frequency content or the spatial distribution
of contrast in the image.
2. Experiments
2.1. Phantom
The phantom is made of wood as a three-slice structure, two inclusions of copper

representing the defects (material, inhomogenity). Copper was put inside holes drilled
in two wooden slices. Dimensions of the phantom are 50 mm x 50mm x 50 mm.
2.2. Data acquisition
Seven projections of size (1024x1024) have been acquired in the manner described in
the above. The voltage of the X-ray tube has been set to 80kV, the current being
equated to 1 mA. The integration time of the detector has been set to 4s. During the
acquisition process the source is moved along the linear trajectory, the range of linear
translation of the detector and the object being (-28cm, 28cm). In such a way, 7
radiographic projections have been taken at different source positions.
2.3. Results of reconstruction
The acquired projection has been input for the reconstruction of the 1024x1024x1024
volume. Some of the significant slices for depth identification are displayed in Figure 3.
Left hand side inclusion is in focus in slice number 271 whereas in the other
crossections it appears blurred. The right hand inclusion is "in focus" in slice number
146. This proves the abilities of the system to localize the depth of the occurrence of
certain objects within the investigated volume. In Figure 4 the process of depth
identification is visually presented.
Figure 3. Crossections of number 101, 121, 146, 201, 271 and 406 (from left to right) within the
reconstructed volume. The maximum of sharpness for each inclusion is clearly visible making it possible to
localize the depth of each inclusion.
34 W. Chlewicki et al. / Identication of Defects in 3D Space Using Computer Radiography System
Figure 4. Results of depth identification.
3. Conclusions
The ability of the system to localize the depth of the occurrence of objects within the
investigated volume has been experimentally confirmed. It can be concluded that the
diagnostic value of digital radiography systems could be significantly improved via
only minor extensions of the systems themselves. Further work is required in order to
assess the impact of changes of the linear translation range on the quality of the pseudo
reconstructed volume [5].
Acknowledgments
The work was conducted in the framework of the research project Identification of
structural heterogeneities in mechanical systems, supported by the Polish Ministry of
Science and Higher Education. Grant no. 1141/B/T02/2009/36 (2009-2012).
References
[1] J. Zhou, M. Maisl, H. Reiter, W. Arnold, Computed laminography for material testing. Appl. Phys. Lett.
68, 3500.
[2] Gondrom S., Zhou J., Maisl M., Reiter H., Kroning M., Arnold W.: X-ray computed laminography
approach of computed tomography for applications with limited access. Nuclear Engineering and Design
190, 1999, pp. 141-147.
[3] Kak A., Slaney M.: Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging. Philadelphia: SIAM, 2001.
[4] A. H. Andersen, Algebraic Reconstruction in CT from Limited Views, IEEE Trans. Med. Img., vol. 8,
no.1, 1989, pp. 50-55.
[5] B. Li, G. B. Avinash, R. Uppaluri, J. W. Eberhard, B.E.H. Claus, The impact of acquisition angular
range on the z-resolution of *radiographic tomosynthesis, International Congres Series 1268, 2004, pp.
13-18.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-36
A Thin-Skin Model for Eddy-Current NDE

of Cracks in a Borehole
S. K. BURKE 1
Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Melbourne, Australia
Abstract. Eddy-current induction by a coaxial circular air-cored coil in a cracked

borehole is considered in the limit of small electromagnetic skin depth. A closed
form expression is derived for the change in coil impedance Z due to a long axial
crack with constant depth and opening based on an extension of the Lewis
extended surface impedance boundary conditions to a cylindrical geometry. The
theoretical predictions are compared with experimental measurement of Z for a
series of boreholes containing wire-cut slots in 2024 Al alloy test specimens. The
model predictions were in good agreement with experiment for smaller slot depths,
with the accuracy tending to decrease as the slot depth increased. In all cases, the
predictions were superior to those based on a simple Born approximation.
Keywords. Eddy-current NDE, thin-skin theory, bolthole cracks
Introduction
Fastener holes in aircraft act as stress concentrators and are common sites for fatigue
cracking. If left undetected, the growth of such fatigue cracks can lead to catastrophic
structural failure. Considerable effort has been devoted to the development of
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques which can detect cracks in fastener holes
with high reliability. Along with ultrasonic testing, eddy-current NDE is foremost
among these techniques.
The theory underpinning eddy-current NDE for cracks in cylindrical geometries
such as fastener holes continues to be developed, including recent approaches based on
boundary element methods [1]. However, unlike planar geometries, for which there are
highly effective analytical approximations valid in the limit of small electromagnetic
skin depth [2-4], there are currently no similar highly developed thin-skin models for
cylindrical geometries which can be used to complement finite-element and boundary
element methods.
In this paper, a thin-skin model for eddy-current NDE of cracks in a fastener hole
is presented based on an extension of the Lewis extended surface impedance boundary
conditions [4] to a cylindrical geometry. In Section 1, a closed-form expression for the
change in coil impedance Z is presented for the simple case of a coaxial bobbin coil in
a borehole containing a long crack with uniform depth and opening. The coil is
assumed to be sufficiently remote from the ends of the hole that the hole can be treated
1
Corresponding Author. S K Burke, Maritime Platforms Division, DSTO, 506 Lorimer St., Fishermans
Bend, Vic 3207 Australia. Email: steve.burke@defence.gov.au
S.K. Burke / A Thin-Skin Model for Eddy-Current NDE of Cracks in a Borehole 37
as a borehole, i.e. infinite in length. The theoretical predictions are compared with
experimental results in Sections 23 and the significance of the work is discussed.
1. Theory
The configuration is shown schematically in Fig. 1 where a cylindrical air-cored coil

carrying an alternating current I exp(i t) is centred coaxially in a borehole containing
a longitudinal crack. The coil, of length 2h, is wound with N turns and has inner and
outer radii r1 and r2 respectively. The borehole has a radius a and the length of the hole
is assumed to be infinite. The crack has a uniform depth b, uniform opening u and is
infinite in length. The line of the crack is parallel to the z-axis at = 0 with the crack
faces in the xz-plane. The parent metal is assumed to have an isotropic electrical
conductivity and linear magnetic permeability =r0 where r is the relative
permeability and 0 is the permeability of free space. As usual in eddy-current NDE,
the frequency is assumed to be sufficiently low that the quasistatic approximation can
be used.
In the following, the problem is formulated in terms of current-free regions using
the magnetic scalar potential where the magnetic field is related to via
H = (1)
and satisfies the three-dimensional Laplace equation
2 = 0. (2)
In the limit of small skin depth ( = [2/()] ) the normal component Hn of the free-
space magnetic field at the surface of an uncracked conductor satisfies the surface
impedance boundary condition [6]
x y
Figure 1. Eddy-current induction by a coaxial source coil in a borehole containing a long rectangular slot.
38 S.K. Burke / A Thin-Skin Model for Eddy-Current NDE of Cracks in a Borehole
H n
= ( n) H n (3)
n
where n is the outward normal to the conductor surface and = (1+i)/(r). From
Eqs.(1) and (3) the surface impedance boundary condition for an uncracked borehole
using the coordinate system shown in Fig.1 is
2 1
= ( + ) , r = a. (4)
r 2
r r
Clearly Eq.(4) is not valid in the presence of a crack and must be modified. By
considering the flux leaving the mouth of the crack, Lewis [4] derived an extended
surface impedance boundary condition for a planar conductor containing a crack.
Extending this approach to cylindrical geometries, the extended surface impedance
boundary condition for the cracked borehole in Fig.1 can be written as,
2 ( e ) 1 ( e ) 2
+ ( + ) = H n( i ) ( ), r = a, (5)
r 2 r r a
and links the fields within the crack (the interior fields, denoted by the superscript i)
and the fields within the borehole (the exterior fields denoted by the superscript e). In
deriving Eq.(5), and in the following sections, it is initially assumed that the crack has
zero opening. The effect of crack opening is introduced in Section 1.4.
1.1. Exterior fields fields within the borehole
The exterior scalar potential can be regarded as the superposition
( e ) = ( s ) + ( r ) , a r r2 , (6)
of the known source potential (s) of the isolated coil in free space [7] and the potential
(r) arising from induced currents in the cracked conductor.
A representation for the potential (r) can be constructed by solving Eq.(2) in
cylindrical coordinates using the method of separation of variables. If the origin of the
polar coordinate system is chosen to lie at the center of the coil, then

( r ) (r , , z ) = sin( z ) ( r ) (r , ; ) d , r a, (7)
0

( r ) (r , ; ) = c0 I 0 ( r ) + 2 cn I n ( r ) cos(n ), (8)
n =1
where In are modified Bessel functions and the carat denotes the Fourier sine transform

f (r , ; ) = sin( z ) f (r , , z ) dz . (9)
0
Note also that (r) is an odd function of z and an even function of . The unknown
coefficients cn = cn() are to be determined by application of the extended surface
impedance boundary condition Eq.(5) once a suitable representation for the potential
within the crack has been derived.
1.2. Interior fields fields within the crack
It is convenient to describe the fields within the crack using the Cartesian coordinate
system in Fig.1. In the thin-skin limit (i) satisfies the 2D Laplace equation [4]
2 (i ) 2 (i )
+ = 0, a x a + b. (10)
x 2 z 2
The boundary conditions on (i) are as follows:

Continuity condition on the tangential component of H at the crack mouth,
( i ) ( e )
= , y = 0, x = a. (11)
z z
Thin-skin boundary condition on Hn at the crack tip [23,5],
( i )
= 0, x = a + b. (12)
x
The solution of the boundary value problem defined by Eqs.(10) (12) can be solved
through the use of Fourier transforms [9]. The resulting Fourier sine transform of the
interior potential takes the form
( i ) ( x; ) = ( e ) (a, 0; ) cosh[ (a + b x)] / cosh( b), a x a + b. (13)
1.3. Solution
Closed form solutions for can now be derived using the representations obtained in
sections 1.11.2. The extended surface impedance boundary condition Eq.(5) linking
the exterior and interior potentials can be written in terms of sine Fourier transforms as
( e ) 2 ( e )
a 2 + 2 a 2 ( e ) = 2aH n(i ) ( ), r = a, (14)
r 2
where the term involving the second derivative with respect to r has been eliminated
using Eq.(2). From Eqs. (1), (9) and (13) it follows that
H n( i ) ( x = a; ) = ( e ) (a, 0; ) tanh[ b]. (15)
Substituting Eqs.(6), (8) and (15) into Eq.(14) and simplifying gives the condition

s + c0 0 + cn n cos(n ) =
n =1

(16)
2 a tanh( b) [ ( s ) + c0 I 0 ( a) + 2 cn n cos(n )] ( ),
n =1
where s, n and ( s ) are the known functions,
( s ) (r , 0; ) = nd I sin( h) K 0 ( r ) I (r1 , r2 ), (17)
( s ) (r , 0; )
s = 2 a 2 ( s ) (a, 0; ) a 2 ,
r r =a (18)
n = a I n ( a ) (n + a ) I n ( a).
2 2 2 2
Note that in Eq.(17), nd = N/[2h (r2 r1)] denotes the coil turn density and
r2
I ( r1 , r2 ) = x I1 ( x) dx. (19)
r1
It is useful first to consider the solution to Eq.(16) in the absence of the crack
b = 0. In this case c0 = s/0 and cn = 0 for n 0 as the fields are axisymmetric. Hence,
from Eqs.(6) and (8), the Fourier sine transform of the scalar potential on the surface of
the uncracked borehole in the thin-skin limit is
( u ) (a, 0; ) = ( s ) (a, 0; ) s I 0 ( a ) / 0 . (20)
It can be shown that the thin skin expression Eq.(20) agrees with the exact expression
[7] for an uncracked borehole to order 1/ as required.
In the presence of the crack, Eq.(16) can be solved for the unknown coefficients cn
by multiplying both sides of the equation by cos(m) where m = 0,1,2 , integrating
over the interval and applying the cosine orthogonality conditions. Solving
the resultant simultaneous equations and using Eq.(20) gives the final coefficients
s a tanh( b)
c0 = + ( u ) (a, 0; ),
0 0 [1 + tanh( b) G ( )] (21)
cn = ( s + c0 0 ) / n , n 1,
where the function G() is the infinite sum

a

G=
I 0 ( a ) / 0 + 2
n =1
I n ( a ) / n ,

(22)

1
= ,
n = q I n ( ) / I n ( ) + n 2 + 2
and the arguments q = a and = a are dimensionless. Evaluation of the slowly

convergent infinite sum G can be performed efficiently for small or large arguments
using asymptotic expansions and, for more general arguments, by subtracting out the
known series for digamma functions and summing the more rapidly convergent
difference numerically. In the limit of large a it can be shown that Eq.(22) reduces to
the expression derived by Lewis [4] for the planar case.
Substituting Eq.(21) into Eqs.(6)(8), and making use of Eq.(20), gives the
following closed-form expression for the sine Fourier transform of the magnetic scalar
potential at the mouth of the crack,
tanh( b) G ( )
( e ) (a, 0; ) = ( u ) (a, 0; ) [1 ]. (23)
1 + tanh( b) G ( )
Combining Eq.(1) and Eq.(23) and using the properties of the Fourier transform, the
tangential component of magnetic field at the mouth of the crack can be written
2 cos( z ) tanh( b) G ( ) (u )

H z ( a, 0, z ) = H z( u ) (a, 0, z ) (a, 0; ) d , (24)
0 1 + tanh( b) G ( )
where the first term is the tangential field for an uncracked borehole and the second
term is the field scattered by the crack. Note for simple thin-skin models [5] the
scattering term in Eq.(24) is omitted: an approach termed the Born approximation.
1.4. Coil impedance change due to the crack
An expression for Z in the thin-skin limit due to a crack with finite opening u
can now be obtained using the knowledge of the fields obtained in the proceeding
subsections. The derivation closely parallels that in previous work for the related case
of an infinitely long rectangular slot in a half-space [2,3,5,9] and relies on the
application of surface impedance boundary conditions to the general Auld Z formula
[5] for a defect in a conductor. The higher-order Kahn effect contributions to Z are
also included by assuming that the curved corner fields take the same form [2] as for a
90 edge. Following this approach, it can be shown that
40 g
I 2 Z =
0 1 + tanh( b) G ( )
[ ( u ) (a, 0; )] 2 d , (25)
where the coefficients take the form
g = i u g f + (1 + i) r ( g f 12 u g 0 ) + 12 r 2 g k ,
g f = tanh( b),
g 0 = 2 [1 sech( b)], (26)
g k = 4 (1 + ) / + sech( b).
2 2
2. Experiment
Experiments were performed to test the validity of the theory presented in Section 1.
The experiments were carried out using a series of air-cored coils and a set of 10 mm
diameter bolthole specimens containing simulated cracks. The coil parameters are
given in Table 1.
The test specimens were prepared by drilling and reaming a series of through holes
in thick 2024 Al alloy plate. The electrical resistivity of the plate was 6.00.05 cm
and the plate thickness (hole length) was 24.6 mm. The simulated cracks were
introduced into the reamed holes by electro-discharge machining a slot using a thin
wire electrode. The specimen parameters are given in Table 2.
Coil impedance measurements were made over the frequency range 5kHz400kHz
using a low frequency impedance analyser (HP-4192A). The change in coil impedance
due to the slot Z was determined by measuring the difference in impedance when the
coil is centered in a cracked bolthole and when the coil is centered in an uncracked
reference hole with the same diameter. The impedance data were corrected for the
effects of stray capacitance using a procedure described previously [8].
Table 1. Coil parameters

Inner radius Outer radius Length Turns Inductance Resonant frequency
r1 (mm) r2 (mm) 2h (mm) N L0 (H) fR (kHz)
3.845 4.43 7.805 408 809.5 770
Table 2. Slot parameters and designations. The borehole radius a = 5.00 0.005 in an 2024 Al-alloy block
Slot BB15 Slot BB13 Slot BB2 Slot BB3 Slot BB5 Slot BB4
depth b (mm) 1.33 0.02 3.02 0.02 4.04 0.02 6.01 0.04 8.04 0.08 10.05 0.05
opening u (mm) 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.31
3. Results and Discussion
In Fig. 2, the experimental values of Z are compared with the theoretical predictions
obtained using Eq. (25). The results are plotted as a function of skin depth (rather than
frequency) to illustrate the structure of the data clearly. Also shown in Fig. 2 are the
predictions of the Born approximation, for which the scattering term in Eq.(25) is
neglected by setting G()=0.
As shown in Fig.2a, the calculated values of the coil inductance change L are
in good agreement with experiment for small slot depths (b 6 mm ) but less so for
larger depths where the scattering from the crack is greater. Nevertheless, even for
these deeper slots (up to b = 10 mm examined here), good agreement is obtained at the
smallest skin depths within the range. In all cases, the model predictions are superior to
those of the Born approximation for which the scattering is neglected entirely.
12
45
Experiment
Calculated b=10 mm
40 10
Born Experiment
35 Calculated
Inductance Change (H)
Resistance Change ()
8 Born
30
b (mm) 4 mm
25 6
10
20
8 4
15 6 1.3 mm
4 2
10
3 (a) (b)
5 1.3 0
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Skin Depth (mm) Skin Depth (mm)
Figure 2. Change in (a) coil inductance and (b) coil resistance due to the slot as a function of skin depth.
The corresponding results for the coil resistance change are shown in Fig.2b. The
agreement between the model predictions and experiment is good for all slots at small
skin depth but becomes markedly poorer with increasing skin depth. This is likely due
to the assumption in Eq.(25) that the planar Kahn effect term (which contributes to
R to a greater extent that L) can be adopted for a cylindrical geometry. The model
predictions for R overall are again superior to those based on the Born approximation.
Although the experiments were performed using Al alloys, the model is applicable
to magnetic steels for which r 1. Future experimental work on magnetic materials
would be valuable, particularly as this provides access to significantly smaller skin
depths. The analysis can also be extended to more complex defect types, such as a pair
of longitudinal cracks located on opposite sides of the borehole, and to more complex
coil configurations, e.g. where the coil axis is normal to the borehole surface.
The present model, in which the scattering is incorporated using extended surface
impedance boundary conditions, is superior to the Born approximation and represents
the most complete thin-skin theory for eddy-current NDE of cracks in boreholes to date.
It does not, however, achieve the typical accuracy obtained for planar geometries for
which the scattering from the crack has been treated more completely by Harfield and
Bowler [2-3]. Further theoretical work is clearly required but the extension of the
Harfield-Bowler approach to cylindrical geometries does not appear straightforward.
References
[1] J.R. Bowler and T.P. Theodoulidis, IEEE. Trans. Magn. 45 (2009), 10121015.
[2] N. Harfield and J.R. Bowler, J.Appl.Phys. 82: (1997), 45904603.
[3] J. R. Bowler and N. Harfield, IEEE. Trans. Magn. 34 (1998) 515523.
[4] A.M. Lewis, J.Phys.D: Appl. Phys. 25 (1992), 31926.
[5] B.A. Auld and J.C. Moulder, J.Nondestr.Eval. 18 (1999), 336.
[6] A. Nethe, R. Quast and H. Stahlmann, IEEE.Trans.Magn. 34 (1998), 33313334.
[7] C.V. Dodd, W.E. Deeds and J. W. Luquire, Int.J.Nondestr.Test. 1 (1969), 233293.
[8] D.J. Harrison, L.D. Jones and S.K. Burke, J.Nondestr.Eval. 15 (1996), 2134.
[9] S.K.Burke, J.Appl.Phys., 76 (1994), 30723080.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-44
Magnetic Response Field of Spherical

Defects within Conductive Components
M. KREUTZBRUCK and H.-M. THOMAS, R. CASPERSON, V. REIMUND and
M. PELKNER
BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, 12205 Berlin, Germany
Abstract. The determination of magnetic distortion fields caused by inclusions

hidden in a conductive matrix using homogeneous current flow needs to be
addressed in multiple tasks of electromagnetic non destructive testing and
materials science. This includes a series of testing problems such as the detection
of tantalum inclusions hidden in niobium plates, metal inclusion in a nonmetallic
base material or porosity in aluminum laser welds. Unfortunately, straightforward
tools for an estimation of the defect response fields above the sample using
pertinent detection concepts are still missing. In this study the Finite Element
Method (FEM) was used for modeling spherically shaped defects and an analytical
expression developed for the strength of the response field including the
conductivity of the defect and matrix, the sensor to inclusion separation and the
defect size. Finally, the results also can be useful for Eddy Current Testing
problems, by taking the skin effect into consideration.
Keywords. Electromagnetic Testing, Spherical Defects, Finite Element Method
Introduction
When applying an electrical current flow within a given material using induction or
injection techniques, variation of its spatial electrical conductivity distribution will
impact the distribution of the electrical currents and their corresponding magnetic fields
within and outside the tested sample, respectively. Significant conductivity changes can
be observed in case of defect regions within the homogeneous material structure such
as cracks, voids, shrink holes and inclusions. Among the common electromagnetic
Nondestructive Testing methods Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) has the lions share
in routine testing applications. In comparison to Eddy Current Testing (ECT) MPT can
be regarded as a pure surface inspection technique, whereas ECT provides a view at a
significant depth of several mm below the samples surface, when using adapted testing
equipment.
The first use of MR sensors and other sensitive field sensors in NDT, like the
SQUID [1-3], in the mid-90s opened the door for a new NDT research branch. An
AMR sensor in ECT-probes was already investigated at the Federal Institute for
Materials Research and Testing in 1995 [4]. It was the advent of a new magnetic micro
systems generation after the discovery of the Giant Magneto Resistance effect (GMR)
in 1988 that paved the way for new detection concepts in ECT as well as in flux
leakage testing. This boom in GMR-research was also supported by the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 2007 for the discovery of the GMR effect by Peter Grnberg and Albert
Fert. Currently GMR sensors are being increasingly proposed to detect small defects
M. Kreutzbruck et al. / Magnetic Response Field of Spherical Defects 45
with a remarkable signal-to-noise ratio and high spatial resolution [5-8]. The results of
this work meet this new research approach, in which the magnetic flux density B is
detected directly by a field sensor instead of an induction coil which measures the
corresponding field derivative with respect to time B/t. There exist a number of
inclusion-related NDT problems such as tantalum inclusions hidden in niobium plates
used for superconducting resonators or testing superconducting cables with their
complex structure of micro filaments. The latter also involves the estimate of their size
and position within the wires cross-section, which is vital for a reliable quality check.
The problem posed by inclusions also needs to be addressed when testing aluminum
laser welds involving spherical shaped and non-conducting pores representing a
limiting case of the inclusion problem.
A remarkable amount of theoretical work has been done in electromagnetic testing
by the Eddy Current Testing community. Several approaches were devised by Bowler
et al. to calculate cracks, voids and other inhomogeneities and their impact on a sensing
coil [9]. However, these works are mainly concerned with zero conductivity defects
and the changes in the detection coils impedance, and do not address the magnetic flux
density.
1. Field calculations
The most standard FEM codes for ECT problems use the so called [A, V-A]-
method, in which vector potential A and scalar potential V has to be found by solving
the differential equation system [19, 20] for each node in the FEM mesh. From both of
these quantities the electrical current density and the corresponding magnetic flux
density can then be calculated.
For the generation of a homogeneous current flow both an ultra-low frequency
Eddy Current (EC) model and an injection model we used as well. The latter uses two
potential boundary conditions at the left and the right edge of the sample applying a
voltage and a corresponding homogeneous current flow. The EC method and the
injection method yield the same results in most cases. It turned out that the numerical
accuracy of the solver for alternating fields was somewhat higher than that of the dc-
solver. For the calculation of the response field at great distances it was therefore
preferred to calculate using ultra-low frequencies of MHz to simulate the dc-case.
Figure 1. left. The surface mesh of a metal plate showing the surface current density induced by a flat
circular excitation coil. Right: Model of inclusions with different sizes (50 m 800 m in dia.), incorporated
at the center of the niobium plate.
46 M. Kreutzbruck et al. / Magnetic Response Field of Spherical Defects
For the calculation we modeled a 4 mm-thick plate with a size of 50 mm 50 mm.

Inclusions with a diameter ranging from 50 m to 800 m (see Fig. 1, right) were
incorporated into the plate at depths between 1 mm and 3 mm. For the EC excitation
we used either a circular coil (see Fig. 1, left) or a symmetric differential (not shown
here) coil to achieve better homogeneity.
The node density in the FEM mesh is distinctly enhanced at the spheres locations.
This serves to adapt the distance between two nodes to the field gradients generated by
the inclusions. The element size of a 50-m-sized inclusion is in the order of 4 m,
whereas the edge elements of the metal plate yield dimensions of nearly 1 mm. For
better visualization in Fig. 1, right, only the surface mesh of the tantalum spheres is
represented, neglecting the spheres connection to the volume mesh of the matrix. The
depth at which the inclusion is located can easily be shifted in the model.
In the following we discuss the electrical and magnetic field variation generated
by an inclusion with a conductivity i within a conductive host medium of conductivity
M, carrying a uniform current density j0. For simplification we used the absolute value
of all spatial current components ( j j j j ) for the current density, whereas we
2 2 2
0 x y z
calculated only the vertical component of the magnetic flux density Bz, which usually is
then detected by a field sensor. For inclusions showing a higher conductivity than that
of the matrix, the currents will be focused into the inclusion, resulting in higher current
densities at the front and back of the inclusion where the current flow direction is
parallel to the normal vector of the inclusion surface. This is shown in Fig. 2, left or the
case of a tantalum inclusion hidden in a niobium matrix.
For low conductivity inclusions the situation is the opposite. Here the current is
forced to flow around the inclusion and a minimum current density can be observed at
the front and back (abutting face) with respect to the direction of the homogeneous
current flow. The maximum of the distortion current strength occurs at the inclusion-
host interface along the inclusions cross-section, which is aligned perpendicular to the
current direction and runs through the center of the inclusion. If it is assumed that the
currents run along the y-direction, this interface circle would pass through the
following points in Fig. 2, left: (-0.4, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0.4), (-0.4, 0, 0), (0, 0, -0.4). In the
Figure 2. left: Eddy current distortion of a 2 mm deep circular tantalum inclusion (0.8 mm in dia.) located in
a planar niobium sheet. Eddy current distortion in the x y plane. The current flows along the y axis. The
conductivity of tantalum is somewhat higher than that of niobium, leading to increased distortion currents at
the front side along the y axis at (0, 0.4, 0) and (0, 0.4, 0) and to reduced current densities at (0.4, 0, 0) and
( 0.4, 0, 0). Right: Current density j (jx+jy+jz)0 5 in the vicinity of the inclusion at the x/y plane at z 0 (cut
plane through the inclusions centre). Uniform current flow passes along x axis. Zero conductivity inclusion
(200 m in dia.) hosted in a Ti matrix ( 2.34 MS/m).
Figure 3. Current density j (jx+jy+jz)0 5 in the vicinity of the inclusion (200 m in dia.) along the x axis at
z 0 (line through the inclusions centre). Uniform current flow passes along x axis. Left: upper curve (blue,
dashed) represents Ti inclusion ( 2.34 MS/m) hosted in a Cu matrix ( 59.6 MS/m) and lower curve
(red, solid) represents air inclusion hosted in an Al matrix ( 37.7 MS/m). Right: upper curve (red)
represents Cu inclusion ( 59.6 MS/m) hosted in a Ti matrix ( 2.34 MS/m) and lower curve (blue)
represents air inclusion hosted in a Ti matrix.
case of zero-conductivity inclusions, the enhancement of the current density is about

50% of the matrix current density, regardless of the inclusions size. Figures 2, right
and Fig. 3 show that the presence of an inclusion affects the current distribution only in
the close proximity of the inclusion. If the distance between the sensor and the
inclusions surface is equal to the inclusions diameter (this is equal to three times the
inclusion radius beginning from the inclusion center), the distortion currents are
already attenuated to only 3 % of the maximum perturbation currents at the inclusions
surface. Therefore the uniform current distribution only experiences a significant
variation near the inclusion-host interface. For distances larger than the inclusions
diameter, the deviations due to perturbation currents can be neglected. These results are
in accordance with the work of G. Sepulveda et al. who also showed that the distortion
of the uniform current distribution can be neglected for distances which are greater than
three times the inclusion radius [21].
Figure 3 shows a line scan of the current distribution along the y-axis for diverse
inclusion-matrix material combinations. Note that because of the shape of the inductor,
the generated current flow was not exactly homogeneous, showing a slight linear rise
along the path in Fig. 3, right. Because of the inclusions low conductivity, the current
density outside the inclusion is higher than inside. In the case of a Ti inclusion hosted
in a Cu matrix a small amount of current still flows through the titanium. On the other
hand, if the inclusion conductivity is higher than that of the host, the currents will flow
into the inclusion and Fig. 3, right indicates that this effect is somewhat higher. The Cu
inclusion located within a Ti matrix shows significantly higher current densities
compared to its air counterpart.
2. Response for varied conductivity of inclusion and host
We now take a look at the magnetic fields generated by the distortion currents and
quantitatively determine how different inclusion conductivity and different host
materials affect the current distribution and the corresponding magnetic field response.
As materials for host and inclusion, Cu, Ti, Al and air with the following conductivity
values have been used: titanium ( = 2,34 MS/m), niobium ( = 6,93 MS/m), and
aluminum ( = 37,7 MS/m).
5
I < I > M
2.5
Ta
B z [T]
0
-2.5
-5
Nb-matrix, 6.93 MS/m
-7.5
Ti-matrix, 2.34 MS/m
10
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
conductivity inclusion [S/m]
Figure 4. left: Strength of the Magnetic field variation above the sample as a function of the inclusions
conductivity. Two different host conductivities were used (black: Ti, 2.34 MS/m, grey: Nb, 6.93 MS/m).
Inclusion diameter: 200m, Sensor to inclusion separation: 5 mm. Each inclusion is located 2 mm below the
surface. Solid lines represent the results of the fit function using Eq. 3. Right: Example of the field
distribution for low and high conductivity inclusions.
In Figure 4 the maximum field magnitude (Bz, peak-to-peak amplitude) is shown
for different compositions as a function of inclusion conductivity. In the case of
inclusion conductivity smaller than that of the tested material, the induced currents
which otherwise would pass undisturbed through the volume of the inclusion are
perturbed and have to flow around the inclusion. The corresponding vertical
component of the magnetic field is displayed in Fig. 4, top right (the effect of low-
inclusion conductivity is shown to the left from the zero point). The situation is
opposite when the inclusion conductivity is greater than that of the tested material.
Then the currents flow from the host into the inclusion, leading to a change in the
direction of circulation. The circular perturbation currents that once flowed clockwise
now flow anti-clockwise (Fig. 4 right, on the right from the zero point and Fig. 4, right
bottom). Consequently, the sign of the magnetic field is changed from positive field
values to negative ones. When the conductivity of the inclusion and matrix are the
same, this will obviously result in a vanishing response field and no perturbation
currents will occur (zero point, Fig. 4, left).
One can observe that for very low inclusion conductivity the defect response does
not change significantly if the conductivity of the inclusion is further reduced. The
same saturation effect occurs for very high inclusion conductivity. By comparing the
field values for very low and very high defect conductivities one can observe an
anomaly, already seen when dealing with the current distribution. In the limit of high
inclusion conductivity one finds a field response exactly twice as high as that of an
inclusion with negligible conductivity. We define as the ratio between the inclusions
conductivity I and matrix conductivity M as follows:
I
(1)
M
The numerical data for any M in the limit at infinity and zero conductivity show
the following relation:
lim Bz

2 (2)
lim Bz

0
The response field Bz of an inclusion with excellent electrical transport properties,
say silver, in a low conductivity metal matrix will be higher than that of an air inclusion
(pore) located in the same matrix carrying the same homogenous current density. The
reason for these phenomena can be explained by the limited inclusion volume. The
defect volume is limited with respect to the much larger volume of the host. Assuming
that all currents are pushed out of the inclusion, it is not possible to increase the
response field by lowering the inclusion conductivity. It is therefore reasonable to
assume that for the virtually infinite volume of the matrix significantly more current
can be passed through the inclusion if its conductivity is high enough. Of course, there
also exists an optimum path for the currents flowing from the host into the inclusion
and back again. The simulation reveals that this geometrical condition causes a
response field which is a factor of 2 larger than that of the zero conductivity case. A fit
of the numerical data shows that
M 1
Bz ~ I (3)
I 2 M 2
When using the FEM results (dots in Fig. 4, left) we found the error of this
analytical expression (solid line in Fig. 4, left) to be below 2%. Note that these results
are independent of the inclusions size or the distance of the sensor above the samples
surface.
3. Sensor-to-Inclusion Separation and Inclusion Size
In Figure 5, left, the magnetic field is shown as a function of the sensor-to-inclusion

separation z, in which z describes the distance between the centre of the inclusion and
the field detecting area of the sensor. In addition, for better visualization of the fall-off
behavior, Fig. 5, right shows the ratio of B(z/2)/B(z), which is denoted by in the
following sections. The simulation was carried out for inclusions with sizes ranging
between r = 100 m and r = 800 m. The sensor-to-inclusion separation is divided into
two regimes both of which show a different fall-off characteristic of 1/z. Starting in
the very near field regime at the inclusions centre we see that is distinctly below 2.
By approaching the inclusions surface converges to 2.
By exceeding the interface of the inclusion and the matrix, the fall-off
characteristic shows the quadratic behavior in which = 2 because of the quantity
B(z/2), = 4 = 2) that is not achieved at the surface at once. It is only obtained when
distances are at least twice the inclusions radius. Closer examination of the data shows
that the interface of the two regimes < 2 and = 2 is located exactly at the inclusion-
host interface. The simulations also confirm that Bz as function of the inclusion radius r
scales exactly with a r law. This also can be seen in Fig. 5, left, where the magnetic
field response is distinctly increased in the presence of larger inclusions. Furthermore,
the graph shows that a larger inclusion diameter will shift the regime of < 2 towards
higher values. Independent of the inclusion size, the = 2 regime invariably is entered
at the interface of inclusion and host.
Figure 5. Fall off characteristics calculated for different inclusion diameters. Magnetic field variation
as a function of the sensor to inclusion separation (left) and ratio of Bz(z/2)/ Bz(z) as function of the
dipole to sensor separation (right). Inclusion with zero conductivity (air) located in a titanium matrix
( 2.34 MS/m).
4. Analytical Expression for the Response Field Bz
Size dependence and spacing between sensor and inclusion are in good accordance
with the results of G. Sepulveda et al. [21]. They used spheroidal shaped cracks with
variable conductivity to analytically calculate the magnetic field that would be
measured by a magneto sensor. Due to the complexity of the problem, the solution is
given only for the dc-problem and is a first-order approximation. The general solution
is proportional to the Legendre functions of the first kind and consists of odd Legendre
polynomials. One can use several boundary conditions to determine the coefficients,
but due to the limited number of boundary conditions, only first terms of the
polynomial expansion can be used. The spheroidal approach is hereby a kind of
approximation, which makes an analytical calculation of the current distribution
possible. However, when turning to the magnetic field, unfortunately no unique
mathematical expression can be derived, leading also to finite element approaches.
Thus no expression of the field strength for different inclusion conductivity was
presented.
Our FEM results are in good agreement with the current and field distribution of
G. Sepulveda, who also found that the magnitude of the far field distances much
further than the prolate spheroids diameter falls off as 1/R2 at any given direction.
Implementing the findings of sections 3 and 4 we now present a simple analytical
expression for varying conductivity in the inclusion and the matrix, which fits the
numerical data extremely well for all types of isotropic materials:
0 r3 1
Bz pp
j0 (4)
1.354 z2 2
To provide a broad data set, we calculated the peak-to-peak magnetic flux density
Bz pp for a number of different inclusions. The sensor-to-inclusion separation was varied
in the regime ranging from z = 2 mm to z = 6 mm. The radius of the inclusions was
varied between 50 m and 400 m. Finally for the inclusion conductivity we used
values between 0 MS/m and 59.9 MS/m (Cu) and for the conducting host we used
values ranging from the conductivity of Ti to that of Cu. As a result, Bz pp varies
between 30 pT and 7 T, covering almost 6 orders of magnitude. Despite this high
dynamic field range, the constant k = 0/1.354 9.28 10-7 Tm/A only varies in a range
of a few percent (see Fig. 6).
FIGURE 6. Variation of k for different inclusion types. Left axis: absolute value of k. Right axis: Relative
error assuming k to be 9.28 10 7. Ti: 2.34 MS/m, Al: 37.7 MS/m, Cu: 59.9 MS/m. Sample 1 4 :
i 0 , M Ti , zi 3,5,4,5 mm, r in m; sample 6 9: i 0, M Al , zi 3,4,3,5 mm, r in m; sample 11
14: i 0, M Ti , zi 2,3,4,5 mm, r 50 m; sample 16 18: i 0, M Ti , zi 2,3,4 mm, r 100 m;
sample 20 22: i 0, M Ti , zi 3,4,6 mm, r 200 m; sample 24 26: i 0, M Ti , zi 2,4,5 mm, r
400 m; sample 28 32: i in MS/m, M Ti , zi 5 [mm], r 100 m; sample 33 36: i, M , zi 4,5,4,5 mm,
r 100 m.
5. Conclusion
In routine non-destructive testing applications the estimation of the detectability of

different material defects is a common task in choosing the proper testing method. The
signal strength generated by inhomogeneities within the material being tested should be
beyond the noise level either caused by the electronic noise of the testing device or the
intrinsic noise sources of the sample itself, such as local variation of the conductivity or
permeability due to the materials microstructure. The analytical expression derived
from the FEM-results will facilitate the estimation of the signal strength caused by
spherical inclusions and requires the current density, sensor-to-inclusion separation,
inclusion size the conductivity of matrix and inclusion. Finally, the question should be
addressed as to how these results can be transferred to alternative defect types like
porosities and cracks. We found in further investigations that the qualitative behaviour
of the magnetic field does not change significantly for more elongated flaws. Even for
pure rectangular cracks with high aspect ratio the magnetic field above the samples
surface can be interpreted as being generated by a dipole-like source with its 1/z
characteristics - a result also found by Sepulveda. However, for the absolute signal
strength we found a stronger influence of the cross-section and the current direction
compared to the influence of the crack width. This relation still has to be further
investigated. Meanwhile there exist a series of NDT activities, with which the proposed
analytical expression can be confirmed by experimental data [2,8]. A systematic
validation of these theoretical results will be a future task.
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-53
Decreasing Uncertainty in Size Estimation

of Stress Corrosion Cracking from Eddy-
Current Signals
Ladislav JANOUSEK 1, Milan SMETANA, Marcel ALMAN
Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovak Republic
Abstract. The paper deals with uncertainty in depth estimation of partially

conductive cracks from eddy current testing signals. Numerical simulations are
carried out to investigate influences of crack parameters on the response signals.
Three parameters of the crack, i.e. its depth, width and conductivity are changed to
simulate variety of possible scenarios. Standard pancake probe is used for the
inspection at first. The presented numerical results confirm that the inverse
problem is highly ill posed when partially conductive cracks, as stress corrosion
cracking, are concerned. Accordingly, a new approach in the response signal
sensing is proposed. The idea is to pick up more information provided by the eddy
currents. Thus, three coils positioned perpendicularly to each other are employed
to sense all the three spatial components of the perturbation electromagnetic field.
The gained results reveal that it is possible to considerably decrease the
uncertainty in depth estimation of partially conductive cracks by employing the
proposed idea.
Keywords. non destructive evaluation, eddy currents, partially conductive cracks,

depth estimation, uncertainty
Introduction
System health monitoring (SHM) and condition based maintenance (CBM) are of high
interest nowadays in order to sustain safety, reliability and quality of various processes.
Non-destructive evaluation plays accordingly the key role in SHM and CBM where not
only reliable detection but also precise estimation of dimensions of a detected anomaly
is required. Enhancing non-destructive evaluation methods is therefore very important
for accomplishing their challenging missions.
Different physical principles are utilised for the non-destructive inspection and
evaluation of materials. Eddy current testing (ECT) is one of the widely utilized
electromagnetic methods. It originates from the electromagnetic induction phenomena
and its principle underlies in the interaction of induced eddy currents with structure of
an examined body. Perturbations in eddy currents distribution due to a presence of an
anomaly are detected. Indisputable advantages of the method such as high inspection
speed, high sensitivity for surface breaking cracks, versatility account for gradually
1
Corresponding Author: Ladislav Janousek, Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical
Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovak
Republic; E mail: janousek@fel.uniza.sk
54 L. Janousek et al. / Decreasing Uncertainty in Size Estimation of Stress Corrosion Cracking
increasing employment of the method in practical applications, especially in nuclear,

petrochemical and aviation industries. However, interpretation of the ECT signals is
rather difficult as the inverse problem is ill-posed [1].
The progress in powerful computers has allowed development of automated
procedures to evaluate dimensions of a detected anomaly in ECT. In general, two
approaches are utilized for the purpose, deterministic and stochastic ones [2-6]. Usually,
one dimensional signal gained by scanning just above a crack along its length is taken
as an input to the evaluation procedure. Mostly, three variables of the crack are
estimated, its depth, length and a position of its centre, while a profile, a width and the
electromagnetic properties of the defect have to be adjusted in advance. Satisfactory
results are reported by several groups for evaluation of artificial slits [3], even of
several close parallel notches [6]. However, evaluation of real cracks, especially stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) from ECT response signals remains still a challenge [3], [7].
SCCs are quite different comparing to artificial slits or even to other types of real
defects. Cross sections of SCC frequently show branched structure and group of cracks
usually occur in what is known as a colony. The local opening of SCC is usually very
small, e.g. tens of micrometers; however a damaged region itself is much broader. SCC
contains many unbroken ligaments both in depth and opening directions what makes
SCC partially conductive and in this case its width has to be also considered [8]. It
means that additional variables should be taken into account for evaluation of a
detected SCC what considerably increases ill-posedness of the inverse problem [1].
Thus, many unsatisfactory results are reported when the automated procedures
originally developed for non-conductive cracks are employed in the evaluation of SCC
[3], [7]. It is stated that one of the possible reasons is lack of sufficient information [3].
The authors propose a new idea in sensing eddy currents response signals in order
to decrease uncertainty in SCC evaluation. The vector lines of the eddy-current density
are closed themselves, because the divergence of the eddy-current density vector equals
to zero in an inspected material. Thus, any electromagnetic anomaly at present
influences the path of eddy-currents in quite complicated manner and creates
perturbations in the resulting electromagnetic field. Even, many ECT probes have been
developed over past decades reflecting special demands of particular applications, they
are usually designed in such a way that only one component of the perturbation field is
sensed. However, curved paths of eddy-currents provide more information. The
authors proposal is to sense all the three spatial components of the perturbation field to
gain three separate signals of a same crack. Two-dimensional scan over a cracked
region is required in this case. Numerical investigations are carried out to prove
effectiveness of the proposal. Varieties of non-conductive as well as partially
conductive cracks are modelled to study their influence on the perturbation field. The
paper presents the gained results and their evaluation.
1. Numerical Model
A plate specimen having the electromagnetic parameters of a stainless steel SUS316L

is inspected in this study. The specimen has a thickness of t = 10 mm, a conductivity of
= 1.4 MS/m and a relative permeability of r = 1. A surface breaking crack appears in
the middle of the plate. It is modelled as the cuboid having different electromagnetic
properties from the base material. Configuration of the plate with the crack is shown in
Figure 1.
L. Janousek et al. / Decreasing Uncertainty in Size Estimation of Stress Corrosion Cracking 55
y SUS316L
wc
x
lc
c
dc
= 1.4 MS/m
r= 1
10
Figure 1. Configuration of plate specimen with crack
The numerical calculations are performed using the edge-element code. Three
parameters of the crack are varied in other to simulate various structures of real cracks.
The crack depth dc is changed from 1 mm up to 10 mm with a step of 1 mm, its width
wc is adjusted to five values ranging from 0.2 mm until 1.0 mm with a step of 0.2 mm
and the conductivity of cracked region c is set to 0, 1, 2, 5, 10% of the base material
conductivity. Length of the crack is kept at a constant value of lc = 10 mm for all the
cases. Frequency of the harmonic driving signal is adjusted to f = 10 kHz. An ECT
probe scans 1 mm above the plate surface. Influences of the crack parameters on the
ECT response signals are studied. The results are presented and discussed in the
following sections.
2. Standard Approach
The standard self-inductance absolute pancake probe is employed for the inspection of
the specimen with crack at first. The circular coil is positioned normally regarding the
surface of plate. Its axis is parallel to the z-axis of the coordinate system shown in
Figure 1. Inner diameter of the coil is 4 mm, the outer one has a value of 8 mm and a
height of the winding is 2 mm.
05 04
1 mm 1 mm
3 mm 3 mm
5 mm 03 5 mm
04
02
absolute value [mV]
imaginary [mV]
01
03
02
01
02
01
03
0 04
20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 04 03 02 01 0 01 02 03 04
probe position [mm] real [mV]
a) absolute value vs. probe position b) signal in complex plane
Figure 2. Crack response signal influence of crack depth
The inspection is realised in a standard way; one dimensional scanning with the
probe over the crack centre along its length is performed. The response signal is
calculated for the various parameters of the crack. Figure 2 shows the response signal
for the non-conductive crack with depths of dc = 1, 3, 5 mm and a width of
wc = 0.2 mm. Similar results are displayed in Figure 3. The crack has a depth of
dc = 3 mm, a width of wc = 0.2 mm and conductivities of c = 0, 5 and 10% of the base
material conductivity. Influence of the crack width on the response signal for partially
conductive crack with a conductivity of c = 5% of the base material conductivity and a
depth of dc = 3 mm is shown in Figure 4. These results are gained for the crack widths
of wc = 0.2, 0.6, 1.0 mm.
04 04
0% 0%
5% 5%
10% 03 10%
03 02
absolute value [mV]
imaginary [mV]
01
02 0
01
01 02
03
0 04
20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 04 03 02 01 0 01 02 03 04
Figure 3. Crack response signal influence of crack conductivity
04 04
0 2 mm 0 2 mm
0 6 mm 0 6 mm
1 0 mm 03 1 0 mm
03 02
absolute value [mV]
imaginary [mV]
01
02 0
01
01 02
03
0 04
20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 04 03 02 01 0 01 02 03 04
Figure 4. Crack response signal influence of crack width
It can be seen that the response signal is the complex variable of all the considered
crack parameters. Figure 5 demonstrates quite high uncertainty in depth evaluation of
partially conductive cracks. In this case only the maximum points of the response
signals are plotted for the crack with three depths of dc = 1, 3, 5 mm and all the
considered widths and conductivities. As it can be observed the crack signals of the
crack with the three different depths are highly overlapped and thus under- or over-
estimation of the crack depth can occur with high probability. Especially, the
underestimation can bring serious consequences in many applications.
0
1 mm
3 mm
5 mm
01
imaginary [mV]
02
03
04
05
0 01 02 03 04 05
real [mV]
Figure 5. Overlap of response signals due to partial conductivity of cracked region
The reason of the high uncertainty in depth estimation of partially conductive

cracks using standard ECT probes and procedures is lack of sufficient information. The
next section introduces a new idea for the response signal sensing to increase
information content of the signal.
3. Proposal of New Approach
The vector lines of the eddy-current density must be closed themselves in an inspected
material. Thus, any electromagnetic anomaly at present influences the path of eddy-
currents in quite complicated manner and creates perturbations in the resulting
electromagnetic field. The previous section clearly showed that the degree of
uncertainty in depth evaluation of a partially conductive crack is quite high when only
one component of the perturbation field is sensed; however, the eddy currents provide
more information.
The authors propose sensing all the three spatial components of the perturbation
electromagnetic field to increase the information rate of ECT response signals.
Numerical results are provided to support the proposal. The same coil as in the
previous section drives the eddy currents in the specimen. Three circular coils of same
dimensions, i.e. the outer diameter equals to 4 mm, the inner one is set to 2 mm and the
height of winding is 0.5 mm, sense the response signals independently. The coils are
positioned perpendicularly to each other to sense all the three spatial components of the
perturbation field. All the coils are centred at one point. The numerical simulations are
performed under similar conditions as described in the previous section; however two
dimensional scanning over the cracked region is realized. The response signal gained
with the detecting coil oriented along the x-axis according to the coordinate system
shown in Figure 1 is denoted as the x- component. Accordingly, the response signals
sensed with the detection coils oriented along the y-axis and z-axis are labelled as the
y- component and the z- component, respectively.
Figure 6 displays the response signals for the non-conductive crack with a width of
wc = 0.2 mm and a depth of dc = 3 mm. As it can be seen, each component provides
some information about the inspected defect; however, x- and y- components have
lower level than the z- component.
absolute value [mV] absolute value [mV]
0.05
0.03 0.04
0.02 0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0 0
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
20 15 0 20 15 0
10 5 5 y [mm] 10 5 5 y [mm]
0 10 0 10
5 10 15 5 10 15
x [mm] 15 20 20 x [mm] 15 20 20
a) x- component b) y- component
absolute value [mV]
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
20
15
10
5
20 15 0
10 5 y [mm]
5 0 10
5 15
x [mm] 10 15 20
20
c) z- component
Figure 6. Crack response signal gained using proposed detector
Particular numerical results are presented in Figure 7. Only maximum points of the
sensed signals are shown in the plots. Signals of the x- and the y- components are
magnified by factor 5 to be able to display them in a same plot together with the z-
component because of the reason mentioned above. Figure 7a) presents influence of the
crack depth on the response signals amplitudes. Only signals amplitudes of the non-
conductive crack with a width of wc = 0.2 mm and depths dc ranging from 0 to 9 mm
with a step of 1 mm are depicted. Figure 7b) displays the results for various values of
the crack conductivities; c = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10% of the base material conductivity. The
other parameters of the crack are adjusted to the following values wc = 0.2 mm,
dc = 3 mm in this case. The influence of the crack opening on the crack signals
amplitudes is shown in Figure 7c). The partially conductive crack with a relative
conductivity of c = 5% and a depth of dc = 3 mm is considered here. Its width wc is
varied from 0.2 mm up to 1.0 mm with a step of 0.2 mm.
It can be observed from the results shown in Figure 7 that each component behaves
in slightly different manner when changing parameters of the crack, i.e. its depth, width
and conductivity.
It seems from Figure 7a) that the x- component is more sensitive to the crack depth
comparing to the other two components. It even does not saturate so quickly with
increasing depth of the near-side surface crack. The reason can be explained from the
nature of eddy current lines changes due to a presence of crack. The x- component is
especially formed by the perturbation field arising from eddy currents flowing around
tips of the crack that is higher than in the other two axes.
On the other side, Figures 7b) and 7c) show that the conductivity and the width of
crack influences more the y- component than the two other components as a sensitivity
of the y- axis coil to the perturbation field arising from eddy currents flowing through a
partially conductive crack is highest comparing to the sensitivity of the pick-up coils in
the other two axes.
It can be concluded that sensing all of the three spatial components of the
perturbation field can increase information rate of the ECT response signals. This is
especially advantageous when partially conductive cracks, like SCCs, can appear in an
inspected structure and dimensions of the cracked region need to be evaluated. Degree
of uncertainty in depth estimation of such cracks can be reduced by employing the
proposed approach.
x component 0
x component
0.4 y component y component
z component 0 05 z component
01
0.2 c
imaginary [mV]
imaginary [mV]
0 15
dc
0 02
0 25
0.2
03
0 35
0.4
04
0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0 0 05 01 0 15 02 0 25 03 0 35 04
real [mV] real [mV]
a) influence of crack depth b) influence of crack conductivity
0
0.05
0.1
wc
imaginary [mV]
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35 x component
y component
z component
0.4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
real [mV]
c) influence of crack width

Figure 7. Amplitude of crack response signal gained using proposed detector
Conclusion
The paper focused on degree of uncertainty in depth evaluation of a detected crack

from eddy current testing signals. The investigations were done from numerically
calculated signals. Non-conductive as well as partially conductive cracks were
concerned here. Three parameters of a crack were varied, i.e. its depth, conductivity
and width. Standard pancake probe was employed for the inspection at first. The
presented results demonstrated that the inverse problem is highly ill-posed when only
one component of the perturbation field is picked-up for a single scanning line just
above a crack along its length. Consequently a new inspection approach was proposed
in the paper. It comes from the fact that more information about a detected crack can be
gained by sensing all of the three spatial components of the perturbation
electromagnetic field. Two dimensional scanning is required in this case. It was shown
that the response signals sensed with three coils that are oriented perpendicularly to
each other behave in slightly different way when changing the parameters of crack.
This is advantageous as degree of uncertainty in depth evaluation especially of partially
conductive cracks, as stress corrosion cracking, can be reduced in this way. Further
work is going to be concentrated on experimental verification.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the
contract No. APVV-0194-07. This work was also supported by a grant of the Slovak
Grant Agency VEGA, project No. 1/0308/08.
References
[1] N. Yusa, H. Huang, K. Miya, Numerical evaluation of the ill posedness of eddy current problems to size
real cracks, NDT&E International 40 (2007), 185 191.
[2] G. Rubinacci, A. Tamburino, S. Ventre, Fast numerical techniques for electromagnetic nondestructive
evaluation, Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 24 (2009), 165 194.
[3] N. Yusa, Development of computational inversion techniques to size cracks from eddy current signals,
Nondestructive testing and evaluation 24 (2009), 39 52.
[4] Z. Chen, N. Yusa, K. Miya, Some advances in numerical analysis techniques for quantitative
electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation, Nondestructive testing and evaluation 24 (2009), 69 102.
[5] B.P.C. Rao, An artificial neural network for eddy current testing of austenitic stainless steel welds,
NDT&E International 35 (2002), 393 398.
[6] M. Rebican, Z. Chen, N. Yusa, L. Janousek, K. Miya, Shape reconstruction of multiple cracks from ECT
signals by means of a stochastic method, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 42 (2006), 1079 1082.
[7] N. Yusa, L. Janousek, M. Rebican, Z. Chen, K. Miya, N. Dohi, N. Chigusa, Y. Matsumoto, Caution
when applying eddy current inversion to stress corrosion cracking, Nuclear Engineering and Design
236 (2006), 211 221.
[8] N. Yusa, K. Miya, Discussion on the equivalent conductivity and resistance of stress corrosion cracks in
eddy current simulations, NDT&E International 42 (2009), 9 15.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-61
Semi-Discrete Time-Domain Sensitivity

Analysis For Cracks Recognition
Konstanty M. GAWRYLCZYK
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
Department of Electrotechnology and Diagnostics
Abstract. Semi discrete method is known since 80s of XXth century. The method
provides analytical solution in time, so the time stepping may be omitted.
Comparing to usual finite elements method in time, this method seems not to be
numerically effective, because produced matrices are dense. Because of this reason,
it was rather rarely used. However to carry out sensitivity analysis with adjoint
models [1] solutions in forward and backward time have to be obtained. Both time
points should coincide. For space discretization finite elements are used, as usual.
The semi discrete method allows to determine analytically the continuous solution
for any given time of analysis. In this paper evaluation of this method for different
kinds of excitation shapes is presented. The sensitivity analysis is applied for
inverse task of recognition of conductivity distribution in non destructive testing
of materials using eddy currents.
Keywords. Time domain field analysis, sensitivity analysis, cracks recognition.
Introduction
The proposed semi-discrete method allows obtaining time-domain solution without

time-stepping. For space discretization triangular finite elements of first order are used.
The proposed method is used for algorithms of non-destructive testing (NDT) using
eddy-currents. The excitation currents used by NDT in time domain have usually the
shape of rectangular impulse or single sinusoidal impulse. The numerical solutions for
both current shapes are listed below. For identification of crack shape the iterative
algorithm is given, based on measurement of coil voltage moving over the crack and
sensitivity analysis. To calculate sensitivity the Tellegens method is applied. The
derivation of sensitivity equations in time domain one can find in autors earlier works,
e.g. [1], while the sensitivity equations for frequency domain in [4]. The semi-discrete
method delivers analytical and continuous solution for any given time of analysis,
which has a form of exponential functions. In order to obtain an analytical formula, the
integration of the sensitivity equation is necessary. The paper finds possible solutions
of this problem, either the application of Zassenhaus formula or improvement of
commutational properties of two matrices. The resultant gradient information may be
used for solving inverse problems, such as identification of material conductivity
distributions.
62 K.M. Gawrylczyk / Semi-Discrete Time-Domain Sensitivity Analysis for Cracks Recognition
1. FE-TS analysis
Electromagnetic field diffusion into conducting region for two-dimensional models

may be described by vector magnetic potential A:
sA
2 A 0 i t
f t
. (1)
st
Approximating (1) with finite elements and applying time-dependent elements the
solution with well known Finite Element Time Stepping method is obtained, leading
to the following system of linear equations:

K M A ti1

t
(2)
M
f ti1
1
f ti
1
K A ti
,
t
with: K stiffness matrix, M mass matrix, t time step, i - time index and
0,5 1 defines the differential scheme of the time stepping method. The effective
solution of (2) is as long possible, as the time step t remains constant. In other case,
matrix decomposition should be renewed.
If there is the need to calculate the sensitivities of measured voltage versus
material parameters, adjoint models are used [1], which appear in Tellegen theorem.
The quantities relating to adjoint models are denoted by the index (+). Time moments
from the analysis of adjoint model should coincide with that of original model. Because
the adjoint model is analyzed applying reverse time, fulfillment of this condition may
lead to excessive time steps and very long computational time. This is the reason, why
the semi-discrete method has been elaborated. It allows to calculate the solution for any
desired time moments, not only equidistantly placed.
2. Semi-discrete finite element analysis
The inhomogeneous diffusion equation to be solved has the form of
A(t)
[ K ]{A(t)} + [ M ] = { f (t)}. (3)
t
The solution is calculated as superposition of transient (t) component and steady-

state solution (s) of A = As + At . Steady-state solution depends on the shape of
excitation f(t). Transient component results from homogeneous equation:
sAt (t)
<K >\At (t)^<M > 0 , (4)
st
which solution is
K.M. Gawrylczyk / Semi-Discrete Time-Domain Sensitivity Analysis for Cracks Recognition 63
\At (t)^ \Cêxp t< M > <K >

, with: \C^constant of integration.
1
(5)
The constant C depends on initial value A(0), which is zero in our case, and also
on the excitation shape. The solutions for different excitations f are shown below.
3. Unit-step excitation
However the current exciting a coil can not take a form of unit-step 1(t), it is handy
approximation of the real shape of current. The steady-state response of the magnetic
vector potential As in this case has the form:
1 1
\As (t)^< K > \ f (t)^<K > 1 t
. (6)
The constant of integration C can be evaluated from the initial condition
\As (0)^\At (0)^\A(0)^0 (7)
and the semi-discrete solution for vector magnetic potential takes the form:
{ A (t )} = ([1] exp ( t [ M ] [ K ]) ) [ K ] {1(t)} .

1 1
(8)
Because of mass matrix inversion, (8) cannot be applied for the whole region.
Outside the conducting region the mass matrix contains zeroes on main diagonal and
for this reason becomes singular. The region has to be divided our into a conductive
part 1 and a non-conductive part 2:
s
K K12 A1 t
M11 0 A1 t
0
11 st . (9)
K 21 K 22 A2 t
0 0 f2
0
It is assumed that excitation currents are located only in a non-conducting part of

the region. Then the following matrix equation for the conductive region is obtained:
<K11 ><K12 ><K22 > <K21>

\A1 (t)^<M11>\sA1 (t)/st^
1
1
<K12 ><K22 > \ f2 (t)^, or: <Kc >\A1 (t)^<M11>\sA1 (t)/st^\ fc (t)^. (10)
The similarity of (10) to (3) allows for exploitation of solution (8). The correctness
of described method was proved using very simple 2D-model (Fig. 1). The model
consists of conducting region, air and linear excitation current. The material parameters
are given on the picture.
Figure 1. 2D model for proof of semi discrete method
Figure 2. Comparison of A in node 1 for ti

Comparison of magnetic vector potential Ai (i - means the index of time moment)
calculated using traditional FE-TS method and semi-discrete method is shown in
Fig. 2. The comparison done for other nodes seems similarly.
4. Harmonic excitation
For harmonic excitation there is the following inhomogeneous differential equation:
sA(t)
<K >\A(t)^<M > \I m sin(t)^ . (11)
st
The steady-state response As may be evaluated in frequency-domain using standard

FEM:
1
\As^ <K > j<M >
\^,
(12)
1
\As (t)îmag <K > j<M >
\êxp(jt) .
The constant of integration C for transient component At (Eqn. 5) will be similarly

evaluated, as described by Eqn.7 and assuming zero initial condition:
1

\Cîmag <K > j<M >

\^ imag As
. (13)
Therefore, the semi-discrete solution for transient magnetic vector potential in

presence of harmonic excitation equals:
\A(t)îmag As exp(jt)
imag As
exp t<M > <K >
.
1
(14)
Obtained formula was tested using the same model as this shown in Fig.1. In Fig.3
there are solutions obtained with FE-TS, with proposed semi-discrete method and the
steady-state shape of potential for node number 1. i means the time-moment index.
Figure 3. Comparison of magnetic vector potential in node 1 for harmonic excitation
5. Excitation with the rectangular impulse
The solution for rectangular impulse was achieved as superposition of solutions for two
unit-step impulses:
(<1>et<M11>1<Kc > ) K 1 1(t) if t b T ,

< > \ ^
\A t
^ t-T
<M11>1<Kc > t<Mc 11>1<Kc > 1 (15)
(e e )<Kc > \1(t)^ otherwise.
6. Single sinusoidal pulse
The solution for single, sinusoidal current pulse was derived in the same manner, using
superposition of two solutions given by Eqn.(14):
1
t<M > <K >
imag As e jt As
e if tbT ,
\A(t)^ (16)

1 1
tT
< M > <K >
imag As
e As
e < > < > otherwise.
t M K
The comparison done for test models reveals good conformity of solutions
obtained using semi-discrete method versus this from classical FE-time-stepping.
7. Semi-discrete sensitivity analysis
To perform inverse task basing on sensitivity analysis there has to be calculated

sensitivity of voltage induced in the coil versus conductivity in finite elements , it
means the left hand side of equation (17). The term on the right-hand side of
sensitivity equation (17) denotes the sensitivity components coming from finite
elements. This sensitivity equation for time domain was derived in [1]. (+) denotes
value related to adjoint model.
T T
( J 0 ( ) E ( t ) ) dV dt = E ( t ) E ( ) dV dt.
+ +
(17)
0V 0V
Integration of the product of electric intensity vectors over the finite elements of
first order requires the Gaussian quadrature of the second order. Because Gaussian
points are located on the element borders in this case, the products containing
combinations of nodal values should be calculated. To obtain all necessary products,
the following matrix R is defined:
( ) {i }
T T
R = E + ( ) E (t ) dt = [ M11 ] exp t [ K c ][ M11 ]
T 1 1
c
0 0
(18)
( exp ( [ K ][ M ] ) {i })
T
[ M11 ]
1 1
c 11
+
c dt
where
is the size of finite element. The matrix R can be rewritten as follows:
( ) {i }{i }
T
R = [ M11 ] exp t [ K c ][ M11 ]
1 1 + T
0 c c
(19)
[ M11 ] exp ( [ K ][ M ] ) dt,
1 1
c 11
1
because the term [ M11 ] exp [ Kc ][ M11 ] ( 1
) is symmetric. A drawback of the
{ }
T
established definition is that R is singular (it contains a singular term [ I c ] = {ic } ic+ ).
For better numerical efficiency, analytical integration would be essential. Since simple
disentangling of exponential functions in (19) is impossible, two following methods for
this purpose are proposed.
8. The Zassenhaus formula
The Zassenhaus formula [3] is a version of the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula. It

can be written involving commutator nestings:
1
exp( X ) Y exp( X ) = Y + [ X ,Y ] + [ X , [ X ,Y ]] + 1 X , [ X , [ X ,Y ]] + ... ,
2! 3! (20)
where: [ X ,Y ] = X Y Y X .
In our case:
X = t [ K c ][ M11 ] and Y = {ic } {ic+ } [ M11 ] = [ I c ] [ M11 ] .

1 T 1 1
(21)
If 1/M is the norm of matrices X and Y, an error of the Zassenhaus approximation

is of the order O(1/M 2). It means that sensitivity calculations based on the Zassenhaus
formula converge only for short times t, dependent on the norm of matrix [Kc][M11]-1.
In practical calculations the convergence is obtained at the beginning of the transient
process only.
9. Improvement of matrix commutations
By applying the Zassenhaus formula for two good commuting matrices, the result is
exp( X ) Y exp( X ) = Y , assuming: [ X ,Y ] = 0. (22)
Because the identity matrix commutes well with all other matrices, the identity
matrix [1] multiplied by an arbitrarily large coefficient C is added and subtracted:
( )
T
R = [ M11 ] exp t [ K c ][ M11 ]
1 1
0
(23)
(
{ I c } [ M11 ] + C [1] C [1]) exp ( [ K ] [ M ] ) dt.
1 1
c 11
The components in above integral can be separated as follows:

( ) exp ( LA) exp ( [ K ][ M ] ) dt

T
R = [ M11 ] exp t [ K c ] [ M11 ]
1 1 1
c 11
0
[ M ] exp ( t [ K ] [ M ] ) C [1]
T 1 1
11 c 11
0 (24)
exp (t [ K ][ M ] ) exp ( T [ K ] [ M ] ) dt,
1 1
c 11 c 11
(
where: LA = ln {I c } [ M11 ] + C [1] .
1
)
Now, the exponents in above formula can be disentangled and integrated:
( ( )
R = T [ M11 ] exp T [ K c ][ M11 ] + LA C exp -T [ K c ][ M11 ]
1 1
( 1
)). (25)
This formula allows to calculate sensitivity components for the right-hand side of
sensitivity equation (17).
10. Recognition of conductivity distribution
The dependence of measurement coil (shown in Figs. 4, 5) voltage on the variation of

electric conductivity inside finite elements is represented by the sensitivity matrix
[S(t)] for consecutive time steps i :
V (t1 ) S1 (t1 ) S2 (t1 ) S3 (t1 ) .... S j (t1 ) 1

V (t ) S (t ) S (t ) S (t ) .... S j (t2 ) 2
2 1 2 2 2 3 2
V (t3 ) = S1 (t3 ) S2 (t3 ) S3 (t3 ) .... S j (t3 ) . 3 (26)

.... .... .... .... .... .... ....
V (ti ) S1 (ti ) S2 (ti ) S3 (ti ) .... S j (ti ) j
with : j - number of finite elements in the search region,

i - number of time steps of electromagnetic field evaluation.
The terms of sensitivity matrix are derived from sensitivity equation (17). V
means the differences between the measured and actually simulated coil voltage.
Solving (26) as linear equations system the corrections to conductivity in finite
elements are obtained. It can be called quasi-Gauss-Newton algorithm. The process
is non-linear and must be repeated iteratively. In the case of poor convergence
truncated singular value decomposition of the sensitivity matrix is applied, as described
in [1]. The process starts with initial configuration, in our case with a conductivity
distribution without cracks. The search regions were applied with number of elements j
lower then the number of time steps i, so the equations system (26) was over-
determined. The excitation current had the shape of unit-step, so the solution (8) was
exploited. After each iteration the conductivity in search region was corrected with .
For the next iteration the sensitivity S was evaluated anew.
When the coil moves over the crack, number of equations i consists of number of
time steps multiplied by the number of coil positions (10 steps in examples below).
The examples below (Figs. 4, 5) show conductivity distribution inside tube wall
estimated after 15 iterations. The input data for assumed crack shape were taken not
from measurement, but from simulation utilizing the FEM-model with coarser
discretization. It gave the similar effect as a presence of noise provided by real
measurement. The original flaw had non-zero conductivity of = 0,1[MS/m]. The size
of test flaws is shown in Figs.4 and 5. The solutions were carried out using modified
vector potential u = Ar and cylindrical symmetry.
Figure 4. Rectangular flaw shape and conductivity distribution obtained after 15 iterations.
Figure 5. Skew flaw and conductivity distribution obtained after 15 iterations.

Conclusions
The drawback of numerical identification of flaws basing on sensitivity analysis is high

computation cost. Comparison of the semi-discrete method efficiency to classical FE-
TS shows, that despite of high demand for memory, the described method may
compete in relation to finite elements with the time stepping. Although in this work
only two-dimensional examples are presented, conclusions drawn above are directly
applicable to solution of three-dimensional models. The results of sensitivity evaluation
using semi-discrete method were validated comparing it to usual finite elements with
time stepping.
We obtained good convergence for simulated voltages of measurement coil. It has
to be pointed, that the convergence of numerical identification algorithm described in
this paper depends strongly on precise measurement of coil voltage (its time function).
The measurement has been simulated using finite element model with coarse
discretization. In the case of application of real measurement data the convergence of
identification process would be worse.
In future works the described method will be combined with space mapping
technique, described in [5] and successfully applied to defect characterization in [6].
References
[1] K. M. Gawrylczyk, M. Kugler, Time domain sensitivity analysis of electromagnetic quantities utilizing
FEM for the identification of material conductivity distributions, COMPEL, 25 (2006), 589 598.
[2] K. M. Gawrylczyk, M. Kugler, Semi discrete time domain sensitivity analysis of electromagnetic field,
COMPEL, 28 (2009), 1138 1348.
[3] R. Sridhar, R. Jagannathan, On the q analogues of the Zassenhaus formula for disentangling exponential
operators, Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics 160 (2003), 297 305.
[4] D. N. Dyck, D. A. Lowther, E. M. Freeman, A Method of Computing the Sensitivity of Electromagnetic
Quantities to Changes in Materials and Sources, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 30, No. 5
(1994), 3415 3418.
[5] J. W. Bandler, Q. S. Cheng, S. A. Dakroury, A. S. Mohamed, M. H. Bakr, K. Madsen, J. Sondergaard,
Space mapping: the state of the art, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol.52, 1
(2004), 337 361.
[6] R. K. Amineh, S. Koziel, N. K. Nikolova, J. W. Bandler, J. P. Reilly, A space mapping methodology for
defect characterization from magnetic flux leakage measurement, IEEE Transactions on magnetics, vol
44, 8 (2008), 2058 2065.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-71
Metamodel as Input of an Optimization

Algorithm for Solving an Inverse
Eddy-Current Testing Problem
Rmi DOUVENOT a,1 , Marc LAMBERT a and Dominique LESSELIER a
a
Dpartement de Recherche en lectromagntisme,
Laboratoire des Signaux et Systmes UMR 8506 (CNRS - SUPELEC - Univ Paris-Sud),
91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
Abstract A method to characterize defects by processing eddy current testing

(ECT) signals is presented. It works in a short time for generic defects and work
pieces. To retrieve the dimensions of a defect, a metamodel based Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) is considered. Indeed, using a metamodel as an input of a
stochastic method enables to signicantly speed it up. The metamodel is generated
using an adaptive database generation. Both tube and plate congurations, corre
sponding with either simulated or laboratory controlled measured data are consid
ered as illustration. Good accuracy and satisfactory speed of the method are exhib
ited, additional information besides the inversion results being provided as well,
which highlights possibly indeterminate cases, making the method useful also for
decision analysis.
Keywords. Eddy current testing, Metamodel based inversion, Particle swarm
optimization, Decision analysis
Introduction
Eddy-current testing (ECT) is a well-known non-destructive technique for defect detec-

tion in metal parts. Yet ECT signals can be used also to characterize a defect, beyond
mere detection. In the framework of the present study, a (quasi-)real-time method is
aimed at. This implies that there is strong a priori information about the tested workpiece
and the type of defects to be characterized. Previous efforts to reach this goal have fo-
cused on learning algorithms, with encouraging results as seen in [1,2]. To improve the
learning step, adaptive databases have been introduced [3].
Here, the adaptive databases are employed to create a metamodel, which is used as
an input of a Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). A fast stochastic inverse method is
then obtained. It is put to the test on a number of cases, involving synthetically generated
data and laboratory-controlled measured data, in both tube and plate congurations.
To create the metamodel, an adaptive database is generated, refer to [4]. This
database in practice concentrates a higher number of points where the output variations
are the fastest ones, with respect to those of the inputs. In so doing, all the variations of
1 Corresponding author e mail: remi.douvenot@lss.supelec.fr
72 R. Douvenot et al. / Metamodel as Input of an Optimization Algorithm
the outputs with relatively few points can be encompassed. This being made, a classical
radial basis function (RBF) interpolation [5] with a thin plate spline kernel function is
applied. The adaptive database interpolated by RBF is the metamodel that is used to feed
the stochastic inverse method.
The performances of the metamodel-based inversion method are illustrated for two
congurations, each corresponding to one benchmark: a circular tube workpiece affected
by groove defects (two parameters are to be retrieved) and a plate with parallelepiped de-
fects (three parameters are to be retrieved). For each conguration, the method is applied
on many simulated signals and a couple of measured data extracted from the benchmarks.
1. The metamodel-based PSO method
1.1. Forward problem solver
Let us assume that tests are performed on generic pieces. Constitutive materials and ge-
ometrical dimensions of both workpieces and probes are known, at a given frequency of
operation. The input parameters are the ones describing the defect inside the workpiece.
Then the response of the awed piece to the probe is computed via an integral volume
formulation (see for example [6]), and a variation of impedance is obtained as an output.
The CIVA simulation software [7] is used for this purpose. If P are the input parame-
ters and y is the measured or simulated output impedance, we denote y = L(P). Other
methods could obviously be preferred for carrying out the forward simulations. For our
purpose, the forward simulations are only used to generate the database.
1.2. Generation of the adaptive database
The aim of the adaptive database is to get, at the end, input parameter sets with equivalent
simulated output impedance variations, which are such that there exists a higher density
of inputs where the output variations are faster.
The database is created iteratively in order to achieve this goal. This adaptive
database generation is described in some more detail in [4]. First, a coarse mesh is gen-
erated. Then, at each edge of each simplex of the mesh, simulations are compared to
linearly interpolated data. If the interpolation error , dened below, is larger than a
prescribed stopping criterion, a node is added in the middle of the longest edge of the
simplex. An example of a 2D mesh is shown in Figure 1. The interpolation error is
expressed as
||y y||22
= (1)
||y||22
where y and y are the exact and the interpolated data, respectively.
Once all calculations have been performed, the database is a set (Pi , yi )i=1, ,N
where N is the size of the database, each vector P being of dimension D (number of
parameters to describe a defect), and each vector y being of dimension M (number of
measurement points for one conguration).
The generation of the adaptive database certainly is a crucial step for metamodel-
based optimization. Depending upon the formulation of the interpolation error, different
R. Douvenot et al. / Metamodel as Input of an Optimization Algorithm 73
Parameter 2
00 1
Parameter 1
Figure 1. Example of a 2D adaptive database.
behaviors of the interpolated data can be observed (a better accuracy on low or high
amplitude signals for instance) [8].
1.3. Interpolation of the database
The aim of interpolating the database is to create a metamodel. The operator L is ap-
proached via an expression depending on the data in the database, this involving little
computational effort compared to a forward ECT simulation.
Once the database has been created, an RBF interpolation is used to create the meta-
model. That is, when an input P is given, the output y can be approximated by the
quantity

N
y = L(P) = wi K(P, Pi ), (2)
i=1
where K is a so-called kernel function, and where the weights wi are computed dur-
ing a training step. In the following, the thin plate spline kernel function [9], which is
commonly used for interpolation, is chosen (Eq. 3). However, other kernels could be
preferred without stringent differences being expected.
The thin plate spline kernel can be expressed as

P1 P2 22 ln (P1 P2 2 ) if P1 =
P2
K(P1 , P2 ) = (3)
0 if P1 = P2
1.4. Stochastic optimization
The stochastic optimization is carried out by Balanced PSO [10] as a variant of the clas-
sical PSO method [11]. It is a metaheuristic based on swarm intelligence. Its principle
is that particles moving in the input space while sharing information can nd the global
minimum.
Having an impedance data y (the objective function), particles (usually about 20
[10]) are positioned in the input space with given initial speeds. For each one, a cost
function is calculated, and the particles are moved towards likelier positions. The parti-
cles share information with some of them (generally 3 or 4) to know which particle has
obtained the minimum cost function. Thus, the updated speeds of the particles depend
on their current speeds, weighted by an inertia w, on their best personal position, called
personal best p, and on the best position known by the particle, called social best s.
At iteration k, and along each dimension d [1, . . . , D], the positions x of the
particles are updated according to the formula:
vd (k + 1) = w vd (k) + r1 c1 (pd (k) xd (k)) + r2 c2 (sd (k) xd (k))

(4)
xd (k + 1) = xd (k) + vd (k + 1)
where r1 and r2 are uniformly chosen in [0,1] (independently on each dimension). w, c1 ,

and c2 are constants chosen following [11] (w = 0.7 or 1, randomly; c1 = c2 1.193).
The method is known to be relevant for solving nonlinear inverse problems [12], and
its balanced version, which is consisting in sending a particle around a local minimum
at each iteration, improves the compromise between exploration of the input space and
exploitation of the interesting areas [10].
Stochastic methods as PSO are expensive since they require many simulations of the
forward problem. With a metamodel to replace the simulation, the cost is signicantly
reduced and the method becomes relevant in view of almost real-time applications. Yet,
consequently, the accuracy of the optimization is directly related to the accuracy of the
metamodel.
One of the advantages of stochastic methods is also that the many cost function
evaluations to be performed can be used in order to localize areas of large likelihood,
which is useful to obtain a decision analysis tool.
2. Results on benchmark data
Results are discussed for two standard ECT congurations: a tube and a plate.
2.1. Tube workpiece
As rst conguration, a circular cylindrical non-magnetic tube has been chosen. It is

considered of innite extent along the tube axis. Its internal diameter is 19.68 mm and
the wall thickness is 1.27 mm. The test probe is made of a 70-wrapping emitting bobbin
of internal diameter 15.66 mm, thickness 0.67 mm, and length 2 mm, and of an identical
receiving bobbin which is placed at 0.5 mm of the emitting one. The impedance variation
is collected on a distance of 19 mm. This conguration is extracted from the 2008 ECT
benchmark that is discussed in [13].
To successfuly apply the presented inversion method, strong a priori information is
required. Here, the defect is assumed as being a circular notch with varying length and
depth. Its depth is taken between 10 and 90 % of the wall thickness, and its length is
taken between 0.1 and 10 mm. The defect can either open at the internal surface or the
external surface of the tube.
First, two databases are generated, one database per type of defect. Then, two meta-
models are generated. The inversion method is tested on 400 test cases randomly selected
(defect parameters) and synthetically generated (impedance variations): 200 internal de-
fects and 200 external defects. A metamodel-based PSO inversion is carried out on each
generated impedance variation. The inverted parameters are the likeliest ones obtained
with this inversion. The type of defect (internal or external) is assumed to be known, and
90 90
80 80
70 70
100 - Depth (%)
60
Depth (%)
60
50 50
40 40
30 30
PSO likelihood
20 PSO parameters 20
True parameters
10 10
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
Length (mm) Length (mm)
(a) GE40 (b) GI10
Figure 2. Results of the metamodel based PSO inversion on measured data GE40 and GI10.
the inverse problem reduces to a regression on two continuous parameters. The normal-
ized quadratic error q = (Pd Pd )2 /Pd2 is computed for each test case and is averaged
on the 200 test cases.
For the internal defects, the average normalized quadratic error q is 1.5 % for the
depth and 1.9 % for the length. For the external ducts, the error q is 0.6 % for the depth
and 0.5 % for the length. Since the metamodel is used as the input of the optimization
algorithm, these results are obtained in less than 2 seconds on a 3 GHz personal computer.
Two specic results are detailed. They are results on real data corresponding to this
conguration and given in [13]. Measurements are avaiable for two defects: GE40 is an
external defect with a 40 % depth, and GI10 is an internal defect with a 10 % depth.
Both have the same length of 1 mm. Figure 2 shows the results on these two sets of
measured data. Darker areas correspond to the likeliest parameter values, the lighter ones
to less likely parameter values. The approximation of the likelihood is obtained using
the computations carried out during the inversion. The circles correspond with the true
parameters of the defects, and the squares give the likeliest ones retrieved by PSO.
The approximation of the likelihood gives all the sets of parameters for which the
signal due to the reconstructed defect is close to the measured one (the darkest area).
Since different defects can lead to similar signals, comparing the measured signal with
the one due to the more likely defect is not relevant for the purpose of making a decision
analysis tool.
The results obtained by the metamodel-based PSO inversion with this congura-
tion appear very good in a reasonable time. The result obtained on GI10 is particularly
promising because it is a very low signal, harder to invert. Comparisons of this method
with support vector machines on this data can be found in [8].
2.2. Slab workpiece
As second conguration, a non-magnetic plate workpiece is considered, from the

COFREND benchmark [14]. Its width and length are considered innite, and its thick-
ness is 1.55 mm. The probe is a 328-wrapping bobbin of internal diameter 2 mm, thick-
80 80
100 - Depth (%)
100 - Depth (%)

60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
5 10 15 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Length (mm) Width (mm)
14
12
PSO likelihood 10
Length (mm)
PSO parameters
True parameters 8
6
Figure 3. Results of the metamodel based PSO inver
4
sion on measured data F5 (depth 100 %, length 2 mm,
and width 0.1 mm). 2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Width (mm)
ness 1.25 mm, and length 2 mm. The probe scans a 8 mm per 12 mm surface. The defect
position is assumed to be known, at the center of the scanned zone.
The defect is a rectangular notch with varying length, width, and depth. Its depth is
considered between 10 and 100 % of the tube thickness, its length is taken between 0.5
and 15 mm, and its width between 0.1 and 1 mm.
The average normalized quadratic error q is 0.6 % for the depth, 1.0 % for the width,
and 3.2 % for the length of the defect. These results are obtained with an average time of
5.5 s on the same computer as in section 2.1.
So, in general, the accuracy of the inversion is good. Two measurements correspond-
ing to this benchmark have been processed. F5 corresponds to a defect of depth 100 %,
length 2 mm, and width 0.1 mm. F7 corresponds to a defect of depth 40 %, length 10
mm, and width 0.1 mm. The two inverted results are displayed in Figures 3 and 4, re-
spectively. Both results are quite similar: the inverted parameters are acceptable yet not
perfectly retrieved. However, the true parameters are inside the likeliest areas. In par-
ticular, it is difcult to precisely decide upon the depth of crack F5 or upon the width
of the crack F7. These examples show how undetermined cases can be identied by the
inversion method.
If other inversions were to be carried out on the same data, and since a stochastic
inversion is non repeatable, slightly different results could be found (minimum of the
cost function). However, the likeliest area should be approximately the same. So, the
inversion tool is appropriate for decision analysis.
80 80
100 - Depth (%)
100 - Depth (%)

60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
5 10 15 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Length (mm) Width (mm)
14
12
PSO likelihood 10
Length (mm)
PSO parameters
True parameters 8
6
Figure 4. Results of the metamodel based PSO inver
4
sion on measured data F7 (depth 40 %, length 10 mm,
and width 0.1 mm). 2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Width (mm)
3. Conclusion
A metamodel-based optimization as a means to perform defect characterization by pro-

cessing ECT signals has been presented. Interesting results on both simulated and mea-
sured data have been shown. This method requires strong a priori information (work-
piece and global shape of the defect), but it can be applied to various problems. Defects
in a tube and a plate have been retrieved successfully. Moreover, the time necessary to
invert the data is reasonable and rather promising for on-site use. Let us note that this
tool is also able to retrieve the local minima of the cost function, which makes it suited
to decision analysis.
A representation of the data in a lower dimensional space (by principal component
analysis for instance) could speed up the RBF interpolation. More forward simulations
could then be performed in the stochastic method and the inversion could be improved.
Indeed, the more time devoted to the stochastic inversion, the more accurate the inver-
sion. But, the true challenge is to apply this type of methods to problems involving, say,
5 input parameters or more. Indeed, as the dimension is increased, the generation of an
accurate database requires more and more forward simulations, possibly far too many for
realistic use. In this case, other means in metamodel generations should be considered
[15].
Acknowledgements
The authors thank CEA (Commissariat lnergie Atomique) and the COFREND work-
ing group Eddy current modelization for providing the measured benchmark data.
References
[1] L. Udpa and S. Udpa. Eddy current defect characterization using neural networks. Mater. Eval., 48:342
347, 1990.
[2] A. Bernieri, L. Ferrigno, M. Laracca, and M. Molinara. Crack shape reconstruction in eddy current
testing using machine learning systems for regression. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 57:1958 1968,
2008.
[3] J. Pv and S. Gyimthy. Adaptive inversion database for electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation.
NDT & E Int., 40:192 202, April 2007.
[4] G. Franceschini, M. Lambert, and D. Lesselier. Generation of adaptive database results synthesis.
Technical report, Laboratoire des Signaux et Systmes, January 2009.
[5] M. D. Buhmann. Radial Basis Functions: Theory and Implementation. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 2003.
[6] J. R. Bowler, S. A. Jenkins, Sabbagh L. D., and Sabbagh H. A. Eddy current probe impedance due to
volumetric aw. J. Appl. Phys., 75:8128 8137, 1991.
[7] CIVA: State of the art simulation platform for NDE. available at http://www civa.cea.fr, accessed the
8th of June 2010.
[8] R. Douvenot, M. Lambert, and D. Lesselier. Particle optimization with metamodel for crack character
ization. In Proceedings of the 2010 URSI Electromagnetic Theory Symposium (EMTS 2010), 2010. 4
pp., to appear.
[9] F. L. Bookstein. Principal warps: Thin Plate Splines and the decomposition of deformations. IEEE
Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell., 11:567 585, 1989.
[10] M. Clerc. The mythical balance or when Particle Swarm Optimisation does not exploit. Unpublished, 6
pp., available at http://clerc.maurice.free.fr/pso/Balanced_PSO/Balanced_PSO.pdf, 2008.
[11] M. Clerc. Particle Swarm Optimization. ISTE, London, 2006.
[12] P. Rocca, M. Benedetti, M. Donelli, D. Franceschini, and A. Massa. Evolutionary optimization as
applied to inverse scattering problems. Inverse Problems, 25:123003, 2009. 41pp.
[13] C. Reboud, G. Pichenot, and S. Mahaut. 2008 ECT benchmark results: Modeling with CIVA of 3D
aws responses in planar and cylindrical workpieces. In 35th Annual Review of Progress in Quantitative
Nondestructive Evaluation (QNDE - 2008), Chicago, 20 25 july 2008. 8 pp.
[14] COFREND benchmark. available at http://www.cofrend.com/modelisationcf/GT_CF_COFREND_
GB. html, accessed the 8th of June 2010.
[15] R. R. Barton. Simulation optimization using metamodels. In Proceedings of the 2009 Winter Simulation
Conference, pages 230 238, Austin, TX, December 13 16 2009.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-79
Fast Multipole Method for 3D

Electromagnetic Boundary Integral
Equations. Application to Non Destructive
Testing on Complex 3D Geometries
Tekoing LIM a Gregoire PICHENOT a and Marc BONNET b
a
CEA-List, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
b
LMS, Ecole Polytechnique, 91120 Palaiseau, France
Abstract. The motivation of this work is to develop a computational treatment of

eddy current simulation applicable to complex 3D geometries. To this end, an ap-
proach based on surface integral equations and involving the homogeneous full-
space Greens function and dyad is developed. A Galerkin variant of the method of
moments, using bilinear basis functions, is employed for discretizing the surface in-
tegral equations, leading to a linear system. Solving the linear system using a direct
matrix solver is prohibitively expensive in computing time and memory resources.
This difculty is circumvented by using an iterative solver (typically GMRES) to-
gether with the Fast Multipole Method (FMM). The response of an eddy current
probe is nally expressed with the Auld reciprocity theorem.
Keywords. Fast Multipole Method, Surface Integral Equations, Method of Moments,
Singularity
Introduction
The response of an eddy current probe can currently be modelled in the CIVA non de-
structive testing (NDT) simulation platform (www-civa.cea.fr) by eddy current technique
(ECT) simulation for planar and cylindrical geometries. The developed ECT simulation
models are mainly based on the volume integral method using the dyadic Green formal-
ism, for which semi-analytical representations are known for canonical geometries. The
motivation of this work is to develop a treatment addressing complex 3D geometries (see
Figure 1(a)), which responds to real industrial interest. It aims at modelling the response
of an eddy current probe on complex, homogeneous and non-magnetic 3D geometries
affected by a aw (see Figure 1(b)).
1. The proposed approach
As a semi-analytical representation of the Green dyadic is unknown for complex 3D ge-

ometries, an alternative approach is developed. This approach involves the homogeneous
80 T. Lim et al. / Fast Multipole Method for 3D Electromagnetic Boundary Integral Equations
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Imaginary part of the surface density current J for f = 105 Hz and = 106 S/m (results for
1062 edges) and (b) a complex 3D geometry affected by a aw.
full-space Green function gki (r, r ) and dyad Gki (r, r ) where ki is the wavenumber in
vacuum (i = 0) or in the medium (i = 1). It is based on transmission conditions on the
surface of the object S given by
n0 E0 = n1 E1 and n0 H0 = n1 H1 on S, (1)
where a eld A is read A0 in vacuum, A1 in the medium (n1 = n0 is the normal on

S oriented toward the medium). Moreover it is convenient to decompose elds into their
incident and scattered parts according to
Ai Ainc
i = Ascat
i on S. (2)
Let M(r) and J(r) be the surface magnetic and electric densities of current dened by
M(r) = M1 (r) = n1 E1 (r) and J(r) = J1 (r) = n1 H1 (r),
the electric and magnetic scattered elds are given on S by the integral formulations

1
Escat (r) = n i M i (r) + gki (r, r ) Mi (r )dr
i
2 S
jk0 Gki (r, r ) Ji (r )dr
S (3)
1
Hscat (r) = Ji (r) ni gki (r, r ) Ji (r )dr
i
2 S
i
jk0 Gki (r, r ) Mi (r )dr
i S
with the Green function

e+jki |rr |
gki (r, r ) = ,
4|r r |
and the Green dyad

T. Lim et al. / Fast Multipole Method for 3D Electromagnetic Boundary Integral Equations 81
Figure 2. Surface discretization
1
Gki (r, r ) = [I + ]gki (r, r ).
ki2
We then insert (2) and (3) in the transmission conditions (1), and solve the problem for
M and J by employing a Galerkin variant of the method of moments [1].
1.1. Surface discritization
A surface discretization with bilinear quadrilateral nite elements is used (see Figure 2).
The surface currents are expressed as:

Nquad
M(r) Mq (rq )
q=1
where Mq is the value corresponding to the q-th quadrilateral and Nquad the number of
quadrilateral on S. On each element, the surface currents are expressed as:
4

Mq (rq ) = q
Mm fm (rq (u, v))
m=1
q
where Mm are the current values corresponding to the m-th local edge of each element
and fm (rq ) are the basis functions described as
1
f1 (rq (u, v)) = (1 + u)aqu (u, v)
JSq
1
f2 (rq (u, v)) = q (1 u)aqu (u, v)
JS
1
f3 (r (u, v)) = q (1 + v)aqv (u, v)
q
JS
1
f4 (r (u, v)) = q (1 v)aqv (u, v),
q
JS
au (u, v) and av (u, v) are units vectors expressed as

r(u, v) r(u, v)
au (u, v) = , av (u, v) = ,
u v
and where the surface Jacobian JS (u, v) is given by
JS = |au av |.
1.2. Solving the linear system
A Galerkin variant of the method of moments, using bilinear basis functions, is employed
for discretizing the surface integral equations, leading to the linear system, with matrix
Z and primary eld Minc (r) and Jinc (r).

M bM
Z = (4)
J bJ
Accurate 3D simulations of eddy currents may lead to a matrix Z of huge size (higher
than the capacity of a standard PC). Consequently, solving the linear system using a
direct matrix solver is prohibitively expensive in computing time and memory resources.
This difculty is circumvented with the use of an iterative solver (typically GMRES) to
nd the surface currents M(r) and J(r) by minimizing

M bM
Z J
J b
with the use of the Fast Multipole Method (FMM) [2], which accelerates the compu-
tation of products of the matrix Z with the surface currents [M(r) , J(r)] and which
avoid the explicit evaluation of the matrix Z. The response of an eddy current probe is
nally expressed with the Auld reciprocity theorem, which involves the electric current
M(r) and the magnetic current J(r). The FMM has been generally used for problems
with dielectric objects without attenuation. In this work, we are dealing with low fre-
quency electromagnetic problem and conductive regions, which are typical conditions
under which ECT are applied, for the application of FMM.
2. Fast Multipole Method
2.1. FMM algorithm
The FMM is based on the subdivision of the region of space containing S into cubic
clusters. The double integrals arising from the Galerkin discretization are then divided
into near interactions (involving pairs of adjacent clusters) and far interactions (involving
pairs of non-adjacent clusters). The former are computed using classic integral equation
methods, while the latter are computed using a multipole expansion of gk1 (r, r ) and
Gk1 (r, r ). On the basis of preliminary numerical tests, it has been found that the most
suitable FMM formulation in the medium (k1 ) for ECT application is the decomposition
in diagonal form given by
Figure 3. Fast Multipole principle

ejk1 R jk1
g(r, r ) = = ejk1 sOr T L (s, O O)ejk1 sr O ds, (5)
4R 16 2 |s|=1
where R = |r r |, O and O are the centers of two non-adjacent clusters and the

transfer function T L (s, O O) is dened in terms of the Legendre polynomials Pl and
the spherical Hankel functions of the rst kind hl by
(1)
T L (s, O O) =
(2l + 1)j l hl (k1 |O O|)Pl (s O O) (6)
0lL
2.1.1. Far clusters

The interactions between two clusters are schematically depicted in Figure 3. Starting
from the source cluster centered at O , the information on each sources element r
are concentrated at O by the operator F (r O ). Then informations dened at O are
transferred to the center O using the transfer function T L (s, O O). Finally, F (Or) dis-
patches informations from O to each element r in the observation cluster centered at O.
2.1.2. Near clusters

As the FMM is not valid for adjacent clusters, computation of the interactions in this
case need to be done explicitly. We need to pay attention of the singular behaviour of
Greens function involved in the treatment of near interactions. The Green function has
a singularity for r = r . But this divergence disappears while integrating the Green
function on the surface of the object, which is properly managed with adapted methods.
The Green function is rst split into a singular part and a regular part like

1 jk1 k12 jk13 2 k14 3
gk1 (r, r ) = + + + R R R + .
4R
4 2!4 3!4 4!4 (7)
singular part

regular part
Table 1. Gain of computation time of FMMs LF/HF compared to the explicit calculation for different values
of the wavenumber used in NDT applications
k = 525+525j k = 1664+1664j k = 3441+3441j k = 5256+5256j
FMM LF 50 x faster 8 x faster - -
FMM HF 50 x faster 20 x faster 10 x faster 4 x faster
The regular part is integrated using classical methods and integrations involving the sin-
gular part are performed using Duffy transformations [3].
2.2. Most suitable multipole expansion for NDT
Different multipole expansions exist, called High Frequency (HF) or diagonal form, and
Low Frequency (LF). As low frequency occurs in NDT applications, one might think
that the LF expansion is the most suitable multipole expansion. However, FMM has been
generally used for problems with a real wavenumber (dielectric object without attenu-
ation) whereas problems involve a complex wavenumber in NDT applications, due to
the conductivity of the object. Preliminary numerical tests have been done to evaluate
computing time with explicit calculation and FMMs HF/LF in NDT.
Comparison of computation time is shown for two far clusters with 100 elements
in each one. So 10,000 interactions have to be computed in explicit calculation and 201
interactions for FMM. Even if less interactions is needed with FMM, the time spent to
calculate the integration in Equation 5 has to be evaluated to compare the methods.
One can remark in Table 1 that the gain of computation time of FMM LF compared
to the explicit calculation is only signicant for low value of wavenumber. On the other
hand, the gain of computation time of FMM HF is signicant for almost all values of
wavenumber involved in NDT applications. So even if in NDT applications, we are deal-
ing with low frequency electromagnetic problem, the most suitable multipole expansion
for NDT is the expansion called HF (in the medium). It is possible to explain theoretically
this result by analysing the wavenumber expression with and without attenuation.
wavenumber expression with attenuation:
|k 2 | = | 2 0 (0 + j/)| 0
wavenumber expression without attenuation:
k 2 = 2 0 0
For example, in NDT applications using low frequency, for = 0.7 MS/m and f =
100kHz, we have
|k 2 | = 5.5 105 .
But in comparison, without attenuation, we need f = 35GHz to get the same value of
|k 2 |. Thats why HF expansion is the most suitable multipole expansion for NDT (low
frequency electromagnetic problem but with conductive regions). A rst study has been
done to dene the conditions under which the calculation FMM works properly in the
NDT applications. For example, gure 4 shows the accuracy of the FMM HF expansion
as a function of the truncation level L and the integer Q (such that the integration over
the unit sphere appearing in (5) is effected using (Q + 1)(2Q + 1) quadrature points),
Figure 4. Accuracy of the FMM HF expansion based on L and Q for k1 = 1662 + 1662jm1 and centers
of far clusters distance of 2a with a = 102 m
for k1 = 1662 + 1662jm1 and centers of far clusters distance of 2a with a = 102 m.
The recommended truncation level is
Lopt = 0.55(real(L) + imag(L))

with L = 3k1 a + 7.5 log10 ( 3k1 a + ), with Q then chosen as
Qopt = 1.5Lopt .
3. Preliminary Validation Tests
Preliminary tests have been done on planar geometries (see Figure 5) and curved ge-
ometries (see Figure 6 depicting the computed distribution of the current density J on a
cylindrical sample). The response of an eddy current probe in the presence of a complex
object affected or not by a aw, leads to the computation of the variation of impedance
Z of the probe in the presence of the object:
Z = Z0 + Z,
where Z0 is the impedance of the probe in free space (i.e. in the absence of the object).
Figure 5. Conguration for the validation tests on planar geometries

Figure 6. Computed distribution of current density J on a cylindrical sample
For canonical geometries, for example a plate, it is possible to calculate this variation
of impedance with the Dodd and Deeds approach [4] or by using the Auld reciprocity
theorem [5] once the linear system (4) is solved for J and M:

I 2 Z = J E0 M H0 ds. (8)
S
The equivalence of the two approaches has been numericaly checked by expressing
surface currents J and M and primary eld E0 and H0 on the surface of the object with
Dodd and Deeds calculation. Therefore, Equation 8 can be used since the linear system
(Equation 4) has been resolved.
Conclusion and perspectives
In this paper, we report a modelling study aiming at simulating the response of an eddy
current probe on complex, homogeneous and non-magnetic 3D geometry affected by a
aw. The Galerkin variant of the method of moments is employed for the surface integral
equations with bilinear basis functions to solve the linear system (Eq. 4) by using an
iterative solver together with the Fast Multipole Method. Preliminary validation tests
have been done on planar geometries. Numerical validations on canonical geometries
are in progress by comparison with CIVAs results. Ongoing work concerns also the
extension of the approach in order to take into account a contrast of conductivity inside
the defect.
References
[1] B. C. Usner, K. Sertel, M. A. Carr and J. L. Volakis, Generalized Volume-Surface Integral Equation for
Modeling Inhomogeneities With High Contrast Composite Structures, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.,
Vol. 54, No. 1, Jan. 2006
[2] G. Sylvand, La mthode multiple rapide en lectromagntisme: Performances, Paralllisation, Appli-
cations, PhD Student, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses, Juin 2002.
[3] J. DEla, L. Battaglia and M. A.Storti, Full Nulmerical Quadrature in Galerkin Boundary element
methods, CIMEC, INTEC, CONICET, 2008.
[4] C.V Dodd, W.E. Deeds and J.W. Luquire, Integral Solutions to some Eddy Current Problems, Interna-
tional Journal of Nondestructive Testing, Vol.1, pp. 29-90, 1969.
[5] B.A. Auld, F.G. Muennemann and M. Riaziat, Quantitative Modelling of Flaw Responses in Eddy Cur-
rent Testing, Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 7, 1984.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-87
Computation of the magnetostatic eld in

nonlinear media via the integral equation
formalism:
Application to the characterization of
Magnetic Flux Leakage NDT system
Emna Amira FNAIECH a Denis PRMEL a,1 , Claude MARCHAND b and
Bernard BISIAUX c
a
CEA, LIST, Laboratoire Simulation et Modlisation, PC 120, F-91191, Gif sur Yvette
Cdex, France
b
Laboratoire de Gnie Electrique de Paris (LGEP), CNRS-Suplec (UMR 8507),
Gif-sur-Yvette, France
c
VRA - Vallourec Research Aulnoye, Aulnoye-Aymeries, France
Abstract. This paper deals with the development of a fast numerical semi-
analytical model dedicated to the simulation of the non-destructive testing of fer-
romagnetic tubes by using the magnetic ux leakage method(MFL). Taking into
account the characteristic of the ferromagnetic material, the B-H curve, the numer-
ical model is based on the generalized boundary element method which implies
the evaluation of two magnetic ctitious scalar densities. Integral equations are dis-
cretized via the Galerkins method and the particularity of this paper lies in the
implementation of high order basis functions for the interpolation of the scalar un-
knowns. Simulated data provided by the numerical model are compared to FE data
in order to show the validity of the numerical approach.
Keywords. NDT by magnetic ux leakage, Magnetostatic regime, Nonlinear
media, Galerkins method, High order basis functions.
Introduction
The detection of aws in steel pipes by using the magnetic ux leakage technique con-
sists in magnetizing the pipe and due to the presence of a defect, a fraction of the ux
lines leaks from the pipes wall in the air inside or outside the pipe. This leakage ux
is detected by a magnetic sensor or an induction coil. In the Vallourec group, a world
leader manufacturer of steel pipes, most of NDT units use MFL for testing ferromag-
netic pipes. In order to improve the performances of aw detection, specically for inner
aws, the CEA LIST and the Vallourec Research Aulnoye (VRA) are aiming to develop
1 Corresponding Author: Denis Prmel, CEA LIST; E-mail: denis.premel@cea.fr
88 E.A. Fnaiech et al. / Computation of the Magnetostatic Field in Nonlinear Media
a fast 3D numerical model for the simulation of MFL systems. In a rst step, the frame-
work addresses an experimental system specically dedicated to the detection of longi-
tudinal aws. A simplied 2D geometry derived from the second magnetic MFL bench-
mark problem proposed by the World Federation of NDE centers [1] has been previously
studied [2] considering a linear regime. This means that at low magnetization, the ferro-
magnetic material behaves like a linear material. In this case, the semi-analytical model
based on the boundary element method (BEM) has been implemented and numerically
validated. This preliminary work could give satisfaction for linear model but we truly
aim to improve the capabilities of detection for different kinds of defects. For the detec-
tion of external defect, a low level of magnetization is usually sufcient but in order to
detect an inner defect or buried defects, we have observed that it is preferable to increase
signicantly the level of magnetization [2]. In this case, the main difculty in the compu-
tation of the magnetostatic eld within the pipe of ferromagnetic material lies in the non-
linearity of the B-H curve characterizing the material constituting the magnetizing cir-
cuit and the pipe. Each material can also be characterized by its own specic B-H curve.
The framework of this present work consists in extending the rst semi-analytical model
for computing the magnetostatic eld in the pipe considering the non-linear regime. For
solving a non-linear magnetostatic problem, the generalized boundary element method
(BEMG) is widely used since the statement of the problem is determined by two equiv-
alent scalar potentials: the surface charge density and the volume charge density [3,4,5].
This numerical approach has the capability to compute the response of an arbitrary de-
fect in the pipe. Nevertheless, this paper is focused on the numerical validation of the
semi-analytical model in the non-linear regime and without any aw.
1. Integral Equation Formalism
Let us consider some nite domain occupying a nite volume V , bounded by a surface
S and made of a ferromagnetic material. The non-linear problem is considered: the B-H
curve associated to the material is introduced in the model. r (r) stands for the rela-
tive permeability. Some encircling coils generate a source magnetic eld Hs which can
be calculated by using Biot-Savart law [6]. The total magnetic eld is splitted into the
sum of the source eld and the unknown induced eld produced by ferromagnetic re-
gions: H(r) = Hs (r) + Hi (r). The total eld is related to the magnetization vector
M(r) = (r 1) H(r). The resolution of the modeling problem amounts to determine
the induced eld Hi (r) produced by ctitious magnetic sources. The estimation of the
surface and volume magnetic charges is performed by using the extended boundary el-
ement method implying boundary (surface in 3D) elements and surface (volume in 3D)
elements. This approach is briey described in the following section.
The development, based on Maxwells equations and satisfying the condition
B = 0, leads to a system of two equations combining a surface integral equation and
a volume integral equation [4]. The forward problem consists in evaluating two scalar
functions: the surface charge density denoted by (r) = M(r) n(r) and the volume
charge density denoted by (r) = M(r). When solving the non-linear case, the
surface charge density does not vary signicantly compared to the linear case, so the
convergence of the iterative process cannot be reached. To overcome this problem, it is
necessary to solve the forward problem in two steps. The rst one consists in assuming
E.A. Fnaiech et al. / Computation of the Magnetostatic Field in Nonlinear Media 89
that the magnetic permeability is innite in such a way that the volume charges density
disappears. In this case, the surface charge density denoted by must be computed as
follows:

1
(r) + n G(r, r ) (r ) ds = n(r) Hs (r) (1)
2 S
with the normal vector n(r) pointing outwards from the volume V , G(r, r ) denotes the
Greens function in the free space and n G is dened by n G(r, r ) = n(r)G(r, r ).
Then, in the non-linear case, we consider that the total surface charge density results
from the addition of (r) and a correction term such as:
(r) = (r) + (r) (2)
A new system of two coupled integral equations leads to the computation of the differ-
ence surface charge and the volume charges density :

(r)
+ n G(r, r ) (r ) ds +
2(r) S

(r) 1
n G(r, r )(r ) d = (r) (3)
V 2(r)

(r) + ln(r (r)) G(r, r )((r ) + (r )) ds +
S

ln(r (r)) G(r, r ) (r ) d = lnr (r) Hs (r) (4)
V
r (r)1
is dened by (r) = r (r)+1 . Then, the total induced magnetic eld is given by:

Hi (r) = G(r, r ) (r ) ds + G(r, r ) (r ) d (5)
S V
The two coupled equations (4) and the observation equation (5) need to be discretized in
order to solve numerically the forward problem.
2. 2D Implementation and discretization
2.1. Geometric discretization
Before starting to solve the 3D problem, we chose to study the 2D model. The rst step
involves approximating the geometry by an appropriate mesh which leads to the dis-
cretization of the integral equations. Each contour of the piece is divided into curvilinear
elements and each surface is approximated by a number of quadrilateral elements (with
8 or 9 nodes). So, the coordinates of any point on each curvilinear segment (quadrilateral
element) are dened from the coordinates of the nodes using the shape functions:
n
n

x= xi Ni (), y= yi Ni () for curvilinear elements (6)
i=1 i=1
nq nq

x= xi Ni (, ), y= yi Ni (, ) for quadrilateral elements (7)
i=1 i=1
where Ni (), Nqi () are the shape functions usually used in Finite Element Methods. n
and nq are respectively the number of nodes associated to each curvilinear element and
to each quadrilateral element.
2.2. The choice of basis functions
The unknowns of the problem, the surface charge density and the volume charge density
translated into the 2D problem, are interpolated by using a set of basis functions. Two
interpolation techniques are implemented: the rst one uses isoparametric elements and
the second one is based on higher-order basis functions.
2.2.1. Isoparametric elements

The discretization of integral equations by using isoparametric elements involves using
similar functions for the approximation of the geometry and for the interpolation of the
unknowns. The two unknown scalar functions are expressed as:
n nq

(r) = i Ni (), (r) = i Ni (, ) (8)
i=1 i=1
For this description, the number of unknowns i (i ) corresponds to the number of nodes
dening the contour (the surface).
2.2.2. Higher-order basis functions

The second interpolation technique is based on the use of basis functions of high order.
The two unknowns of the problem are expressed in series of Legendre polynomials of
higher order whith the following development:
M M q Nq

(r) = m Cm Pm (), (r) = mn Cm Pm ()Cn Pn () (9)
m=0 m=0 n=0
where M , (Mq and Nq ) are respectively the order of Legendre polynomials used for the
description of the density on an elementary curvilinear element and for the description
of the density on one elementary quadrilateral element. Pm (), Pn () are respectively
the Legendre polynomials and the Legendre polynomials modied [7], Cm and Cn are
some scaling factors. The total number of unknowns (the number of coefcients m ) is
equal to (M + 1) Ne where Ne is the number of curvilinear elements describing the
contour of the ferromagnetic region. The number of unknowns (the number of coef-
cients mn ) is equal to (Mq + 1) (Nq + 1) Neq where Neq is the number of elements
dening the surface of the ferromagnetic domain.
These two techniques of interpolation are compared in the following in order to test
their efciency and we expect to reduce the computation time and the memory space
with high order basis functions.
2.3. The matrix system
To avoid the difculty to dene the surface charge density at any point of the mesh, we
have used the Galerkin method. The matrix system is nally obtained by:

A A b
= (10)
A A g
with

fi (r)
A = fi (r) + fj (r)n G(r, r )dk de (11)
e 2(r) k

A = fi (r) fqj (r)n G(r, r )dSk de (12)
e Sk

A = fqi (r) fj (r)lnr (r) G(r, r )dk dSe (13)
Se k

A = fqi (r) fqi (r) + fqj (r)lnr (r) G(r, r )dSk dSe (14)
Se Sk

(r) 1
b= fi (r) (r)de (15)
e 2(r)

g= fqi (r) lnr (r) Hs (r) + (r )lnr (r) G(r, r )dk dSe
Se k
(16)
where f and fq denote respectively the basis functions associated to contours and the ba-
sis functions associated to surfaces, e and k denote respectively the indices of the obser-
vation element and the source element. If we use isoparametric elements, the shape basis
functions fi and fj are associated to the nodes indexed respectively i and j. If we use
higher order basis functions, the indexes i and j stand for the order of Legendre polyno-
mial series. Due to the fact that the magnetic relative permeability depends on the local
intensity of the magnetic eld, this matrix system is solved iteratively. At each iteration,
the magnitude of the magnetic eld is evaluated in each quadrilateral element consider-
ing a number of observation points. Then, the gradient of the logarithm of the magnetic
relative permeability is deduced numerically by using spline interpolation functions.
3. Numerical validation
3.1. System
The implemented numerical model can be rstly validated by considering a simplied

geometry without any geometric corner. Let us consider a ferromagnetic pipe which is
magnetized by two coils driven by a constant current. The material of the tube being
ferromagnetic, the B-H curve of the ST37 steel, represented in Figure 1(b), has been in-
troduced into the iterative process. A 2D view of this simplied geometry is displayed in
Figure 1(a). The geometry is assumed to be innite along the transverse axis perpendic-
ular to the plane of the gure. Two kinds of simulated experiments are conducted. For
(a) System studied (b) Tube ST37
Figure 1. Conguration and ferromagnetic material used
the rst one, we aim to validate the numerical results provided by the semi-analytical
model and other simulated ones obtained by using a nite element software. The second
numerical experiment aims at highlighting the interest of the use of higher order basis
functions rather than the use of shape basis functions of second order.
3.2. A comparison between IEM - FEM data
The mesh of the tube contains a total number of elements equal to Neq = 200. The
inner radius of the tube is Rin = 48 mm and the outer radius of the tube is Rout = 88
mm. The current density driving the two coils is xed at Js = 1.1 105 A/m2 . This level
of magnetization allows one to go beyond the linear part of the B-H curve. Keep in
mind that in this numerical experiment, the unknown scalar functions are interpolated by
using isoparametric elements. The radial component and the tangential component of the
magnetic eld are computed on a circumferential line, outside the tube with a distance
of 2 mm from the outer surface. The angle of each computation point varies from 45 to
135 . All simulated data are compared in Figure 2(a) and 2(b).
Figure 3(a) displays a cartography of the intensity of the magnetic ux density inside
the tube. Figure 3(b) extracts some specic values on a radial line at = 60 from
R = 47.5 mm to R = 87.5 mm.
The good agreement between simulated data shows the numerical validity of the
semi-analytical proposed model. In the following, we look for the improvement of the
accuracy of the numerical model by using higher order basis functions.
(a) Hr (b) H
Figure 2. The radial and the tangential components of the magnetic eld provided by FEM and IEM.
(a) A cartography of |B| (b) An extracted radial line at = 60
Figure 3. Magnitude of the magnetic ux density inside the tube.
3.3. The interest of higher-order basis functions
In any geometry which contains a geometric corner, we expect to observe very huge
variations of the eld at the vicinity of the corner [8]. In such a situation, it is required
to rene the mesh around the corner but in this case, the number of unknowns can grow
up strongly. This seems to be very harmful for the computational time and the mem-
ory space. In order to give a better approximation of theses variations, we preferably
choose to use higher order basis functions, keeping in mind that the geometry remains
well approximated with a coarse mesh. In order to show the interest in the increasing of
order, a coarse mesh with Neq = 75 is applied for both interpolations techniques (shape
functions of second order and high order functions). Some reference numerical results
are nevertheless obtained with a ne mesh with shape functions of second order. Fig-
ure 4(a) and Figure 4(b) show the radial and the tangential components of the magnetic
eld along a radial line inside the tube and located at = 60 .
These numerical results show really the interest of high order basis function. Indeed,
this interpolation method provides better capabilities for representing the local variations
of the eld without the need of a rene mesh.
(a) Hr (b) H
Figure 4. The radial and the tangential components of the magnetic eld: A comparison between numerical
results obtained by shape functions of second order and by higher order basis functions.
4. Conclusions and perspectives
This paper is focused on the development of a 2D numerical model for solving a spe-
cic non-linear magnetostatic problem dedicated to NDT MFL systems. First numerical
results show a good agreement between IE data provided by the semi-analytical model
and FE data. Two semi analytical numerical models based on two different techniques
of interpolation have been implemented. Thus, the advantage of using high order basis
functions is clearly illustrated. It seems to be necessary to build up a ne mesh for ap-
proximating with a good accuracy the complex geometry and to ensure a good evalua-
tion of the unknown scalar densities, implicitly the intensity of the magnetic eld, it is
interesting to obtain a better description of the unknowns with high order basis functions.
Thanks to this numerical approach, any B-H curve can be introduced since we solve the
non linear problem by an iterative procedure. In order to pursue this work, specic nu-
merical problems due to numerical singularities remain to overcome. Moreover, we hope
to give a better approximation of more complex geometries without using a ne mesh
but by using Non-Uniform Rational Basis Splines NURBS. In close future work, we
aim to simulate the second magnetic MFL benchmark problem, a specic NDT system
proposed by the World Federation of NDE centers [1].
References
[1] Z. Zeng, Y. Tian and S. Udpa, "Finite Element Modeling of the World Federations Second MFL Bench-
mark Problem", Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, 23(700), (2004), 1553
1559.
[2] EA. Fnaiech, D. Prmel, C. Marchand and B. Bisiaux, "A fast numerical model for predicting magnetic
ux leakage signals due to defects in a steel pipe by using an integral equation approach", Proceedings
of the 8th International Symposium on Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF2009)
[3] B. Krstajic, Z. Andelic, S. Milojkovic, S. Babic, and S. Salon, "Nonlinear 3D magnetostatic eld calcu-
lation by the integral equation method with surface and volume magnetic charges". IEEE Transactions
on Magnetics, 28(2), (1992),10881091.
[4] W. Haa, A. Buchau, F. Groh and W.M. Rucker, "Efcient integral equation method for the solution of
3D Magnetostatic problems". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, 41, (2005), 14081411.
[5] J. McWhirter, J. Oravec, and R. Haack, "Computation of magnetostatic elds in three-dimensions based
on fredholm integral equations", IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, 18, (1982), 373378.
[6] I.R. Ciric, "Surface source models and formulas for the magnetic eld of polygonal cross section con-
ductors". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, 24(6), (1988), 31323134.
[7] E. Jorgensen, J L. Volakis, P. Meincke, "Higher order hierarchical legendre basis functions for electro-
magnetic modeling", IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, 52(11),(2004), 29852995.
[8] F. Groh, W. Haa, A. Buchau and W.M. Rucker, "Field strength compuation at edges in nonlinear mag-
netisatics", The international Journal for Computation and Mathematics in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, 23(3),(2004),662669.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-96
Efcient computation of eddy current

crack signals
Theodoros THEODOULIDIS 1
University of Western Macedonia, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Greece
Abstract. In simulations of eddy current inspections using the boundary element

method (BEM) is is often the case that the calculation of the system matrix car-
ries the largest computational cost. This matrix calculation typically makes use of a
Greens function expressed as a Fourier integral. The present study has aimed to re-
duce the computational cost by adopting an alternative approach for the rapid com-
putation of the Greens function in the spatial domain. This is possible by employ-
ing Sommerfeld integral expressions and by approximating them in terms of dis-
crete complex images. Theoretical results are compared to both benchmark exper-
imental data for a semi-elliptical crack and to numerical data from a nite element
commercial package. Agreement is excellent over a wide frequency range.
Keywords. Eddy current testing, crack modelling, Sommerfeld Integrals, Discrete
Complex Image Method, Boundary Element Method
Introduction
In the application of the Volume Integral Method (VIM) for the simulation of eddy cur-
rent defect inspections we employ the following integral equation for the calculation of
the electric eld in the presence of a void defect embedded in a multilayered conductive
half-space [1]

E(r) = E(0) (r) + i0 G(r|r ) p(r )dr (1)
V0
where E(r) is the electric eld with the defect present, E(0) (r) is the electric eld with
the defect absent (incident eld), G(r|r ) is the electric-electric dyadic Greens function
dened as the eld response to a unit point source (electric dipole), p(r ) is the unknown
electric dipole density, V0 is the defect volume and primed and non-primed position
vectors refer to source and eld points respectively.
When, however, the defect has the form of a crack, the very narrow crack opening
can make the use of (1) somewhat problematic because a dense discretization is required
across the gap in order to get accurate results. The situation is even worse in the limit of
a vanishing gap which describes the ideal crack case, when the crack is represented by
just a surface impenetrable to the eddy current ow. In such a case of a narrow or ideal
1 Corresponding Author: Theodoros Theodoulidis, University of Western Macedonia, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Bakola & Sialvera, 50100 Kozani, Greece; E-mail: theodoul@uowm.gr.
T. Theodoulidis / Efcient Computation of Eddy Current Crack Signals 97
crack, instead of using (1), we can replace it with a simpler integral equation if we take
into account the very fact that at the crack surface the normal component of the eddy
current density vanishes. After imposing this condition we obtain [2]

Jn(0) (r ) = k 2 Gnn (r |r )p(r )dS (2)
S0
where S0 is the crack surface and subscript n denotes the direction normal to the crack
surface. Since the discretization of the crack is reduced from a volume to a surface, the
BEM is used instead of VIM. The model based on the solution of (2) has been recently
developed to achieve high computational efciency. In [3], where a literature review of
research work regarding the model is presented, further improvements are suggested on
the original numerical scheme in [2] regarding computation of the incident eld, Greens
function computation and singularity treatment. In [4], an alternative approach is sug-
gested for the Greens functions computation and for the simulation of cracks with shapes
other than rectangular. During all these developments, the computation of the Greens
function, i.e. the Greens function matrix ll time was identied as the bottleneck in the
calculations. In the present work, we study the subject from a different perspective and
compute these functions in the spatial domain. This is possible by employing the Dis-
crete Complex Image Method (DCIM) which in turn is based on the efcient evaluation
of the Sommerfeld integrals. The method employs the Generalized Pencil of Function
(GPOF) method to approximate the Sommerfeld integral expression for the kernel with
a series of complex exponential functions and hence cast them in closed form [5], [6].
This is similar to the method presented in [4] but with a basic difference that will be
explained later. Results are provided for a semi-elliptical crack and they are compared to
benchmark experimental results. The same conguration is also modelled with a numeri-
cal method (a 3D-FEM commercial package) in order to identify the differences between
the two methods.
1. Greens function
Consider Figure 1 which shows a cylindrical coil above a narrow slot in a homogeneous
conductive and non-magnetic half-space. The coil is excited by a time harmonic current
varying as the real part of I exp(it). The crack surface is discretized in small rectan-
gular elements and a constant dipole density is assumed over each element. The constant
dipole density is equivalent to representing the dipole distribution with pulse functions.
The integral equation is then transformed to a linear system of equations by imposing the
vanishing current constraint at the middle points of the elements, which is the denition
of point matching and is equivalent to the use of delta functions as testing functions. The
solution of the integral equation (2) yields the dipole density on the crack surface, which
acts as a secondary eddy current source. This source determines the coil impedance due
to the crack. By using a reciprocity relation, we can calculate directly the crack signal
(impedance change due to the crack) through [2]

1
Z = 2 Jx(0) p dV0 (3)
I
V0
98 T. Theodoulidis / Efcient Computation of Eddy Current Crack Signals
Coil
y
x
Crack x
Figure 1. Coil above a narrow crack in a conductive half-space.
where is the half-space conductivity. In this paper we are interested in the calculation
of the term Gxx used in (2) by nding the x-component of the electric eld produced
in the half-space by an elementary electric dipole oriented also in the x-direction. The
Greens function consists of two parts.
Gxx = G(s) (r)

xx + Gxx (4)
(s) (r)
where Gxx is the part that arises in the unbounded space and Gxx is the part arising from
the air-conductor interface. The calculation of (4) has to be done for each combination
of source and eld cells that comprise the grid of the discretized crack. Hence, in each
case Gxx accounts for the interaction between the cells. The source part is given directly
in the spatial domain by

2 eikR
G(s) = k 2
+ (5)
xx
x2 4R

with R = (x x )2 + (y y )2 + (z z )2 , while the expression for the x-
component of the reected electric eld produced by an electric dipole, in Cartesian
coordinates, is as follows [3], [7]

1 e(z+z ) 2 2
G(r) = k v u ei[u(xx )+v(yy )] dudv (6)
2 2
xx
4 2 2 +

with = u2 + v 2 and = 2 k 2 . Both expressions (5) and (6) have to be inte-
grated over the source volume, i.e. over x , y , z to determine the matrix used in nding
a numerical solution. The advantage of (6) is that it allows analytical integration over the
source cell dimensions but it has the disadvantage that a double improper integral has to
be computed for each matrix element. The method proposed in [3] was to approximate
(6) by Fourier series.
1.1. Discrete Complex Image Method
Nevertheless, an extensive search in the literature of Greens function computations

shows that it can be computed rapidly and accurately in the spatial domain. In this case
we use a cylindrical coordinate system (, , z) centered on the eld point and express
(r)
Gxx in the following form [3], [7], which uses Sommerfeld type integrals.

k2 1
G(r) = e(z+z ) J0 () d
xx
4 +
0

cos2 2 2
+ e(z+z ) J0 () d
4
0

sin2 cos2 2 2
+ e(z+z ) J1 () d (7)
4
0
where Jn denotes the n order Bessel function. Eq.(7) has to be integrated over the source
cell volume. In particular, the integration over the z-dimension of the source cell, i.e.
over z , can be done analytically. Assuming a cell of z extent we obtain

k2 1 z
G(r)
xx dz

= sinh e(z+z ) J0 () d
2 + 2
0

cos2 2 2 z
+ sinh e(z+z ) J0 () d (8)
2 2
0

sin2 cos2 2 2 z
) 1
+ sinh e(z+z J1 () d
2 2
0
Now we seek an analytical calculation of the above integrals. For that we utilize the
following identities

z eikR
e J0 () d = (9)
R
0

1 z eikR eikz
e J1 () d = (10)
ik
0
with z 0. By approximating the bracketed terms with exponentials of the complex

variable

1 z
sinh = c1,n es1,n (11)
+ 2 n

2 2 z
sinh = c2,n es2,n (12)
2 n
we end up with a closed form expression for the reected part of the Greens function

k2 eikR1,n cos2 eikR2,n
G(r)
xx dz c1,n + c2,n
2 n R1,n 2 n
R2,n
sin2 cos2 eikR2,n eikz2,n

+ c2,n (13)
2 n
ik
!
where zj,n = z + z + sj,n and Rj,n = 2 + zj,n 2 . The reason for calling the method
Discrete Complex Image is now obvious. The Greens function consists of images lo-
cated at a complex distance Rj,n (compare to (5)). Eq.(13) has to be integrated over the
x and y-directions. This can be done numerically or even analytically if rst the term
eikR2,n /Rn is Taylor expanded as an m-th degree polynomial in Rn . Such an approach
is followed in [8] and leads to considerable time saving. The error introduced with such
an expansion is given by a closed-form expression depending on the approximating poly-
nomial degree and the ratio of the cell dimensions and thus it is controlled by the number
of terms in the Taylor series. In our case, having set x = y = 0 (eld point
at the center
of the cylindrical coordinate system), we make the substitution = x 2 + y 2 and
= arctan (y /x ) and integrate numerically (13) in order to obtain Gxx for (2).
The approximation in (11)-(12) is possible with the GPOF algorithm [5]. Note that
the algorithm has to be performed in each equation just once since it does not depend
on the specic distance between the source and the eld cells. In [4], the GPOF algo-
rithm was used for approximating the Sommerfeld integral kernel with exponentials of
the real variable. Such an approach results in an expression that can be evaluated ana-
lytically over the volume of the source cell but it requires multiple GPOFs for each z + z
combinations. This is the basic difference of the present approach and the one in [4].
2. Results
Here we present results for a benchmark problem described in [9]. A coil is moved
above and along a semi-elliptical crack and the impedance change due to the crack (real
and imaginary part) is recorded with respect to the coil position. The semi-elliptical
notch has length 22.1 mm, max depth 8.61 mm and width 0.33 mm. The host material
is Aluminum with conductivity 22.5 MS/m. The cylindrical coil has inner radius 2.51
mm, outer radius 7.38 mm, height 4.99 mm, 4000 wire-turns and lift-off 0.491mm. The
signals are presented for 16 frequencies that cover a wide range from the very low to the
very high. In order to present them all in a common diagram, they are all normalized to
the isolated coil inductive reactance X0 = L0 with a theoretical value of L0 =100.47
mH and an experimental one L0 =100.45 mH. The term low and high frequency is
dened by the crack depth to skin depth ratio. For example at 50 kHz this ratio is 18.15
and the case is dened as a thin-skin limit case or a high frequency case.
Fig.2 compares the normalized complex impedance plane crack signals obtained
from the BEM model to experimental data and also to numerical results from a 3D-FEM
0.035
0.03 f [Hz]
250
356
0.025 507
721
1027
1462
0.02
2081
2963
4218
0
X/X
0.015 6006
8550
12172
0.01 17329
24670
35121
50000
0.005
0.005
0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0.005 0.01
R/X 0
Figure 2. Impedance plane crack signals for the 16 frequencies shown on the right of the diagram. Comparison
of theoretical BEM (lines) to experimental (dots) and FEM (circles) results.
calculation [10]. Excellent agreement is observed at all frequencies. Computation time

was about 11 hours for the FEM (31 coil positions and 16 frequencies from 250 Hz to
50 kHz) and 20 seconds for the BEM with a quad-core I7 processor, 16 GB memory
computer. Computation times for the different parts of the calculation were provided
in [4]. The computation time for FEM increases linearly with the coil positions in contrast
to BEM where the time does not depend on this factor. The BEM computation time on
the other hand depends on the frequency since higher frequencies require a denser grid
for the discretized crack. For the FEM the same grid was used for every frequency with
good results.
3. Conclusions
We have presented a method for rapidly computing the Greens function matrix, which is
the slowest part in the computation of crack signals via method of moments. Impedance
predictions compare very well to experimental measurements as well as to FEM calcu-
lations. There are many ways to further extend the scope of the model. For example, it
can incorporate various coil types or coils under conditions of tilt [11], since their effect
enters through only the incident eld.
Acknowledgements
The work is funded by CEA LIST in the framework of the collaborative project CIVA-
MONT 2012.
References
[1] S. Paillard, G. Pichenot., M. Lambert and H. Voillaume, Eddy current modelling for inspection of riveted
structures in aeronautics, Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (X), S. Takahashi and H. Kikuchi
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-103
Experimental Validation of a Fast

Non-Iterative Imaging Algorithm for
Eddy Current Tomography
Salvatore VENTREa, Flavio CALVANOb, Guglielmo RUBINACCIb
and Antonello TAMBURRINOa,1
a
Ass. EURATOM/ENEA/CREATE, DAEIMI, Universit di Cassino, Italy
b
Ass. EURATOM/ENEA/CREATE, DIEL, Universit di Napoli Federico II, Italy
Abstract. In this work for the first time we validate experimentally a fast (real
time) non iterative imaging method for eddy current tomography of conductive
materials. The presented method is based on the monotonicity principle applied in
the low frequency limit where the skin depth is great with respect to the relevant
dimension of the problem under test. The experimental tests prove the
effectiveness of the monotonicity based imaging method. Moreover, we prove that
the inversion can be carried out without resorting the direct problem solver.
Keywords. Eddy currents, non iterative imaging algorithms, non destructive

evaluation, monotonicity, ECT signal inversions.
Introduction
In eddy-current testing a prescribed time-varying current flowing in the excitation

coils induces eddy currents in the conductive specimen under inspection. The electrical
resistivity of the specimen affects the induced eddy currents density and, consequently,
the voltage at the receptive coils. The measured data consist of measurements of the
impedance matrix (self and mutual impedances) between the coils of the array.
In recent years, numerical methods for solving the forward or direct problem, i.e.,
Figure 1. The planar surface to be investigated (specimen) together with a probe made by an array of seven
coils and a rectangular defect.
1
Corresponding Author: Ass. EURATOM/ENEA/CREATE, DAEIMI, Universit di Cassino, v. G. Di Biasio,
43 Cassino 03043 Italy; e mail: tamburrino@unicas.it.
104 S. Ventre et al. / Experimental Validation of a Fast Non-Iterative Imaging Algorithm
the problem of predicting the measured quantities for a given electrical resistivity and
source current, have been extensively studied. The main applications of the direct
problem are: (i) the computer aided prediction of the performances of existing probes,
(ii) the design of ad-hoc optimized probes and (iii) the solution of the inverse problem
through model based inversion methods. Numerical formulations based on finite
element method have been studied and developed by the authors for both volumetric
[1] and zero thickness inclusions [2].
A key role in eddy current tomography is the reconstruction of the resistivity
profile of the specimen under test, starting from the measurement data, through the
solution of an inverse problem. The identification of the conductivity distribution
inside a material is seriously affected by the inherently ill-posed and nonlinear nature
of the eddy currents inverse problem (see [3]-[5] for mathematical issues). First and
foremost, the ill-posedness translates into low sensitivity measurements, i.e. different
resistivity distributions produce similar measurements and, in addition, the nonlinearity
requires sophisticated inversion algorithms.
The imaging methods can be divided in iterative and non-iterative (direct).
Usually the iterative algorithms are based on the Gauss-Newton method. Among the
iterative methods it is worth mentioning quadratic and higher order approximation of
the forward operator, deterministic and stochastic algorithms, pre-calculated database,
statistical methods, Total Variation regularization, Level Set regularization, etc. (see
[6]-[24] and references therein).
As main drawbacks, the iterative methods require the solution of the direct
problem for several assigned tentative shapes of the inclusion and this can be very
expensive in terms of computational cost. Moreover, the convergence cannot be
guaranteed.
On the other hand non-iterative methods have attracted a lot of interest because
they provide a test for evaluating if a point of the domain (or a subregion) is part or not
of the anomaly, regardless other points (or subregions). The test is very cheap from the
computational viewpoint because no iterations are necessary.
In this paper we present the first experimental validation of the fast and non-
iterative method based on the monotonicity property of the real part of the measured
impedance matrix. This method was initially developed by the authors for elliptic
problems such as electrical resistance tomography [25], and later extended to parabolic
problems such as the eddy current testing in both low frequency (large skin depth) [26]
and high frequency (skin depth negligible with respect to the relevant dimension) [27-
28].
Numerical simulations of the direct problem have been exploited to check
numerically if a given probe was able to guarantee appropriate reconstructions. The
monotonicity imaging method has been applied to identify the resistivity profile of
several benchmarks.
The paper is organized as follows. The monotonicity is proven for a proper
unknown-data mapping in Sections 1, the inversion method is presented in Section 2,
an experimental validation of the monotonicity imaging method is presented in Section
3 and finally in Section 4 the conclusions are drawn.
1. Monotonicity principle
In this section we briefly describe the monotonicity principle for the real part of
the measured impedance matrix (self and mutual impedances between pairs of coils of
S. Ventre et al. / Experimental Validation of a Fast Non-Iterative Imaging Algorithm 105
the array shown in figure 1). In the low frequency limit, the impedance matrix admits
the following expansion:
D = R0 + jL0 + PD + j PD + O( )
Zcoil 2 (2) 3 (3) 4
(1)
that is valid as long as the frequency is enough low so that the 4th and higher order
terms in (1) are negligible. We mention that all matrices appearing in (1) are real and
symmetric.
Matrix PD(2 ) , which contributes to the real part of the impedance matrix, plays a key
role because of its monotonicity property [26]. In particular it is possible to show that if
the resistivity of the considered material increases pointwise, then the ohmic power
dissipated in the conductor decreases and consequently PD(2 ) decreases in the sense that
will be clarified in the following. For two-phase materials the monotonicity can be
stated as [26]:
V1 V2 in D PV(2 ) PV(22 ) (2)

1
where Vk D represents the domain occupied by the k-th anomaly (resistivity a )

that is hosted in the background material having resistivity b < a . In (2) PV(12 ) PV(22 )
means that matrix PV(12 ) PV(22 ) is positive semi-definite, i.e. all its eigenvalues are non-
negative.
2. Monotonicity imaging method
Equation (2) forms the basis for the method to solve the inverse problem (see [26]).
Let V be the (unknown) subset of D where the resistivity is a (the resistivity in D\V is
b). The inverse problem consists in retrieving V.
Let us consider a generic (and known) test domain k. From (2) it follows that:
P(2) PD(2 ) false k D , (3)

k
and, thus, by checking (3) for different test anomalies k it is possible to

estimate/retrieve V. It is worth noting that the algorithm can be applied to an arbitrary
number of anomalies with unknown shape and topology.
Figure 2. The conductive domain D subdivided in elementary regions together with an anomaly V (grey
pixels) and a test region k (black pixel).
(2 )
In order to test (3) we need to compute the eigenvalues of P(2k) PD for checking if
this symmetric matrix is positive semi-definite or not. However, only a noisy version
~
PD(2 ) = PD(2 ) + E , PD(2 ) being the noiseless matrix and E the noise matrix, can be
measured and it can be processed as described in [26]. Similarly, the test matrices P(2k)
may be affected by either measurement errors (if measured) or numerical errors (if
~ ~ (2 )
numerically computed). Therefore, the eigenvalues of P(2k) PD can be different
(2 )
from the eigenvalues of P(2k) PD and this may alter in an unpredictable way the sign
of the eigenvalues with smaller magnitude, i.e. this may alter the reconstruction.
~ ~ (2 )
In order to deal with this situation, we quantify how much the matrix P(2k) PD is
positive semi-definite through the so-called sign index sk defined as:

j =1
k, j
s k = M
(4)
k , j
j =1
~ ~ (2 )
where k , j is the j-th eigenvalues of the matrix P(2k) PD and M is the number of the
available eigenvalues. We notice that sk is closer to 1 when almost all relevant
~ ~ (2 )
eigenvalues are non-negative (sk=1 when P(2k) PD is rigorously positive semi-
definite).
In addition, from perturbation theory [29], it follows that the eigenvalues that may
change their sign due to the presence of noise, are only those having a magnitude
smaller than the Euclidean norm of the noise. When the magnitude of the noise is
known or estimated, these eigenvalues can be removed from the summations in (4).
Finally, we highlight that the dimension (number of rows and columns) of the
~ ~ (2 )
matrix P(2k) PD is small because it is equal to the number of coils of the array that,
usually, is made by few elements (few tens). Therefore, a very low computational cost
(2 )
(computation of the eigenvalues of P(2k) PD ) is required to compute (4) for
performing test (3).
3. Experimental results
The experimental tests we describe in the following consist of an array made by two
coils mounted in a fully automated imaging system composed by a scanning system, a
LCR meter and a PC controlling the whole acquisition and inversion process (figure 3).
The specimen under test is a printed circuit boards (PCB, thickness 1.6mm) presenting
copper islands , having different size and shapes, to be imaged. The copper islands
(thickness 35mm) are union of 5mm5mm elementary domains. These elementary
domains are taken as the k during the imaging process.
The sensor, that has been designed through extensive numerical simulations, is
made by two pancake coils. The first coil (internal diameter=5mm, external
diameter=10.5mm, height=6.5mm, number of turns=700) contains internally the
second coil (internal diameter=1mm, external diameter=4mm, height=3mm, number of

turns=180). Simulated inversions have provided that this array gives no reconstruction
errors for a noise level not greater than 50 m. This threshold has been achieved
during the experimental test that, therefore, provide error-free reconstructions.
The excitation frequency is 30kHz, chosen to satisfy the condition of 4th and higher
order terms in (1) negligible. At same time, this frequency guarantees an appropriate
magnitude of the measured signal and a noise level smaller than the 50 m threshold.
The monotonicity algorithm processes the experimental data providing the
reconstruction, in 0.1ms per pixel.
It is worth noting that the second order moment for a test domain ( P(2k) ) has been
experimentally measured on a 5mm5mm copper island. Moreover, thanks to the
translational invariance of the problem, it has been sufficient to perform the
measurement of P(2k) only for a single test domain located on the top side and for a
~
single test domain located on the bottom side. The related measurements are P(2k), bottom
~
and P(2k), top .
3.1. First case
The first test is a printed circuit board where the copper forms the letters IP
(Inverse Problem) as shown in figure 4 (left).
The inversion, that is shown in Figure 4 (right) is error free. This is because the
experimental noise level is smaller than the threshold (50 m) found by the
aforementioned numerical simulations involving the inversion of synthetic data.
Figure 3. The two coils composing the array (left). The smaller coil is inserted into the bigger one. Block
diagram of the measurement system (right).
Figure 4. The specimen under test (left) and its reconstruction (right). The white pixels represent the
conductive pixels. The pixel dimensions are 5mm5mm.
3.2. Second case
The second test is a double-face printed circuit board (see Figure 5). It consists of a
double sided PCB (copper, thickness 35m) as shown in figure 5 (top). The
measurements are taken from only the top side of the PCB.
In this case the imaging algorithm requires the test domains on both sides on the PCB.
The test domains on a side of the PCB provide the reconstruction for the related side.
For instance, the test domains on the top side provide an error free reconstruction of the
top side (figure 5, left column). On the other hand, the test domain in the bottom layer
provide as reconstruction the union of the pixels in the top and bottom sides (figure 5,
right column). This unexpected result can be easily explained by considering that it
~ ~
results P(2k), bottom P(2k), top and, therefore, it is trivial to prove that the test domains
related to the bottom side provide a reconstruction that is the union of the pixels from
the top and the bottom sides.
4. Conclusions
A fast inversion method for inverting eddy-current testing data has been
experimentally validated for the first time. Numerical simulation of the whole imaging
process (not reported here for the sake of brevity) provide noise level threshold of
about 50 m such that for noise level below such threshold the reconstruction is error-
free. The time required to form the image in a single pixel is about 0.1ms. The imaging
algorithm is fully non-linear and, therefore, can treat arbitrary shapes and topologies.
Moreover, the measured data have been processed by means of pre-measured data and
without resorting to the numerical solution of the direct problem that, as well known, is
time-consuming.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the Association EURATOM/ENEA/CREATE,

Italy.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5. The specimen under test: the top side (a) directly under the probe, and the bottom layer (b).
Reconstruction obtained by exploiting the test domain located on the top side (c) and reconstruction obtained
by using the test domain located on the bottom side (d). For this latter inset the white pixels represent the
pixels of the bottom side whereas the grey pixels represent the pixels of the top side.
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-111
Numerical Evaluation of
Microwave Testing for Pipe Thinning

Yasutomo SAKAI, Noritaka YUSA, Hidetoshi HASIZUME
Department of Quantum Science and Energy Engineering, Tohoku University
Abstract. This study evaluates the applicability of using microwaves for the
inspection of pipe wall thinning by using numerical simulations and experiments.
The configuration considered in this study is an axisymmetric one consisting of a
straight brass tube and coaxial cables. After the agreement between
three-dimensional numerical simulations and experimental result is confirmed,
experiments to locate wall thinning are carried out. Clear signals due to the wall
thinning are obtained. The time of flight of microwaves agrees with the
theoretical prediction, which demonstrates the possibility of locating wall
thinning from microwave signals.
Key words. Electromagnetic wave, piping detection, wall thinning, FEM
1. Introduction
Rapid inspection for piping systems used in chemical or power plants is one of the
most important issues from the viewpoint of reducing maintenance costs. Conventional
methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current testing provide local information, which
results in a long inspection period for large piping systems. Due to this fact, another
nondestructive testing method for evaluating a large area at once is highly demanded.
Currently, to solve these problems, guided waves are mainly studied[1][2][3].
Guided waves propagate in pipe walls longitudinally, which enables inspection of a
broad area. However, there are some problems, such as the reflections at the
connections of pipes. Another approach is to utilize microwaves[4][5][6][7]. The basic
concept of this method is to regard the pipes as a waveguide and to detect defects from
transmission and reflection of microwaves propagating inside the pipes. Since
microwaves propagate through the free space surrounded by the metal pipes with little
attenuation, connections of pipe do not affect signals so significantly.
Recent studies have shown through numerical simulations that the presence of
wall thinning affects transmitted energy of microwave, and analyzing the signals in the
frequency domain enables one to evaluate the shape of wall thinning[8]. The studies,
however, include several problems from the viewpoint of practical applications. That is,
the model was quite simplified. In addition, the locations of wall thinning were
assumed to be known in advance and only the intensity of the spectrum of measured
signals were analyzed. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the
applicability of microwave nondestructive inspection to the detection and evaluation of
wall thinning in more practical configurations. This study conducts three-dimensional
numerical simulations and experimental verifications. Obtained signals are analyzed in
time domain to correlate the time of flight of the signal with the location of wall
thinning.
112 Y. Sakai et al. / Numerical Evaluation of Microwave Testing for Pipe Thinning
2. Materials and Methods
The principle of the microwave testing is to evaluate wall thinning from the transmitted
and reflected energy of microwave as mentioned above. The time of flight (TOF) of
reflection, which is calculated from the group velocity of the microwaves, enables one
to locate discontinuities such as wall thinning.
Fig. 1 shows the configuration used in both the numerical simulation and the
experiment. It consists of a brass tube modeling the piping, and coaxial cables and
connectors to inject microwaves into the tube. The coaxial cables are extended into the
pipes with a length of 5 mm to suppress the microwave reflections occurring at the end
of the cable. Microwaves are generated and the reflected energies are measured at port
1. The microwaves propagate as TEM mode inside the coaxial cables, and are
transformed into TE and TM modes inside the tube.
This study considered two lengths of a pipe, L=120 and 1120 mm, which are
termed as the short and the long range model hereafter. The short range model is
evaluated both in numerical simulations and experiments, to confirm the validity of the
method as well as to evaluate the behavior of microwaves propagating inside the tube.
The long range model is only dealt with by the experiments due to limitations of
computational resources needed to consider the model. Table 1 shows the parameters of
the two models. The numerical simulations shortened the length of coaxial cables, Lc,
into 20 mm to decrease computational resources.
The experiment system is composed of semi-rigid cables (K-118 Anritsu),
microwave connectors (K-101, Anritsu) several brass pipes and brass plates. The brass
plates and the semi-rigid cable are soldered. A short brass tube with a larger diameter is
utilized to simulate wall thinnings. That is, actually the brass tube shown in Fig. 1
consists of three tubes connected with flanges. Microwaves are generated and
measured by a network analyzer (Agilent PNA, E8363B). Flexible coaxial cables are
connected from the network analyzer to semi-rigid cables. Data is obtained in
frequency domain and transformed to time domain using inverse Fourier
transformation.
The numerical simulations are conducted using commercial software COMSOL
Multiphysics and its RF Module. The governing equation adopted is

( )
rot r1 rotE k 02 r j E = 0 ,
0
(1)

where
k 0 = 0 0 2 .
2
(2)
Subscript 0 denotes physical quantities in vacuum. Tube wall was modeled as a
conductor with a zero thickness and impedance boundary condition,
0 r
j 0 r n H + E ( E n )n = 0 , (3)
0 r j
is imposed on the surface of the tube wall. In the analysis, tetrahedral quadratic vector
elements are employed. Table 2 summarizes parameters used in the simulations. It
should be noted that the numerical simulations are three-dimensional ones, whereas the
configurations are axisymmetric. The cut-off frequencies of TE11, TM01 and TM02
modes in the pipe are 9.25, 12.1, and 19.3 GHz, respectively.

Y. Sakai et al. / Numerical Evaluation of Microwave Testing for Pipe Thinning 113
3. Results
Fig. 2 shows comparison of the numerical and experimental results of the amplitude of
the reflected energy in the short range model. The figures show good agreement, which

Figure 1 Analysis and experimental system (unit mm)
Table 1 Details of models

short range model long range model
L[mm] 120 1120
LC[mm] 20(simulation),235(experiment) 235
LD[mm] 40 290,790
Table 2 Parameter of Numerical simulations

tube wall air teflon
[MS/m] 6 0 0
r [-] 1 1 1
r [-] 1 1 3

$PSOLWXGH> @
$PSOLWXGH> @

)UHTXHQF\>*+]@ )UHTXHQF\>*+]@

Figure 2. Comparison between simulations (left) and experiments (right)
validates both the simulations and the experiments. The small differences between the
two results are mainly caused by the flexible cables not considered in the numerical
simulations. Other numerical simulations confirmed that TM01 is dominant inside the
pipe, which are not shown in this paper.
Fig. 3(a) shows the results of numerical simulations in the short range model.
As reflections at the connection part are relatively large, the measured data did not
show significant difference. The signals without any defects are subtracted from those
with defects to extract and to evaluate the effect of the defects quantitatively. The
subtracted signals are presented in Fig. 3 (b), which shows the reflections caused by
wall thinning. Fig. 4 shows the results of experiments in the short range model. The
0.40 0.40
QV QV
0.30 0.30
0.20 0 20
amplitude[-]
amplitude[-]
0.10 0.10
0.00 0.00
-0.10 -0.10
-0.20 -0 20
-0.30 -0.30
-0.40 -0.40
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
time[ns] time[ns]

(a) Raw data of pipes without wall thinning(right: non wall thinning, left: wall thinning depth 2mm)
0.10 0.10
0.54ns 0.61ns 0.54ns 0.61ns
0.05 0.05
amplitude[-]
amplitude[-]
0.00 0.00
-0.05 -0.05
-0.10 -0.10
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
time[ns] time[ns]
(b) differences(left: depth 2 mm, right: depth 1 mm)
Figure 3 Reflected microwaves in the short range model, obtained by the numerical simulations
0.20 0.20
2.34ns 2.41ns 2.41ns 2.34ns
0.15 0.15
0.10 0.10
amplitude[-]
amplitude[-]
0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00
-0.05 -0.05
-0.10 -0.10
-0.15 -0.15
-0.20 -0.20
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
time[ns] time[ns]
Figure 4 Reflected microwaves in the short range model, obtained by the experiments
(left depth 2 mm, right depth 1 mm)
Y. Sakai et al. / Numerical Evaluation of Microwave Testing for Pipe Thinning 115
Table 3 Calculated TOF in short range testing

numerical simulation experiment
Entrance of pipe 0.23 ns 2.03 ns
Near edge of wall thinning (25GHz) 0.54 ns 2.34 ns

0.20 0.20
0.15 QV QV 0.15 QV QV
0.10 0.10
amplitude[-]
amplitude[-]
0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00
-0.05 -0.05
-0.10 -0.10
-0.15 -0.15
-0.20 -0.20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time[ns]

time[ns]
Figure 5 Reflection of wall thinning (LD=290mm, LD=790mm, both depth 2mm)
Table 4 Calculated TOF in long range testing

290 mm 790 mm
Entrance of pipe 2.03 ns 2.03 ns

signals shown in the figure are also the difference between the models with and without
defects. Table 3 shows the calculated TOF of reflections due to the three discontinuities.
front edge of wall thinning and the connection part. The TOF of the reflections are
evaluated by using the group velocity of two frequencies, 25 and 17 GHz, since the 25
GHz is the maximum frequency considered in the experiment and 17 GHz provides
maximum transmitted energy. It should be noted that since the length of coaxial cable
of experiment is much longer than that of numerical simulations, TOF of experiment is
also larger than that of numerical simulations. Fig. 3(b) and Fig. 4 confirm that the
initial rises of measured signals coincide with the TOF of reflections due to the near
edge of wall thinning shown in Table 3. These results show the possibility of detecting
wall thinning. Signals corresponding to the far edge of wall thinnings are unclear
because of the large reflection due to the end of pipe. The results obtained in the short
range model also imply that the method would have difficulty in detecting defects
located too close to microwave ports..
On the basis of the results above, experiments in the long range model were
carried out. The results of the experiments and calculated TOF are shown in Fig. 5 and
Table 4, respectively. It should be noted that the signals are not subtracted ones. The
strongest signals near 2 ns are the reflection at the connection part. The next signals
come from the near edge of wall thinning, and their TOF are between the two TOFs
calculated using 25 GHz and 17 GHz, whereas dispersion of the microwaves makes
signals unclear. Analyzing modes of electromagnetic waves propagating inside the pipe
more quantitatively will lead to more accurate localization of the wall thinning from
measured signals.
4. Conclusion
In this study, microwave testing for piping systems was evaluated both by
three-dimensional finite element simulations and experiments. Signals obtained in
frequency domain were converted into time domain to locate wall thinnings from their
time of flight. After the validity was confirmed in a short range model, practical
experiments using 1120mm long brass pipe were carried out. The results confirmed the
validity of the method.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Tohoku University Global COE Program on World
Center of Education and Research for Trans-disciplinary Flow Dynamics
Reference
[1] D. N. Alleyne, M. J. S. Lowe, P. Gawley, The reflection of guided waves from circumferential notches in
pipes, Journal of Applied Mechanics 65 (1998), 635-641.
[2] P. D. Wilcox, A rapid signal processing technique to remove the effect of dispersion from guided wave
signals, Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control 50 (2003), 419-427.
[3] Joon-Hyun Lee, Seung-Joon Lee, Application of laser-generated guided wave for evaluation of
corrosion in carbon steel pipe, NDT&E International 42 (2009), 222-227.
[4] Kavoos Abbasi , Study of Microwave Nondestructive Technique to Detect Crack and Predict Its
Location in Piping System, Tohoku University Doctoral Dissertation, (2007).
[5] Y. Ju, L. Liu, M. Ishikawa. Quantitative evaluation of wall thinning of metal pipes by microwaves.
Materials Science Forum 614 (2009), 111-116.
[6] K. Sugawara, Development of inspection method for the defect in pipes using microwave, Tohoku
University Master thesis, (2002), (in Japanese)
[7] T. Shibata, H Hashizume, S. Kitajima, K. Ogura, Experimental study on NDT method using
electromagnetic waves, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 161 (2005), 348-352.
[8] Y. Sakai, N. Yusa, S. Ito, H. Hashizume, Numerical analysis of microwave NDT applied to piping
inspection, Proceeding of The 13th Asia-pacific Conference on Non-destructive Testing, (2009), 230.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-117
Parallelization of Crack Signal

Calculation Using CUDA
Imre KISS 1 , Jzsef PV and Szabolcs GYIMTHY
Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Department of Broadband Infocommunications and Electromagnetic Theory
Abstract. A calculation method for the simulation of the Eddy Current Testing
(ECT) signal of multiple cracks is implemented on a general purpose video card.
NVIDIAs parallel computing solution, the Compute Unied Device Architecture
(CUDA) was used as a shell for the implementation on both hardware and software
sides. Possibilities inherent in this technology are shown through an example and a
detailed implementation focusing on data parallel execution is discussed. Different
realizations of the same algorithm are inspected and a comparison from the view of
efciency is given.
Keywords. CUDA, GPGPU, Multiple cracks, Surface integral crack model
Introduction
The mathematical model of several different types of defects is given in the form of inte-
gral equations. The numerical solutions of such integral equations might be obtained us-
ing the Method of Moments. The main computational task in such solutions is the evalu-
ation of the kernel of the integral equation at numerous locations (either spatial or spatial
frequency locations) inside the integration domain. Most part of such calculations in a
given location can be carried out independently of the calculations related to other loca-
tions. Consequently the kernel can be evaluated simultaneously in the desired locations.
As a result, parallel computation of this can be easily designed.
A number of approaches are known for accelerating an application by paralleliz-
ing it. Among others, one may use supercomputers for high performance computing, or
could build up a Beowulf cluster from ordinary machines. The application of a target
hardware for solving time consuming tasks is also a possibility, like for example the
project GRAPE (GRAvity piPE) for n-body computations [6]. It is easy to see that all of
these solutions have drawbacks, especially from the nancial point of view.
In this paper a parallel computing method is described aiming to give an extremely
fast evaluation of the signal of a thin crack using a CUDA capable Graphic Processing
Unit (GPU).
1 Corresponding Author: Imre Kiss, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Goldmann Gyrgy
Tr 3, 1111 Budapest, Hungary; E mail: kiss@evt.bme.hu.

118 I. Kiss et al. / Parallelization of Crack Signal Calculation Using CUDA
1. Compute Unied Device Architecture
Since graphics hardwares reached notable power, there always have been attempts to use
their computational capacity for high-performance computations. One of the main causes
preventing the spreading of programs utilizing graphics cards were the complexity how
these target devices could be programmed. GPUs were primarily designed for opera-
tion on graphical objects, hence long standing programming languages (e.g. OpenGL,
DirectX) were hard to be used for solving general, non-graphical related problems.
NVIDIA recently introduced its CUDA (Compute Unied Device Architecture)
technology [1] which issued in a general purpose graphics hardware. The new design
unied the work-ow from shader levels to a general purpose core (the term unied is
originated here), which serves the needs of both traditional graphical and general purpose
utilizations. Consequently, a hardware design consisting of hundreds of processor cores,
and capable to execute thousands of threads simultaneously have become available, that
can be programmed in a general purpose programming language (a slightly modied
version of the regular C language).
1.1. Achievements on parallel computation with CUDA
Efforts have already been made at different elds of engineering to utilize gain from the
application of GPU based parallel computation. Application elds dealing with large,
independent data structures are the primary targets of the utilization. For example in
molecular dynamics, the movement of numerous particles perfectly ts into the main
idea behind parallelization by treating each particle in a separate thread. In numerical
algebra, GEMM routines in the BLAS library give an example on parallel dense matrix
multiplication. Many other references could be enumerated from the elds of medical
imaging, uid dynamics, seismic imaging. A good summary on the application elds can
be found in [5].
2. Signal calculation using the multiple thin crack model
2.1. Integral equation model for the calculation of the signal of multiple thin cracks
Assume the arrangement shown in Figure 1 where C innitesimally thin cracks are lo-
cated close to each other in a conducting specimen. The surfaces and the surface normal
vectors of the cracks are Sc and nc (c = 1, 2, . . . , C), respectively.
ECT probe
0 , 0 n1
n3
n2
... nC
S1 S2 S3 ... SC
Surface Cracks
Vs : Specimen Surface Cracks
Figure 1. Eddy current probe above a conductor specimen containing innitesimally thin planar cracks.
I. Kiss et al. / Parallelization of Crack Signal Calculation Using CUDA 119
The eddy current signal of several innitesimally thin planar cracks can be calculated
by using the extension of the integral equation model of the single thin crack [2]. Each
crack is represented by a surface current density pc (c = 1, 2, . . . , C) concentrating on
the surface Sc of the crack. The unknown pc functions can be obtained by the solution of
the following system of integral equations [3]:

C
0 = Ecn
i
(rc ) j0 gkc (rc |r )pk (r ) dr
k=1
k=c Sk

j0 lim gcc (r|r )pc (r ) dr , rc Sc , c = 1, 2, . . . , C, (1)
r
rc
Sc
where Ecni
(rc ) is the so-called incident eld, that is the normal component of the elec-
tric eld due to the interaction of the probe and the specimen without the presence of
the cracks. gkc (r|r ) = nc Ge (r|r ) nk (k, c = 1, 2, . . . , C), where Ge (r|r ) is
the electric-electric Greens function assuming the geometry of the given specimen. rc
denotes the vector approaching the location vector rc from both sides of the surface Sc .
Knowing the solution of (1) the ECT signal, that is the impedance variation of the
probe, Z, is calculated as,
C
1
Z = 2 i
Ecn (r)pc (r) dr, (2)
I c=1
Sc
where I is the magnitude of the exciting current.
2.2. Discretization of the integral equation
In this part we will show that the most time-consuming calculations during the solution
of the integral equation (1) can be done parallelly if the method of moments is used
for the discretization of (1). For the sake of simplicity assume that the only one crack
(C = 1) is located in a plate specimen. The surface of the plate is in the xy plane of the
Descartes coordinate system and the crack is in the x = 0 plane (n1 = x, where x is the
unit vector of the x coordinate direction).
Assume that the surface current density is approximated by a properly chosen func-
tion series as,

M
N
p1 (y, z) pmn fym (y)fzn (z) y, z S1 , (3)
m=1 n=1
and the integral equation is tested by the following testing functions:
tkl (y, z) (k = 1, 2, . . . , K; l = 1, 2, . . . , L) y, z S1 . (4)
For example, pulse approximating (fym (y), fzn (z)), and testing (tkl (y, z)) functions are
used in [2], linear approximating and testing functions are applied in [3], while sinusoidal
type global approximating and pulse testing functions are used in [4].
As a result, the discretized integral equation will be:

M
N
pmn [j0
m=1 n=1 S1

lim g11 (x, y, z|x = 0, y , z )fym (y )fzn (z ) dy dz tkl (y, z) dydz =
xx
S1
k = 1, 2, . . . , K,
= i
E1n (x = 0, y, z)tkl (y, z) dydz; (5)
l = 1, 2, . . . , L.
S1
Consequently the following linear equation system is to be solved:
A p = b, (6)
where
$ %
A (k1)L+l,(m1)N +n is the normal component of the electromagnetic eld due
to a surface current distribution described by fym (y)fzn (z) and tested by the test-
ing functions tkl (y, z),
(b)(k1)L+l is the incident eld tested by the testing function tkl (y, z),
$ %
p (m1)N +n = pmn is the unknown coefcients of the surface current distribu-
tion.
One can see that the most time-consuming task, the calculation of the elements of A
can be calculated independently from each other. This is the reason why the paralleliza-
tion of the outlined solution can really decrease the calculation time needed to obtain the
crack signal. Note also that the same conclusion can be derived if multiple cracks are
considered as the solution of (1).
3. CUDA parallel programming model
A CUDA program mainly consists of two parts. There is a so called host program,
roughly speaking the function of which is to initialize the GPU for the computation while
itself runs on the CPU only. The program running on the device (GPU) is usually called
the kernel. As the kernel can operate only on data stored in the on-board memory of the
device, all data must be transferred to the device prior to the computation. Similarly, the
host program cannot directly access the on-board device memory, hence the result of the
computations must be transferred back the computers main memory.
These transfers are often act as the bottleneck of the whole computation. If the
amount of data to be transferred is large, then due to the relatively slow PCI-E bus sys-
tem, even with an excessively fast GPU the overall wall-time would increase, and the
parallel execution would be pointless.
3.1. Memory handling
Since the available memory on todays average GPUs is limited in 1-2 GB, one may think
that this memory constraint is just preventing any practical application, as time consume
often arises from the need of manipulating large data sets. To overcome on this problem,
one must not use of long standing algorithms: algorithms that do not need the whole
data set to be stored in the memory all at once are ideally suited for this task. An other
approach could be the decomposition of the original problem to smaller ones that t into
the memory constraint.
The overall speed-up strongly depends on both data transfer and computation times.
A commonly applied technique is to overlap data transfer with computation, which can
be approached from CPU and/or GPU side. Namely, if a so-called asynchronous data
transfer is applied, the control is immediately returned to the initializer of the transfer.
Since latest graphic cards are capable to overlap kernel execution and memory transfers,
partitioning the GPU memory to non-overlapping parts, the kernel may operate on one
part, while the other(s) could be simultaneously loaded. As a result, one could keep both
the CPU and the GPU busy, signicantly decreasing the inertia of the data transfer.
3.2. Hardware design
Output of the compiler regarding the GPU code is in a pseudo-assembly language (PTX),
which is generally understandable by any CUDA capable GPU. Compilation of this code
to the actual hardware instruction set is taking place at execution time by the device
driver, therefore portability and backward-compatibility is also ensured.
CUDA applies a Single Instruction Multiple Thread (SIMT) execution model, which
is a variant on the Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) architecture. At any given
clock cycle, each streaming processor executes the same instruction, but operates on
different data without the need of packing and unpacking the original data like in the
case of SIMD (SSE2). Due to the SIMD architecture, thread divergence in a given core
causes threads being in an inactive path to be executed, but not evaluated: all threads
walk through all paths, signicantly increasing the execution time. One may also note
that thread divergence is only critical if occurs on numerous cores. A detailed overview
on the topic can be found in [7].
3.3. Design of parallelization
The original program computing the ECT signal of multiple cracks (based on the for-
mulations in Section 2.2) was written for a single core CPU. Most of the calculations
are carried out analytically in the spatial frequency domain where the singularity of the
kernel can be easily handled. Elements of matrix A in (6) are obtained in kn km points
of the spatial frequency domain followed by an analytical integration in the z direction.
Spatial boundaries are determined adaptively, the kn km sampling points are distributed
uniformly within the studied frequency domain. The main concept of the implementation
can be found in [3] and [4], while this paper will focus on the design of parallelization.
Generally, the rst step during the design of parallelization is to obtain the execu-
tion times for the different parts of the program. In the given case, the assembly of the
matrix elements is performed in subroutine 4, which requires about 45% of the total ex-
ecution time. The rest of the work is carried out in 3 other subroutines, where certain
coefcients of the basis and testing functions related to different spatial positions are pre-
calculated. These 3 subroutines requires about 15% of the total computation time each.
Certain initialization process and post-processing is neglected for clarity. Fig. 2.a shows
the schematic owchart of the original program.
After careful inspection of the program code, subroutine 4 is found the only part
which can be efciently parallelized, since each matrix element can be computed in-
dependently of the others. In the case of subroutine 1-3, numerous conditional state-
ments are evaluated, resulting in divergent execution paths, which prevents the efcient
execution on the SIMD architecture. Regretting this fact, these subroutines were also
re-formulated for data parallel execution, but obtained wall-times conrmed theoretical
considerations.
3.4. Concepts of parallelization
Subroutine 4 will be parallelized and outsourced to the GPU while the rest of the pro-
gram will be executed on the CPU. The execution path for the original single core CPU
program is shown in Fig. 2.a: serial execution of subroutine 1-4 is carried out organized
into a loop, in each cycle of which a spatial frequency component is computed. Note that
the dots correspond to the neglected initialization procedure.

Figure 2. Execution paths of the CPU and the two different CUDA models.
To replace subroutine 4, a CUDA kernel was carefully designed, performing the par-
allel computation over the different spatial frequency sampling points. Since the avail-
able memory on the GPU is less than that is required to store all the precomputed coef-
cients, the problem must be partitioned to smaller parts. Each partition contains a subset
of the coefcients belonging to several spatial frequency points, the kernel will act on.
Based on our investigations, the GPU performs the computation over the sampling
points signicantly less time (with about 2 magnitudes) than the computation of the
coefcients takes on the host side. As a weird consequence, it become more important
how the data is transferred to the GPU, as it is comparable to CPU computation time.
Two CUDA programs were designed and implemented to investigate the effect of
the different transfer methods. These differ only in the way how the coefcients are
transferred to the GPU, while executing the same kernel. Both programs compute the
required coefcients on the host side, enclosed in a loop containing subroutine 1-3. In
Fig. 2.b, a semi-serial program model is shown. After a certain number of coefcients are
computed in the host loop, a single asynchronous memory transfer occurs, followed by
the invocation of the kernel. This enables the host loop (CPU) to keep computing during
the time consuming transfers. The size of the subset to be transferred is equal to the total
available memory on the GPU.
The second program is shown in Fig. 2.c, and is based on the idea that memory trans-
fer time can only be hidden if the CPU is busy with the computation of coefcients during
the transfers. In order to achieve such a case, precomputed coefcients are transferred in
smaller sets. The size of a subset to be transferred was determined to take insignicantly
small time, hence its amount is limited in several MBs. In the given example, a data-set
corresponding to km sampling points is chosen for such purpose. The kernel is invoked
on the transferred data when the memory of the GPU is full up after numerous transfers.
4. Results
The CPU and the two CUDA programs were executed on a HP XW8600 workstation
with a total of 32 GB memory, 2 Quad-Core Intel Xeon X5450 processors and an
NVIDIA GTX 480 video card.
20 GB
10 GB
5 GB
2 GB
1 GB
transferred data
a)
7 MB
3 MB
1 MB
transfer in each cycle
total amount of transfers
80
CUDA semi serial
Sub_4 run time [s]
60
CUDA overlapping
b) CPU
40
20
0
6
speed-up []
5
c) 4
3
2
1 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
km = kn = N
Figure 3. a) amount of data for the overlapping transfer method (note that values on the y axis are shown in
logarithmic scale); b) execution times of subroutine 4; c) measured relative speed up.
Fig. 3.a shows the amount of data transferred in each cycle, as well as for the total
problem in the overlapping case for different number of sampling points (note that the
total amount of GPU memory is only 1.5 GB for the given hardware). Run-times with
respect to subroutine 4 are shown in Fig. 3.b. Based on the amount of data transferred to
the GPU (Fig. 3.a) and calculating with an average of 1 GB/s transfer rate, it can clearly
be seen that a signicant portion of time is spent on data transfer, rather than on (kernel)
computation.
The semi-serial CUDA computational model performed a bit worse than that of the
CPU. The second CUDA model, applying overlapping data transfer and CPU computa-
tion, performed signicantly better, preceding both the CPU and the semi-serial CUDA
model. It must be emphasized that the kernel function itself is the same in both program
models, only the applied data transfer technique varies. The results indicate that the ex-
ecution time of the kernel of the implemented algorithm is negligible compared to data
transfer time. The acceleration achieved by the overlapping CUDA model is shown in
Fig. 3.c.
5. Conclusion
In this paper the possibility of using CUDA for re-coding already existing single proces-
sor algorithms/programs was discussed. In the presented example by parallelizing only a
fraction (subroutine 4 constitutes only about 10%) of the whole source code, a remark-
able speed-up could be achieved.
Drawbacks of the required memory transfers between host and device memory are
shown together with some commonly applied techniques, that could be used to hide the
inertia of the transfer. Application of overlapping memory transfers with CPU computa-
tions shown remarkable performance gain compared to the semi-serial data processing
model. Although it would be possible to overlap the data transfers with kernel executions
as well, in the present case due to the negligible time of kernel execution, similar results
would be obtained. For problems having more intensive (time consuming) computations
in the kernel, a trade-off in the amount of transferred data must be found to achieve
optimal overall performance.
References
[1] Online available: www.nvidia.com/cuda

[2] J.R. Bowler, Eddy current interaction with an ideal crack I. The forward problem, J. Appl. Phys., 75 (11)
(1994), 8128 8137.
[3] J. Pavo, Reconstruction of Group of Cracks in Plate Specimens Using ECT Impedance Data, in Elec-
tromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (IV), S. S. Udpa, T. Takagi, J. Pavo and R. Albanese, Eds., IOS
Press, Amsterdam, 2000, 204 211.
[4] J. Pavo, D. Lesselier, Calculation of eddy current probe signal with global approximation, IEEE Trans-
action on Magnetics, 42 (4) (2006), 1419 1422.
[5] A Garland, M.; Le Grand, S.; Nickolls, J.; Anderson, J.; Hardwick, J.; Morton, S.; Phillips, E.; Zhang,
Yao & Volkov, V., Parallel Computing Experiences with CUDA, IEEE_M_MICR, 28 (2008), 13 27.
[6] Makino, J., & Taiji, M., Special Purpose Computers for Scientic Simulations The GRAPE systems
(Chichester: John Wiley and Sons), 1998.
[7] T. Halfhill, Parallel Processing with CUDA, Microprocessor Journal, (2008).
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-125

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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-134
Eddy Current Testing of Ferromagnetic

Materials: Modelling of Flaws in a Planar
Medium
Chiara ZORNI a,1 , Christophe REBOUD a Marc LAMBERT b and
Jean-Marc DECITRE a
a
CEA, LIST, Dpartement Imagerie Simulation pour le Contrle,
F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
b
Dpartement de Recherche en lectromagntisme,
Laboratoire des Signaux et Systmes UMR 8506 (CNRS - SUPELEC - Univ Paris-Sud),
91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
Abstract. Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is a standard technique in industry for the
detection of surface breaking aws in ferromagnetic materials such as steels. In this
context, simulation tools can be used to improve the understanding of experimental
signals, optimize the design of sensors or evaluate the performance of ECT proce-
dures. CEA has developed for many years semi-analytical models embedded into
the simulation platform CIVA [1] dedicated to non-destructive testing. Following
a previous work carried out at the laboratory in the case of one aw located in a
cylindrical ferromagnetic part, the developments presented herein address the case
of a aw located inside a planar and ferromagnetic medium. The theoretical ap-
proach will be presented, as well as comparisons between simulation data obtained
from the literature.
Keywords. Integral formulation, Dyadic Green Functions, ferromagnetism, cracks,
eddy current testing
Introduction
Eddy current testing (ECT) is a standard technique in industry for the detection of surface
breaking aws in ferromagnetic materials such as steels. In this context, simulation tools
can be used to improve the understanding of experimental signals, optimize the design
of sensors or evaluate the performance of ECT procedures. CEA has developed for many
years semi-analytical models embedded into the simulation platform CIVA [1] dedicated
to non-destructive testing.
Following a previous work [2] carried out at the laboratory in the case of one aw
located in a cylindrical ferromagnetic part, the developments presented herein address
the case of one aw located inside a planar [3] and ferromagnetic medium. Simulation
results are obtained through the application of the Volume Integral Method (VIM) [4].
This approach has proved its efciency when considering canonical geometries, mainly
1 Corresponding Author E-mail: Chiara.Zorni@cea.fr
C. Zorni et al. / ECT of Ferromagnetic Materials: Modelling of Flaws in a Planar Medium 135
Figure 1. Conguration of the ECT problem.
due to the fact that, in those cases, analytical expressions of dyadic Green operators are
available in the spectral domain. While only one integral equation, involving either the
electric or the magnetic eld, is needed to describe the non-magnetic case completely, in
the ferromagnetic case two coupled integral equations have to be solved.
Therefore, when considering the ECT of a single aw, a system of two integro-
differential equations is derived from Maxwell equations. The numerical resolution of
the system is carried out using the classical Galerkin variant of the Method of Moments
[5]. Finally, the probe response is calculated by application of the Lorentz reciprocity
theorem [6].
The resolution has been generalized to the ECT simulation of M aws located in a
planar stratied medium. The theoretical approach will be presented, as well as compar-
isons between simulation results and measured data obtained from the literature [7].
1. Theoretical formulation
Let us consider the general conguration described in Figure 1: a planar, stratied and
ferromagnetic medium consisting of N linear, isotropic and homogeneous layers. The
rst and the last layers are two air half-space of permeability 0 and permittivity 0
and a time harmonic source with implied time-dependence ejt is placed in the rst
layer (with = 2f the angular frequency). The others k = 2, . . . , N 1 layers are
characterized by their conductivity k , their permeability k = 0 kr (kr, being the k th
layer relative permeability) and the complex permittivity k = 0 + jk 1 . One or
more 3-D bounded material(s) is contained in l = n, . . . , m layers and is characterized
m
by its volume = l=n l and its conductivity ld and permeability dl .
The approach consists in calculating the electric and magnetic elds, E and H re-
spectively, in the volume of the defect without considering the defect contribution.
Then, the variations of the elds induced by the presence of the defect are computed
in . The volume integral formulation is derived by applying the Greens theorem [4]
to the Maxwells equations and involves the dyadic Greens functions for a multilay-
ered medium [3]. Let us introduce the ctitious electric and magnetic total (Eq. (1)) and
incident (Eq. (2)) currents as:
Jk (r) = k (r) Ek (r) , Mk (r) = k (r) Hk (r) (1)
J0k (r) = k (r) E0k (r) , M0k (r) = k (r) H0k (r) (2)
136 C. Zorni et al. / ECT of Ferromagnetic Materials: Modelling of Flaws in a Planar Medium
where k (r) = k kd (r) and k (r) = k dk (r) are the electric contrast and
the magnetic contrast functions respectively and Ek (r) and Hk (r) the total and E0k (r)
and H0k (r) the incident electric and magnetic elds in the k th -layer. A system of two
integro-differential equations gives the expression of the electric and magnetic elds in
the k th -layer as:
m

Jk (r) = J0k (r) jk k (r) Gee
kl (r, r ) Jl (r ) dr

l=n l
m

jk (r) Gem
kl (r, r ) Ml (r ) dr

(3)
l=n l
m

Mk (r) = M0k (r) k (r) Gme
kl (r, r ) Jl (r ) dr

l=n l
m

2
k k (r) Gmm
kl (r, r ) Ml (r ) dr , (4)
l=n l
where Gee me mm em
kl (r, r ), Gkl (r, r ), Gkl (r, r ) and Gkl (r, r ) stand for the dyadic Greens
functions and correspond to the electric or magnetic eld response at the point r of an
unit point current source of electric or magnetic nature placed in r and are solution of
the Helmholtz equation. Thanks to the duality principle, only the dyads Gee
kl (r, r ) and
me
Gkl (r, r ) have to be computed and the two others are respectively obtained through:
Gem me
kl (, ) = Gkl (, ) (5)
Gmm ee
kl (, ) = Gkl (, ) (6)
Finally the response of the probe, in this case a single emitting/receiving coil, is
given by:
m & '
1
Z = 2
E0k (r ) Jk (r ) + jHk (r ) M0k (r ) dr (7)
I k
k=n
where I is the feeding current of the probe.

In order to numerically solve the system (Eq. (3)) and (Eq. (4)), a discretization by
means of a Galerkins version of the method of moments [5] is applied. The volume of
the aw is divided into N parallelepiped voxels in which the electric and magnetic
elds are taken as constant values. In doing so a linear system of equations is obtained
where the system matrix is symmetric (from properties of symmetry of the Green dyads).
This system, however, can be associated to stiff matrices since the electric and magnetic
elds might differ by orders of magnitude depending on the characteristic impedance of
the medium. From a numerical point of view, it is advantageous to equilibrate the linear
system to solve in order to avoid numerical instabilities [8].
2. Numerical results for a single layer
Our approach is validated in a single layer conguration at a frequency f = 1.5 kHz.

According to our notation we have then N = 3 and k = 2, from now the latter will
be implied. Its thickness e, its relative permeability r , its conductivity and the corre-
sponding skin depth are given in Table 1.
e r
1.25 mm 100 1 MS m1 2.3 mm
Table 1. Geometrical and physical parameters of the ferromagnetic layer.
The ferromagnetic layer is affected by cuboid-shaped voids of length L, width w and

depth d given in Table 2. Three kinds of defects are dealt with, the through-wall defect
and two having a depth equal to 40 % of the thickness of the plate called inner defect
when breaking the surface on the same side of the acquisition probe and outer defect
when breaking the surface on the opposite side.
L w d
6 mm 0.2 mm [40 %; [100 %] e
Table 2. Description of the defect affecting the layer.
The variation of impedance Z is simulated by moving a single emitting/receiving

coil along the largest dimension of a defect affecting the ferromagnetic layer. The
acquisition conguration is described in Table 3.
outer diameter inner diameter height number of turns lift-off feeding current
3.2 mm 1.2 mm 0.8 mm 140 0.5 mm 1 mA
Table 3. Description of the acquisition conguration.
2.1. Comparison with data from literature
A rst comparison between our semi-analytical model and data from the literature [7] is
presented for the conguration described in the previous section. A ferromagnetic plate
with an outer defect of 40 % of the plates thickness is considered. The number of
voxels N used to discretize the volume of the defect is 20 20 6 on x, y and z axis
respectively.
The result of this simulation is compared with a nite-elements model result from
literature [7]. In Figure 2 the impedance variations obtained with the two different models
are superposed and a good agreement between the models is observed.
2.2. Comparison with the equivalent ECT conguration in cylindrical geometry
An equivalent conguration in cylindrical geometry has been simulated (see Figure 3) in

order to test the behavior of our model in different ECT cases. The model in cylindrical
geometry is integrated in CIVA and has already been experimentally validated [2]. In
order to be able to simulate a conguration as close as possible to the previous one
6
x 10
0
Imaginary part [ohm]

4
8
iterature
model
9
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Real part [ohm] x 10
6
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Simulated ECT conguration (a) and the corresponding results (b) for a 40 % depth outer aw.
Signals show the impedance variations corresponding to the passage of the emitting/receiving coil over the
aw. The result is compared with a nite element result from the literature [7]
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Equivalent ECT conguration in cylindrical geometry (a) and the corresponding angular extension
(b). Geometrical and physicals parameters are given in Table 4.
outer diameter inner diameter w d

42.5 mm 40 mm 17.19 0.2 mm [40 %; 100 %] e
(a) Tube parameters (b) Defect parameters affecting the tube
Table 4. Parameters of the equivalent ECT conguration in cylindrical geometry described in Figure 3.
the inner and outer diameters of the tube (given in Table 4a) have been chosen large
enough with respect to those of the acquisition probe. The geometrical parameters of the
corresponding 100 % defect and 40 % inner and outer defects are reported in Table 4b.
To validate the similarity between the planar and the cylindrical congurations both
simulated results are compared in the case of an outer defect (see Figure 4). As expected
the two Z have the same shape and the same order of magnitude.
Two others congurations have been then simulated in planar and cylindrical ge-
ometries: an inner defect of 40 % (Figure 5) and a through-wall crack (Figure 6). Those
results show a good agreement between the two ferromagnetic models even if, for the
100 %-crack, a discrepancy between the two curves exists and might be caused by the
two different geometries.
6
x 10

3
7
cylindrical model
planar model
8
8 6 4 2 0
Real part [ohm] 6
x 10
(a) Comparison between the pla- (b)
nar conguration and the cylindrical
one.
Figure 4. Results for a 40 % depth outer aw. Signals show the impedance variations corresponding to the pas-
sage of the emitting/receiving coil over the aw. Comparison with the equivalent case in cylindrical geometry
of CIVA.
5
x 10
6
10
12
14
16 cylindrical model
planar model
10 5 0 5
Real part [ohm] 5
x 10
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Results for a 40 % depth inner aw. Signals show the impedance variations corresponding to the pas-
sage of the emitting/receiving coil over the aw. Comparison with the equivalent case in cylindrical geometry
of CIVA.
3. Conclusions and perspectives
A model has been developed in order to simulate the response of the ECT probe, consist-
ing in a set of emitting and receiving coils, to the presence of a aw in a planar stratied
and ferromagnetic medium. Simulations results and comparisons with the literature and
5
x 10
0

4
10
cylindrical model
planar model
12
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Real part [ohm] x 10
5
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Results for a 100 % depth aw. Signals show the impedance variations corresponding to the pas-
sage of the emitting/receiving coil over the aw. The result is compared with a nite element result from the
literature. Comparison with the equivalent case in cylindrical geometry of CIVA.
the equivalent cylindrical model of CIVA carried out in the case of a single layer and a
single emitting/receiving coil show a good agreement between the simulated signals.
Experimental validations are currently in progress and will take into account also
the stratied case and the multiple aws aspect. The perspective for this work is the
extension of the model to simulate the response of a magnetic probe containing GMR
elements.
References
[1] CIVA: State of the art simulation platform for NDE. http://www-civa.cea.fr.
[2] A. Skarlatos, G. Pichenot, D. Lesselier, M. Lambert, and B. Duchne. Electromagnetic modeling of a
damaged ferromagnetic metal tube via a volume integral formulation. IEEE Trans. Mag., 44:623632,
2008.
[3] Sverine Paillard, Grgoire Pichenot, Marc Lambert, and Hubert Voillaume. Eddy current modelling for
inspection of riveted structures in aeronautics. In S. Takahashi and H. Kikuchi, editors, Electromagnetic
NonDestructive Evaluation (X), Studies in Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics, pages 2532. IOS
Press, Amsterdam, 2007.
[4] Weng Cho Chew. Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous Media. Wiley-IEEE Press, New-York, 1999.
[5] R.F. Harrington. The method of moments in electromagnetics. J. Electromagn. Waves Appl., 1:181
200(20), 1987.
[6] B. Auld, F. Muennemann, and M. Riaziat. Research Techniques in Nondestructive Testing, volume 7,
chapter Quantitative modelling of aw responses in eddy current testing, pages 3776. 1984.
[7] Haoyu Huang, Toshiyuki Takagi, and Tetsuya Uchimoto. Fast numerical calculation for crack modeling
in eddy current testing of ferromagnetic materials. J. Appl. Phys., 94(9):58665872, 2003.
[8] A. Abubakar and P. M. van den Berg. Iterative forward and inverse algorithms based on domain integral
equations for three-dimensional electric and magnetic objects. J. Comp. Phys., 23:236262, 2004.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-141
Efficient Propagation of Uncertainty in

Simulations Via the Probabilistic
Collocation Method
Jeremy S. KNOPPa,1, John C. ALDRINb,
and Mark P. BLODGETTa
a
Air Force Research Laboratory, USA
b
Computational Tools, USA
Abstract. Eddy current models have matured to such a degree that it is now
possible to simulate realistic nondestructive inspection (NDI) scenarios. Models
have been used in the design and analysis of NDI systems and to a limited extent,
model based inverse methods for Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE). The science
base is also being established to quantify the reliability of systems via Model
Assisted Probability of Detection (MAPOD). In realistic situations, it is more
accurate to treat the input model variables as random variables rather than
deterministic quantities. Typically a Monte Carlo simulation is conducted to
predict the output of a model when the inputs are random variables. This is a
reasonable approach as long as computational time is not too long; however, in
most applications, introducing a flaw into the model results in extensive
computational time ranging from hours to days, prohibiting Monte Carlo
simulations. Even methods such as Latin Hypercube sampling do not reduce the
number of simulations enough for reasonable use. This paper presents the
Probabilistic Collocation Method as a non intrusive alternative to other
uncertainty propagation techniques.
Keywords: eddy current, Polynomial Chaos, Probabilistic Collocation Method
Introduction
Recent model development efforts have demonstrated significant advances in the

simulation of eddy current inspection scenarios [1-3]. This work is a critical
component of a strategy to use modeling and simulation in NDE to reduce the cost and
experimental burden of Probability of Detection (POD) studies, characterize damage,
and optimize probe design and inspection configuration.
The authors have investigated the utility of several numerical methods for
electromagnetic NDE. These methods include analytical methods, the finite difference
method, the finite element method (FEM), meshless FEM, the boundary element
method (BEM), and the volume integral method. In addition to these methods, hybrid
methods are also being developed [2]. While incremental advances in computational
efficiency are expected, the future development of model-assisted probability of
1
Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL RXLP), Wright Patterson AFB, OH 45433, USA, Email:
Jeremy.Knopp@WPAFB.AF.MIL
142 J.S. Knopp et al. / Efcient Propagation of Uncertainty in Simulations via the PCM
detection (MAPOD) protocols and model-based inversion schemes should not depend
on a revolution in computational efficiency. One technical capability necessary for the
realization of MAPOD and deployable model-based inverse methods is the propagation
of uncertainty in input variables. In this work, variable refers to a measurable quantity,
and parameter refers to a quantity that must be estimated such as liftoff.
Stochastic numerical methods have been developed to propagate uncertainty
efficiently without relying solely on advances in computational power. Significant
advances in stochastic computation have been made especially in the last 20 years.
This paper briefly traces the development of stochastic numerical methods pertinent to
NDE modeling and simulation. The probabilistic collocation method (PCM) is
introduced and applied to two eddy current forward models.
1. Probabilistic Collocation Method
Spectral representation of uncertainty involves decomposing a random variable into

deterministic and stochastic components. Following the work of Norbert Wiener on
Homogeneous Chaos [4], Cameron and Martin pointed out that any second-order
functional of Brownian motion can be expressed as a mean-square convergent series in
terms of infinite-dimensional Hermite polynomials in Gaussian variables [5]. Any
random process with finite second-order moments, (which encompasses most physical
phenomena) can be represented by a Polynomial Chaos expansion using Hermite
polynomials and will converge according to the Cameron-Martin theorem. If this
random process is Gaussian, the convergence is exponential. An important property of
Hermite polynomials is that they are orthogonal with respect to Gaussian probability
measure. In fact for Gaussian processes, optimal convergence is achieved with the use
of Hermite polynomials because the weighting function is the same as the probability
density function (PDF) for the Gaussian distribution. To illustrate, the definition of an
orthogonal polynomial with respect to a given weighting function w(x) is given by:
b
( f g )w = f ( x) g ( x) w( x)dx = 0 (1)
a
The inner product of functions f(x) and g(x) is zero if they are orthogonal with w(x).
The only polynomial functions that satisfy this for the case where the weighting
function is equal to the PDF of a standard normal distribution are Hermite polynomials.
Ghanem and Spanos combined this concept with the finite element method to
simulate problems in solid mechanics [6]. For non-Gaussian processes, the
convergence is not optimal, but fortunately there are other orthogonal polynomial sets
for other general types of random variables that converge exponentially [7].
In work mentioned thus far, the formulations are often intrusive, meaning that
alternation of deterministic code is necessary for implementation. A non-intrusive
method was introduced in the mid-1990s [8]. Essentially, a reduced order polynomial
form of the model is derived with minimal simulations. The input values for these
simulations are derived from the roots of orthogonal polynomials which are dependent
only on the input distributions. Hermite polynomials are associated with Gaussian
distributions as described in the preceding paragraph. The weighting function for the
J.S. Knopp et al. / Efcient Propagation of Uncertainty in Simulations via the PCM 143
Uniform distribution is simply a constant on an interval bounded by [a,b]. Legendre

polynomials are orthogonal with this weighting function.
2. Case Study 1.
Application of the Probabilistic Collocation Method is model independent, but the

decision of what order and whether to include interaction terms does depend on the
complexity of the mapping of input variables to the output response. The orthogonal
polynomials and their associated roots are dependent on the type of input distribution
and its parameters. For this case study, the team15B workshop problem presented by
Steve Burke is used [9]. All simulations are conducted using VIC-3D. The only
variable that is changed in this example is the frequency, which is 500 Hz here instead
of 7 kHz. In this problem, the probe is scanned along the notch and the real and
imaginary components of the impedance are measured. A peak in the magnitude of the
impedance is observed when the center of the coil translated along the notch at a
distance of -12 mm and 12 mm away from the origin which is the center of the notch.
The objective of this exercise is to predict the probability density function (PDF)
of the peaks of the real and imaginary components of the impedance when the liftoff of
the coil is uniformly distributed between 1.53 mm and 2.53 mm, and the depth of the
notch is normally distributed with a mean of 5 mm and standard deviation of 1 mm. In
the original problem the coil liftoff is 2.03 mm and the depth of the flaw is 5 mm.
The first step is to derive orthogonal polynomials with respect to the input
distributions. From now on the parameter liftoff will be denoted by A, and notch
depth will be denoted by B. For liftoff, Legendre polynomials associated with that
particular distribution and parameter set are shown in equation 2. For the depth, the
Hermite polynomials are shown in equation 3.
L1 ( A) = A 2.03
L2 ( A) = A2 4.06 A + 4.0376
L3 ( A) = A3 6.09 A2 + 12.2127 A 8.0609 (2)
4 3 2
L4 ( A) = A 8.12 A + 24.5111A 32.5917 A + 16.1041
L5 ( A) = A5 10.15 A4 + 40.9312 A3 81.9626 A2 + 81.4899 A 32.1796
H 1 ( ) =
H 4 ( ) = 4 6 2 + 3
H 2 ( ) = 2 1 (3)
H 5 ( ) = 5 10 3 + 15
H 3 ( ) = 3 3
Note that since the mean of the Gaussian distribution is 5, parameter B is translated by
5.
B = 5 + H1 ( ) (4)
Next, a first order model might be used to approximate the real model. In this
case, there are three unknowns X0, X1, and X2 as shown in equation 5. Since we are
interested in both the resistance and reactance, this process is done separately for each.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Change in the (a) real and (b) imaginary part of the impedance due to the
plate and flaw.
Three simulations are required to solve for the three coefficients. Four pairs of
collocation points for the inputs of the simulations are available from the roots of the
2nd order polynomials. Three pairs are selected to solve for the three unknowns. L 1
and H1 are simply evaluated at the three pairs of collocation points. This is all that is
needed for the a 1st order approximate model. Then a Monte-Carlo simulation can be
conducted on this simple model to calculate the PDF of the resistance and reactance.
To check the accuracy of this approximation, the next higher order collocation points
are necessary. The roots of the 3rd order orthogonal polynomials are used and six
simulations using the full model are conducted and compared with the approximate
model. Ultimately nine simulations are necessary for construction and evaluation of
the 1st order approximate model. Fortunately the same six simulations used for the
error check of the 1st order model can be used to construct the 2nd order approximate
model. The 4th order orthogonal polynomials are then used to check the accuracy of the
2nd order approximate model requiring eight more simulations for a total of fourteen
simulations. The authors have generally found that a 3rd order approximate model with
one interaction term is usually sufficient to predict output PDFs with good accuracy
for forward eddy current simulations, but there may be situations where higher order
approximations with more interaction terms are needed.
Y = X 0 + X 1 L1 ( A) + X 2 H1 ( B) (5)
The form of the 3rd order reduced model as described in equation 6 has eight
coefficients, one of which is an interaction term.
Y = X 0 + X 1 L1 ( A ) + X 2 H 1 ( ) + X 3 L 2 ( A ) + X 4 H 2 ( )
(6)
+ X 5 L 3 ( A ) + X 6 H 3 ( ) + X 7 L1 ( A ) H 1 ( )
To solve for the eight unknowns, eight simulations must be run. The roots of the
4th order Legendre and Hermite polynomials are used to select the input values for A
and B in these simulations. This is done separately for the real and imaginary
components of the impedance. Once again, everything is known except for the X
coefficients. The resulting system of equations is then solved and the coefficients are
listed in Table 1 for both the real and imaginary components of the impedance.
Incidentally, X0 is the expected value, which is one of the primary benefits of using
orthogonal polynomials. As expected, the interaction term X7 is close to zero in both
cases.
To check the error of this third order approximation, the roots of the 5 th order
polynomials are used to select collocation points. Ten more simulations are needed for
comparison with the reduced order model predictions. The results of the simulations
and the results of the reduced model are displayed in Table 2.
Table 1. Coefficients for 3rd order approximation model.

Model term Real Imaginary
X0 0.9693 2.4132
X1 0.2209 0.4386
X2 0.0012 0.0072
X3 0.0284 0.0479
X4 0.0004 0.0011
X5 0.0050 0.0077
X6 0.0001 0.0003
X7 0.0003 0.0018
Table 2. Evaluations of original and approximation model for error calculation.
Y real Y real Y imaginary Y imaginary

1.027 1.0270 2.5444 2.5415
1.0284 1.0280 2.5272 2.5295
1.0306 1.0305 2.5202 2.5214
0.9656 0.9656 2.4219 2.4195
0.9670 0.9666 2.4059 2.4081
0.9690 0.9690 2.3994 2.4007
0.9084 0.9084 2.3066 2.3043
0.9098 0.9092 2.2918 2.2937
0.9117 0.9116 2.2857 2.2869
0.8774 0.8778 2.2073 2.2053
The residual is defined as the difference between the full and reduced model in
equation 7, and the sum of squares of the residuals is defined in equation 8. The
relative sum of squares of the residuals is used to quantify the error in the
approximation. The relative sum of squares of the residuals is calculated by simply
dividing by the expected values as shown in equation 9. These quantities are summed
over the model results for each collocation point.
Y Y (7)
i
2
(8)
ssr = i
n
ssr
rssr = (9)
E[Y ]
The errors for the real and imaginary parts are given by: ssr(resistance) =
2.942810-4, rssr(resistance) = 3.035910-4, ssr(reactance) = 0.0020, and
rssr(reactance) = 8.479010-4.
Now there are two 3rd order polynomials with good accuracy for the real and
imaginary components of the impedance. Monte Carlo simulations can now be run
with ease on this 3rd order approximate model. The PDF for the real and imaginary
component of the impedance is shown in Figure 2(a) and 2(b) respectively.
6 25
5
2
4
15
PDF
P DF
3
1
2
05
1
0 0
0 85 09 0 95 1 1 05 11 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 2
Resistance Reactance
(a) (b)
Figure 2. PDF of the (a) real and (b) imaginary component of the impedance.
3. Case Study 2.
A second case study is presented for the characterization of a gap between multiple
plates, representing the problem of characterizing corrosion at the faying surface of a
multilayer aircraft structure. A diagram of the problem is shown in Figure 3 including
material properties and dimensions. In this hypothetical study, the thickness and
conductivity of the layer are treated as random variables. The conductivity of the top
plate is assumed to be a normal random variable with a mean value of 1.876107 S/m
and standard deviation of 3.384106 S/m as shown in Figure 4(a). The liftoff is defined
as a uniform random variable with the range of 0.55 +/- 0.05 mm as shown in Figure
2(b). VIC-3D was used to generate the simulated results for the study. The gap
between the plates was fixed at 0.3 mm and the frequency for the study was set to 4.0
kHz. Both 1st order and 2nd order PCM models were evaluated for this case requiring
only 3 and 6 model calls respectively. Monte Carlo simulations were also run with
100,000 model calls used in the study.

1 ^

air ^

2 ^
Figure 3. Diagram of case study 2 problem.

600 200
160
500 140
150
120
400
100
300 100
80
200 60
40 50
100 MC
20
PCM
0 0 0
15 2 25 05 0 52 0 54 0 56 0 58 06 0 085 0 09 0 095
(S/m) x 10
7 (a) dz (mm) (b) R (c)
g
300 0 704 0 704
0 706 0 706
250
0 708 0 708
200
0 71 0 71
150 0 712 0 712

X
X
0 714 0 714
100
0 716 0 716
50 MC 0 718 0 718
PCM 0 72 0 72
0
07 0 71 0 72 0 73 0 74 0 09 0 091 0 092 0 093 0 09 0 091 0 092 0 093
X R R
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 4. (a) Conductivity and (b) liftoff input distributions with ouput (c) resistance
and (d) reactance output 1D distributions and (e) joint distribution calculated using
PCM. (f) A joint distribution calculated using Monte Carlo simulations is provided for
comparison.
Results for the 2nd order PCM model are presented in Figures 4(c)-(f). The results
in Figures 4(c)-(d) show that the resistance is basically distributed uniformly and the
reactance is basically distributed as a normal random variable. This relationship is
expected based on the different effect of liftoff and conductivity changes in the
impedance plane. A comparison of the joint distribution calculated using both PCM
and Monte Carlo methods are shown in Figures 2(e) and 2(f) respectively. By
observation, good agreement was achieved using PCM with Monte Carlo methods
while only requiring 6 model calls here. Values for the error between the PCM and
Monte Carlo simulations for the 1st order PCM model, ssr and rssr, were 43.58 and
0.3177 respectively. Error values for the 2nd order PCM model, ssr and rssr, were
15.49 and 0.1129 respectively. Thus, the 2nd order model provides a 64.5% reduction
in the error between the PCM and Monte Carlo simulations with respect to the 1 st order
model. In conclusion, the PCM approach is highly efficient at propagating parameter
variation through models with minimal model calls.
4. Summary
A non-intrusive approach to propagating random inputs in eddy current forward

models was presented. The selection of collocation points in this method depends on
the type and parameters of the input statistical distribution and not the model itself.
Prediction of the PDF can be achieved with fewer simulations than traditional
uncertainty propagation methods. Future work will investigate using the method with
more input variables and also for inverse problems. The robustness of this method for
inverse problems will likely be much more sensitive to choice of order and interaction
terms.
5. Acknowledgements
Funding was provided in part, by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research.
Many thanks to Matt Cherry for reviewing the manuscript.
References
[1] J. S. Knopp, J. C. Aldrin, and K. V. Jata, Computational Methods in Eddy Current Crack Detection at
Fastener Sites in Multi Layer Structures, Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation, 24 (2009), 103 120.
[2] A. Skarlatos, C.G. Pascaud, G. Pichenot, G. Cattiaux and T. Sollier, Modelling of steam generator tubes
inspection in the proximity of support plates area via a coupled finite elements volume integral
method approach, in Electromagnetic Non Destructive Evaluation (XII), Studies in Applied
Electromagnetics and Mechanics, Y. K. Shin, H. B. Lee, and S. J. Song, (Eds.). Amsterdam, IOS Press
(2009), 51 58.
[3] H. A. Sabbagh, J. C. Aldrin, R. K. Murphy, and E. H. Sabbagh, Application of Model Based Inversion
to Eddy Current NDE of Heat Exchanger Tubing, in Electromagnetic Non Destructive Evaluation
(XII), Studies in Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics, Y. K. Shin, H. B. Lee, and S. J. Song,
(Eds.). Amsterdam, IOS Press (2009), 26 33.
[4] N. Wiener, The homogeneous chaos. American Journal of Mathematics, 60 (1938), 897 936.
[5] R. H. Cameron and W. T. Martin, The orthogonal development of non linear functionals in series of
Fourier Hermite functionals. Annals of Mathematics, 48 (1947), 385 392.
[6] R. G. Ghanem and P. D. Spanos, Stochastic finite elements: a spectral approach. Springer Verlag, New
York, 1991.
[7] D. Xiu and G. E. Karniadakis, The Wiener Askey polynomial chaos for stochastic differential
equations, SIAM J. Sci. Comput., 24 (2002), 619 644.
[8] M.A. Tatang, W.W. Pan, R.G. Prinn, and G.J. McRae, An efficient method for parametric uncertainty
analysis of numerical geophysical model, J. Geophy. Res., 102 (1997), 21925 21932.
[9] www.compumag.org/jsite/images/stories/TEAM/problem15.pdf
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-149
Computation of the magnetic eld due to

a defect embedded in a planar stratied
media: Application to AC eld
measurement techniques
Denis PRMEL 1 and Grgoire PICHENOT
CEA, LIST, Centre de Saclay, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
Abstract. Eddy current techniques are useful for the detection and the characteriza-
tion of aws in conductive structures. The aw signal results from the measurement
of the local punctual value of the perturbed magnetic eld above the metal surface
in the vicinity of the defect by using some magnetic eld sensor (Giant Magneto
Resistance sensor (GMR) or Giant Magnetic Impedance sensor (GMI). This paper
aims to describe a semi-analytical numerical model integrated into the CIVA plat-
form which is able to compute the aw signal due to a given notch embedded in
a planar stratied media. The inducer may be chosen in a list of available exciting
coils into CIVA. Some numerical experiments and a comparison between simulated
data and experimental data show the validity of the new developments.
Keywords. Eddy current non destructive testing, Greens dyad formalism, Giant
Magneto-Resistance sensor, Giant Magneto-Impedance sensor
1. Introduction
Eddy current techniques are very useful for the detection and the characterization of
aws in conductive structures. Eddy currents are induced in the workpiece under test by
carrying a sinusoidal current in one or a set of exciting coils. According to the operat-
ing frequency, eddy currents induced in a thin "skin" near the surface of the conductive
media interact with a aw in such a way that currents ow around the ends of the defect
and down the faces of the defect. The deviation of eddy currents results in the perturba-
tion of the magnetic eld above the metal surface and in the vicinity of the defect. The
awed signal is analyzed in order to locate and size surface defects. Considering Non
Destructive Techniques (NDT), the variations of the magnetic eld can be detected by
the changes in the impedance of the exciting coil as it is commonly achieved in Eddy
Current (EC) methods. The aw signal is thus due to the global variation of the per-
turbed magnetic eld. An alternative NDT method, Alternating Current Field Measure-
ment (ACFM) consists in analyzing the aw signal provided by some magnetic eld sen-
sor as Giant Magneto-Resistance (GMR) or Giant Magneto Impedance sensors [1,2,3,4].
1 Corresponding Author: Denis Prmel, CEA LIST; E-mail: denis.premel@cea.fr
150 D. Prmel and G. Pichenot / Computation of the Magnetic Field
The aw signal results from the measurement of local, punctual values of the surface
magnetic eld. This signal is obtained by using a tiny inductive sensor or a magnetic
eld sensor [5].
ACFM technique is very useful for sizing any crack with a simple geometry. The
prediction of crack parameters (i.e. the length, the opening and the depth) from the mag-
netic eld is of great interest in practice. The resolution of this inverse problem requires
preliminarily solving efciently the forward problem, i.e. to be available to compute the
components of the magnetic eld resulting from the interaction of the crack with eddy
currents generated by some appropriated inducer. This paper aims to describe a numer-
ical model based on the volume integral approach [6,7,8] which allows one to compute
the aw signal due to a given notch embedded in a planar stratied media. The inducer
may be chosen arbitrarily from a list of exciting coils [9,10] available into CIVA [11] (a
NDT numerical platform dedicated to several NDT techniques). In ACFM techniques,
rectangular coils or current foils are preferably used in order to generate a uniform cur-
rent ow orientated perpendicularly to the length of the aw. This numerical model is
rstly numerically validated by using two kinds of numerical models. These ones differ
from the observation equation which is used for computing the response of the magnetic
sensor. Then, some validation experimental results are presented. These new develop-
ments, translated into new functionalities in the last version of CIVA allow one to con-
duct some parametric studies such as the lift-off of the magnetic sensor, the tilt of the
inducer, and other parameters which could be able to inuence the sizing of the defect by
using one or two components of the magnetic eld. This work precedes also some work
dedicated to the inversion problem [12].
2. An example of ECT conguration
Figure 1 displays an example of ECT conguration consisting of a stratied slab affected

by aws. Eddy currents in the slab are induced by an exciting coil driven by an alternative
current of angular frequency . Into the CIVA software, this coil may be chosen among
cylindrical coils, with a ferrite core or not, or rectangular coils. In this gure, we consider
two rectangular coils in order to approach the behavior of a uniform current in the Y
direction. In this gure, we also assume a magnetic sensor which is able to provide the
three components of the perturbed magnetic eld due to the presence of the defects. It
is important to note that the response of the sensor is obtained taking into account the
sensitivity of the sensor, expressed in Volts per Tesla and that the response results from
the difference between the eld obtained in the presence of the aw and the eld obtained
when there is no aw. The computation module may consider an arbitrary number N of
layers made of materials being linear, isotropic and not magnetic (with the permeability
of the vacuum denoted by 0 ). The conductivity l of each layer is constant, except when
there is a aw. This one is indeed represented by local variations of the conductivity (r)
in the lth layer.
The continuation of this paper is organized as follows. In section 3, the eddy current
modeling problem is solved by using the Volume Integral Method implying a system of
two integral equations for which the kernels are based on the Greens dyad formalism.
In the previous version of the CIVA platform, the computation of the e.m.f induced in
a receiving pick-up coil is available but we aim at the addition of new functionalities in
D. Prmel and G. Pichenot / Computation of the Magnetic Field 151
Figure 1. An example of ECT conguration.
order to have the capability to compute the punctual values of each component of the
perturbed magnetic eld above the awed material. So, two approaches are considered
for obtaining the numerical solutions of the forward problem. These two approaches are
used for the numerical validation of the new functionalities. Numerical results used for
the numerical validation are compared in section 4 while a real experiment is proposed in
section 5. Finally experimental data are compared with simulated data in order to show
the experimental validation. A short conclusion follows in section 6.
3. The Volume Integral Method and the specic dyad for the problem
The computation of the perturbed magnetic eld above the plate requires computing
rstly the electrical internal eld in a nite domain surrounding the aw. Each layer
may include one nite volume containing an object and the total internal eld in each
layer k results from the interaction from the primary eld Epk (r) in the layer due to the
driving probe and the perturbation eld due to a set of elementary aws, each one being
considered in a single layer l. The total electric eld in each layer, denoted by Ek (r), is
given by:
N

Epk (r) Gkl (r, r ) [l (r )] El (r ) d
(ee)
Ek (r) = j0 (1)
l=1 aw
The contribution is null if there is no aw in the lth layer ((r ) = l ). The superscript
(ee) means that we compute the components of the electrical eld due to an unit point
source which is a solution of:
Gkl (r, r ) kk2 Gkl (r, r ) = kl I (r r ).

(ee) (ee)
(2)
In this last equation, the observation point r is assumed to be in the layer k while the
source point r is in the layer l. kl stands for the Kronecker symbol and I is the unit
dyad. According to the quasi-static regime, the wave number kk2 in the k th layer is given
by kk2 = j0 k . The Greens dyads satisfy as usually the appropriated boundary condi-
tions at the innity in the transverse directions and at the interfaces between two different
layers in the normal direction to the planar surface of the stratied medium. The analyt-
ical expression of the Greens dyad corresponding to a multilayered planar medium is
given in [13].
The total internal eld in each layer appears inside and outside the integral. This
state integral equation must be solved numerically by the Moment Method (MoM) [14].
Knowing the total electrical eld in each layer, the perturbed magnetic eld can be com-
puted above the plate, in the air region 1, by an observation equation which introduces
the Greens dyad G1k (r, r ). The superscript (me) means that the components of the
(me)
magnetic eld is calculated due to a current dipole:
(r, r ) = Gkl (r, r )

(me) (ee)
Gkl (3)
The total perturbed magnetic eld takes into account all the contributions of each
layer k:
N

G1k (r, r ) [k (r )] Ek (r ) d
(me)
B1 (r) = 0 (4)
k=1 aw
This equation has been implemented into CIVA. In order to validate these new de-
velopments, some other numerical data have been computed by using another numerical
code which has been previously validated. Let us consider that the components of the
magnetic eld can be estimated by the e.m.f induced in a tiny pick-up coil when the sec-
tion of the pick-up coil tends towards zero. In this case, the response of three receiving
pick-up tiny coils is given by the changes in the mutual impedance and can be obtained
via the reciprocity theorem:
N

I1 I2 Z = [l (r)] El (r) Epl (r) d (5)
l=1 aw
where Epl (r ) stands for the primary eld that would be induced by the receiving coil
in the awed region, in the lth layer, if it was driven by a current I2 , and I1 is the
driving current of the exciting coil. The total electrical eld El (r) in the lth layer comes
from the numerical resolution of equation (1). According to the orientation of the pick-
up receiving coil, one can obtain an approximation of one component of the magnetic
eld by using the Faraday-Lorentz law. The numerical results which can be obtained by
these two approaches can be now compared in order to show the validity of these new
functionalities.
4. Numerical Validation
Figure 2 displays the overview and the front view of an ECT conguration consisting of
a non magnetic slab constituted by four layers. The thickness of each layer is xed at
0.8 mm, the values of the conductivities of each layer expressed in MS/m are given by
1 = 0.1, 2 = 0.5, 3 = 1, 4 = 10. The operating frequency is chosen at 100 kHz and
let us consider two notches. The rst one is breaking the surface of the rst layer, it is 2
mm length, 0.3 mm depth and its opening is 0.1 mm. The second aw is embedded at the
top of the third layer, its length is equal to 4 mm, its depth is 0.5 mm and its opening is
also 0.1 mm. These two aws are differently orientated, the rst one is orientated along
the X axis while the second one is orientated along the Y direction. The eddy current
(EC) probe is constituted by two exciting rectangular coils. For each one, the inner width
is 4 mm , the inner length is 8 mm and the height is equal to 0.1 mm. The number of
turns is 5 and nally the width of the current foil is 1 mm.
Figure 2. An overview (on the left) and a front view (on the right) of an ECT conguration used for a numerical
validation.
The EC probe is scanning along three lines in the X direction and three values of
the Y position have been chosen in order to verify the validity of the results in the two
directions of scanning. Figure 3 and 4 show a comparison between the two numerical
approaches resulting from the implementation of equations (4) and (5). The real and the
imaginary parts of the Bx , Bz components are respectively shown. Three curves are dis-
played corresponding to three values of the Y position of the probe. These numerical re-
sults show a good agreement between the two numerical approaches. In the next section,
an experimental validation is achieved.
5. Experimental validation
Experimental data have been obtained from an experimental set-up which is depicted in
Figure 5. Let us consider a non magnetic slab made of Inconel 600, the conductivity is
assumed to be 1.02 MS/m. The operating frequency is 100 kHz. Eddy current are in-
duced in the slab by a rectangular coil which is etched on a exible lm. The inner width
of the coil is 23 mm, the inner length is 62 mm and the height is equal to 35 m. The
number of turns is 100 and nally the width of the current foil is 7 mm. The distance from
the bottom of the exciting coil to the slab is about 2 mm. A Giant Magneto Resistance
sensor (GMR) measures the Bx component of the magnetic eld. The EC experimental
signal is obtained by subtracting the response of the probe in the awed region and the
Figure 3. Real and Imaginary parts on the Bz component.
Figure 4. Real and Imaginary parts on the Bx component.
signal without the aw. The distance from the GMR to the target is about 0.1 mm but
this value can be affected by an uncertainty due to the encapsulation of the sensitive part
of the sensor in the chip. The thickness of the slab is 1.55 mm and we consider a rst
notch for a preliminary procedure denoted by "calibration" . Indeed, in most industrial
applications, due to uncertainties in the experimental system, the measured EC signal
has to be calibrated with respect to a reference conguration. At this stage, we choose a
rst notch of 10 mm length, 0.93 mm depth and the opening is 0.1 mm. The EC probe is
scanning a line along the length of the defect and nally simulated data and experimental
data are normalized in order to t the maximum value of the magnitude of the EC signal.
The shape of the two signals are compared in Figure 6(a). In this gure, the real and the
imaginary part of the signals are represented, the same signals are also displayed in the
impedance plane diagram. As it is expected, the comparison shows a very small discrep-
ancy between simulated data and experimental data due to, probably, local variations of
the lift-off during the movement of the probe. The complex value of the normalization
constant is xed for all the following results of comparison. Figure 6(b) displays the EC
signals when the probe is scanning perpendicularly to the defect.
In the last experiment, let us consider two identical aws separated by a gap of 3
mm (See Fig. 8(a)). The length of each defect is 10 mm, the opening is 0.1 mm and
the depth is 0.76 mm. Figure 7(a) and 7(b) display two cartographies of the EC signals
Figure 5. A scheme of the experimental set-up and an example of the EC probe including the GMR Sensor.
Only one rectangular coil is activated for obtaining experimental data.
(a) the probe scans a line parallel to the notch (b) the probe scans perpendicularly to the notch
Figure 6. A comparison of the EC signals of the rst aw.
collected when the probe is scanning above the awed region. Figure 8(b) shows a slice
view when the probe is moved along a line parallel to the X axis.
(a) Simulated data (b) Experimental data
Figure 7. Two cartographies corresponding to the magnitude of the EC signals.
6. Conclusion
The Volume Integral Method (VIM) and the Greens dyadic formalism has been applied
in order to compute the response of a magnetic sensor due to an arbitrary number of aws
in a stratied planar structure. The new functionalities which have been developed are
able to compute the punctual value of the perturbed magnetic eld above a awed region.
Two numerical approaches have been compared in order to show the validity of the new
developments and some comparison results between simulated data and some experi-
(a) The experimental set-up. (b) the probe scans perpendicularly to the notch
Figure 8. A comparison if the EC signals due to two close aws when the probe is scanning along a line
parallel to the notch.
mental data conrm the validity of the global modeling approach. These developments
will be available in the new version of the CIVA platform and some new developments
are today already engaged for considering magnetic materials of constant permeability.
References
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Rectangular Coils", IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, 35(3), (1999), 2001-2006.
[2] M. Ravan, S.H.H. Sadeghi and R. Moini, "Neural network approach for determination of fatigue crack
depth prole in a metal, using alternating current eld measurement data", IET Sci. Measurement Tech-
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[3] R. K. Amineh, M. Ravan, S. H. Sadeghi, and R. Moini, "Removal of Probe Liftoff Effects on Crack
Detection and Sizing in Metals by the AC Field Measurement Technique", ", IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics, 44(8), (2008), 20662073.
[4] R. K. Amineha,1, M. Ravan, S.H. Sadeghi R. Moini, "Using AC eld measurement data at an arbi-
trary liftoff distance to size long surface-breaking cracks in ferrous metals", NDT&E International, 41,
(2008), 169177.
[5] B. Marchand, C. Zorni, J.M. Decitre and O. Casula, "Recent Developments of Eddy currents
probes",ENDE 2009, to be published.
[6] J.R. Bowler and L.D. Sabbagh and H.A. Sabbagh, "A Theoretical and Computational Model of Eddy
Current Probes incorporating volume integral and Conjuguate Gradient Methods", IEEE Transactions
on magnetics, 25(3), (1989), 26502664.
[7] J.R. Bowler and S.A. Jenkins and L.D. Sabbagh and H.A. Sabbagh, "Eddy Current Probe Impedance
due to a volumetric aw", Journal of Applied Physics, 70(3), (1991), 11071114.
[8] J.M. Decitre, D. Prmel and M. Lemistre, "3D Modelling of a Magneto-optic imager by a dyadic Greens
functions approach", Review of quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, 22, ed. D.O. Thompson and
D.E. Chimenti, IOP, (2003), 695-702.
[9] T. Theodoulidis, G Pichenot , "Integration of tilted coil models in a volume integral method for realistic
simulations of eddy current inspections", Electromagnetic Non-Destructive Evaluation (XI), Studies in
Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics, A. Tambourino, Y. Melikhov and L. Udpa, Amsterdam, IOS
Press, 2008.
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[11] www-civa.cea.fr.
[12] D. Prmel and A. Baussard, "Eddy current evaluation of three-dimensional aws in at conductive
materials using a Bayesian approach, Inverse problems, 18(6), (2002), 18731889.
[13] W.C. Chew,"Waves and elds in inhomogeneous media", IEEE Press (2nd edition), Piscataway,1995.
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-157
Automatic Detection and Identification of

Image Quality Indicators in Radiograms
Piotr BANIUKIEWICZ1 and Ryszard SIKORA
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, al. Piastow 17, 70-310
Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. In this paper the authors focus on detection of wire image quality
indicators, which are widely applied in industrial radiography. Two algorithms for
IQI detection are proposed. The first algorithm is intended for fast and rough
detection of position of IQIs. It is based on evaluation of correlation between the
radiographic image of IQI (together with a plastic case) and the fragments of the
analyzed radiogram. The second algorithm uses the Radon transform applied to the
region of interest (ROI) obtained from the first algorithm to extract the exact
position of wires as well as information on visibility of each wire.
Keywords. object recognition, radiography
Introduction
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials by causing coalescence. This is

often done by melting two workpieces and joining them to make coalescence possible.
Many different energy sources can be used for melting materials. The most popular are
gas flame, electric arc, laser beam, friction and ultrasound. Welding can be done in
many different environments, including open air, underwater and space. The chemical
and physical processes that occur during melting and joining materials are very
complicated and not fully understood. For example, metal cooling is a highly nonlinear
physical process which proceeds simultaneously with chemical reactions. Those
processes result in raising mechanical tensions in material as well as forming new
chemical compounds in joint area (e.g. gases, slag, etc). Those undesired products are
often the source of potential cracks and discontinuities in the joint. Additionally, the
heat applied to the joint area in the process of welding causes overheating of the
surrounding material and in the result the changes in its mechanical properties.
Therefore, welding without proper precautions can be dangerous because of possible
occurrence of defects and discontinuities in the weld. Due to high complications, the
weld testing process mostly relies on the experience of human being. Defects and
discontinuities in the weld can reduce the strength of the joint and can lead to a
catastrophic failure. This is critical due to the application of a welding technique for
joining stress-exposed parts such as ship hulls, skyscrapers, bridges and many more.
There are many methods of nondestructive testing of the weld. Unfortunately, in most
1
Corresponding Author: Piotr BANIUKIEWICZ, West Pomeranian University of Technology, al Piastow 17,
70 310 Szczecin, Poland, email: baniuk@zut.edu.pl
158 P. Baniukiewicz and R. Sikora / Automatic Detection and Identication of IQIs in Radiograms
cases, the weld area is inhomogeneous, which is the result of processes which take
place during metal cooling. This is a potential source of unwanted signals and
disturbances that affect all methods of weld testing.
Through the years the technology that utilizes penetrating rays has been the most
important nondestructive testing (NDT) method. Fast and accurate x-ray converters that
have been developed recently open new possibilities for x-ray applications and make
this technique as flexible as never before. Digital radiography joins modern digital
image processing algorithms with traditional x-ray testing method. Together with the
fast development of digital radiography, there arise new nondestructive testing
technologies based on it. One of the biggest problems of assuring the demanded quality
of a product is the need of analyzing a large number of radiograms. In shipbuilding
industry this number can reach even thousands. All radiograms must be analyzed by a
qualified operator in order to find those welds which do not fulfill very restrictive
safety norms. This process takes a lot of time and effort but it tends to be fully
automated.The advanced computerized systems for radiogram analysis are still under
development [1] and the decision taken by a human being is still considered as the most
reliable and trustworthy. The process of radiogram analysis consists of a few stages
which are strictly regulated by adequate norms. The first stage is always accepting or
rejecting the radiogram according to its quality. Too dark, too bright, blurred or noised
radiograms do not provide trustworthy information on internal structure of the
specimen. In this paper the authors present an algorithm for detecting Image Quality
Indicators (IQIs), which are commonly used for obtaining the quality of radiogram.
This algorithm can be applied in the first stage of radiogram analysis process and it
stands as a part of the automatic radiogram analysis system (ISARView) which is being
developed by the authors. The aim of this procedure is only to find IQI in the
radiogram and pass its position to other procedures implemented it the system for
further analysis (e.g. accepting or rejecting radiogram because of its quality). The main
procedure has been implemented in C++ and optimized for 64-bit environment.
1. Image Quality Indicators
In radiography, one usually has a wide choice in the parameters of the radiographic
technique. Most of them are regulated by norms but there is still margin for changes
that can be done making the radiogram better or worse. For example, one has a choice
of source-to-specimen distance, a choice of film type, a choice of film density, a choice
of X-ray kilovoltage, X-rays or gamma-rays etc. The resulting radiograph therefore can
vary between high quality and poor quality; quality in this case meaning the ability to
detect small critical flaws such as cracks [2]. There are a lot of norms, both national
and international, issued for particular applications as well as for a general purpose,
giving advice or instructions on the choice of technique details, in order to ensure good
quality radiographs. The usual method for measuring image quality in radiography is
the use of Image Quality Indicators (IQIs). The quality of a radiographic image can be
estimated in terms of three factors:
Image unsharpness
Image contrast
Image noise
P. Baniukiewicz and R. Sikora / Automatic Detection and Identication of IQIs in Radiograms 159
Figure 1. Exemplary image quality indicators of one wire (a). The effects of increasing geometric
unsharpness in a duplex type IQI. A pair where the individual wire images are merged (c) and one can
no longer see the two separate (b) wires stand for the unsharpness measure.
Using IQI it is possible to obtain all these three parameters and assess the quality of
picture. There are four main types of IQIs. Those are: the wire type, the step/hole type,
the hole-in-plaque type and the duplex wire type. Here, only the wire type and the
duplex wire type are considered. A typical wire IQI contains six or seven straight wires
of the same or similar material to the specimen having various diameters. The wires are
held parallel to one another in a plastic mount with appropriate identification symbols.
The double wire indicator is quite similar to wire type one. It consists of a series of
pairs of wires of high density material (tungsten and platinum) where each pair of wires
of diameter d is spaced at a distance d apart. Typical construction details and
dimensions are specified in norms [3],exemplary indicators are depicted in Figure 1.
The quality of the radiogram is defined based on the visibility of the wires. The duplex
wire IQI measures only unsharpness as it is explained in Figure 1.
2. Problem statement
The most important problem relating to IQI detection is that the low signal amplitude
of the IQIs contributes to their poor visibility. Additionally, a typical radiogram
consists of nonlinear trend that results from nonhomogeneity of the specimen and its
non-uniform thickness. The amplitude of the trend signal is much greater than the
intensities of particular wires. Thus, the process of the automatic determination of the
Figure 2. Exemplary real radiograms (fragment with IQI only) and corresponding averaged intensity
profiles taken along weld line.
quality of the radiogram needs special algorithms for accurate detection of IQIs.
Exemplary real radiograms and intensity profiles are showed in Figure 2. The intensity
profiles are averaged from dozens of lines taken along the weld line. As one can see,
the signal from the wires is very poorly visible due to the low SNR. On the other hand,
the plastic case form IQI gives a clear signal that is visible in intensity profile. This
gives a possibility to detect position of IQI by means of image recognition algorithms.
3. The IQI detection process
The process of detection of IQIs was divided into two steps. In the first stage only the
presence and the position of the indicator are obtained whereas, the second step
provides exact information on the position of particular wires. Thus, it is possible to
evaluate the quality of the radiogram based on the visibility of wires in the wire type
indicator or merging a pair of wires for the double wire indicator. Under fundamental
initial assumptions for both algorithms lies norm [3] that regulates placement of IQI in
the radiogram. In the case of welds, it is expected that IQIs are always located on the
weld line almost perpendicular to it. Thus, the region of the analysis is limited to the
weld line and a small surrounding area.
The plastic case covering the wires in IQI is the best visible part of the whole
indicator in the radiogram as well as in the intensity profile. This fact is used in the
process of detection and localization of IQI. The algorithm works with averaged
intensity profiles taken along the weld line. The position of IQI is obtained from a
fusion of two methods commonly used in the pattern recognition. Those methods are:
1) to measure the dependence between sought pattern p and signal I using Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient and 2) evaluating phase correlation between
Fourier transform of pattern p and Fourier transform of signal I. The pattern p is
generated artificially as an average calculated from dozens of intensity profiles of IQIs
obtained from various radiograms. The resulting waveform can be assumed as the best
representative of IQI signal holding general features of that signal.The correlation
coefficients were calculated between the pattern p and the window of size p sliding
over the signal I with step of 1:
n Ii p Ii p
ri = (1)
n I ( Ii ) n p ( p )
2 2 2 2
i
where Ii stands for i-th position of the window in the signal I, n is the number of
elements of p and Ii. The position of the maximum of function r is correlated with the
position of IQI in the radiogram. In order to make the detection process more reliable
the second criterion based on phase correlation has been proposed. In image processing,
phase correlation is a method of image registration, and uses a fast frequency-domain
approach to estimate the relative translative offset between two similar images. Here,
this approach was applied to one-dimensional waveforms, namely intensity profile I
and pattern p:
{
rp = F 1 e
(
i I p )
} (2)
Figure 3. Plots of Pearson product moment correlation coefficient r and phase correlation rp evaluated
for intensity I (Figure 1b) and searched pattern p. Function R is fusion of r and rp clearly pointing
position x of IQI (x=1182 for radiogram depicted in Figure 1b).
where F-1 stands for inverse Fourier transform and I, p are phases of Fourier
transforms of I and p respectively.
Because of the noise and the linear trend that are mostly present in radiographic
images there is no clear maximum in either of the functions visible. Thus, the final
criterion R was proposed as a fusion of correlation function r and phase correlation rp.
All those functions are depicted in Figure 3. The position of the maximum of R stands
for the position of IQI in the radiogram.
In practice, the smallest element readily visible in the area under inspection is used
to determine IQI sensitivity. Thus, the information on the presence or the position of
IQI in the radiogram is not sufficient to draw any conclusions on its quality. One must
know where exactly the wires are located and which of them are visible. For this reason
the second algorithm has been developed. It uses information on location of IQI
obtained from the first method to find positions of wires in the indicator. One of the
well known methods commonly used for detecting straight lines in pictures is the use
of Radon transform or related Hough transform. Using the Cartesian coordinate system
to describe line integrals and projections, the IQI is represented by a two-dimensional
function f(x, y) and each line integral by the (, t) parameters. The equation of the line
(being a particular wire in our case) is:
t = x cos + y sin (3)
The integral of line (3) is given as follows:
P (t ) =
( , t ) line
f ( x, y ) ds (4)
what yields :

P (t ) =

f ( x, y ) ( x cos + y sin t ) dxdy (5)
where stands for the projection angle, t defines the position of the integral line on the
projection and P(t) is known as Radon transform of function f(x, y) [4].
The most important feature of Radon transform is amplifying straight lines to be
found in pictures invariantly to their rotation angle. This makes it especially useful in
the IQI detection process. Figure 4 shows Radon transform (sinogram) of the
Figure 4. a) The IQI wires pattern generated artificially according to norms, b) Radon transform of part
of the radiographic image and c) integrated intensity for =6 as function of t. d)Results of detection of
IQI position.
radiogram section that contains IQI. It is clearly visible on the line integral that peaks
from the wires have been amplified in comparison to those original ones depicted in
Figure 2. The detection algorithm of these peaks was realized in the same way as in the
case of the first step described above. The correlation function r (1) is evaluated for all
angles from the sinogram and an artificially generated pattern representing the ideal
IQI signal. The pattern is a sum of six Gaussian functions with increasing amplitudes
(Fig. 4a). But now, unlike the previous case, the wires are under consideration and not
the plastic case. Therefore, the maximum of r is found for two arguments of function
P(t) and it stands for the best matching of the whole artificial IQI pattern to the line
integral for given (Fig. 4c). The angle is the rotation angle of the IQI relating to x
axis whereas t is the radial coordinate of the first wire (beginning of the pattern) in the
indicator. Having and t, the first wire can be expressed as linear function y(x) defined
for analyzed region of interest, which has been found by first algorithm, in the
radiogram:

y ( x ) = tan + ( x x0 t cos ( ) ) + y0 (6)
2
where x0 and y0 stand for the centre of the image. The result of the wires detection is
presented in Figure 4d.
Conclusions
Radiography is the most popular and well known method of nondestructive testing
widely applied in industry. Information on the quality of radiographic picture is
especially important in the case of the method of nondestructive testing. The algorithms
for IQI detection presented in this paper have been applied in the automatic system of
radiogram analysis (ISARView) in the first stage of the whole process of the analysis.
Taking into consideration the fact that even thousands of radiographic pictures can be
taken during manufacturing of e.g. a ship, the methods presented in this paper can
significantly speed up the whole process of nondestructive testing in various branches
of industry.
Acknowledgments
This work was conducted in a framework of the research project The intelligent
system for radiograms analysis, supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and
Higher Education. Grant no. NNR01003706/2009 (2009-2012).
References
[1] European Commission sponsored project Development of novel digital radiography technology. To
facilitate the traditionally less research intensive inspection industry sector change from manual film
radiography to automated digital, contract No NMP2 C 2005 515746.
[2] R. Halmshaw, T. Kowol, Image quality indicators in industrial radiography, IE NDT LTD technical
materials
[3] European norm EN 462 part 1:1994
[4] A. G. Rann, and A. I. Katsevich, The Radon Transform and Local Tomography, Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press, 1996.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-164
Numerical Simulation of Acoustoelastic

Effect in Pre-stressed Media
Cuixiang PEI1 and Kazuyuki DEMACHI
Department of Nuclear Engineering and Management, University of Tokyo,
Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
Abstract: In this work, a code of finite element method is developed for numerical
simulation of the acoustoelastic effect in pre stressed media. The possibility of
assessing the stress status, by using the EMAT (electromagnetic acoustic
transducer) receiver for precise measurement of LCR (refracted longitudinal) wave,
is investigated. Besides that, the relationship between the polarization of transient
Rayleigh wave and the state of stress is also predicted by simulation.
Keywords: Ultrasonic NDE, Residual stress, Acoustoelastic effect, EMAT,

Polarization
Introduction
Ultrasonic NDE is one of the most promising methods for quantitative determination of
residual stress in materials. And, most of ultrasonic methods for stress measurement are
based on the effect of acoustoelasticity. The acoustoelastic effect, related to the change
of ultrasonic wave speed and the polarization of Rayleigh wave, is a well established
phenomenon that has been extensively reported in lots of literatures [1-4]. At present,
the residual stress measurement by using acoustoelastic effect is mainly studied with
experiment method. And simultaneously, the numerical simulation method can provide
an another useful tool for the research of stress measurement with ultrasonic wave. In
this work, the possibility of numerical simulation of acoustoelastic effect related to the
stress status was investigated by using FEM method.
Now in the practical application, the stress measurement using ultrasonic wave is
mainly based on measuring the variation of ultrasonic wave velocity by time-of-flight.
As the LCR wave is more sensitive to the in-plane stress and easy to yield, it is widely
used in the subsurface stress measurement [9]. In this work, a kind of non-contact
transducer named EMAT is proposed to precisely measure the acoustoelastic effect on
LCR wave.
There are some literatures have demonstrated that the polarization of Rayleigh
wave related to the state of stress is usually more sensitive than the wave speed. The
relationship between Rayleigh wave polarization and state of stress in homogeneous
material was investigated by Junge et al[3]. However, in their analytical model, only a
steady sinusoidal Rayleigh wave propagates in the material. Actually it is very difficult
to generate a pure steady Rayleigh wave in the media, the Rayleigh wave in sinusoidal
mode is usually interfered by the longitudinal and shear wave. In that case, it is
1 Email: peicx2009@gmail.com
C. Pei and K. Demachi / Numerical Simulation of Acoustoelastic Effect in Pre-Stressed Media 165
impossible to get an accurate estimation of the Rayleigh wave's polarization in the

steady mode by experiments[5, 6]. However, it is possible to measure the polarization
of the Rayleigh wave in a single pulse when it is separated from the longitudinal or
shear wave. Therefore, it is very meaningful to investigate the polarization of the
transient pulse Rayleigh wave related to the stress status.
1. Analytical model and numerical method
1.1 The acoustoelastic effect in solids
An ultrasonic wave through a stressed body would give rise to further stresses, and the
traditional theory of acoustoelasticity applied in the unstressed medium cannot be used
here. Instead, based on the deformation process, Duquennoy et al. defined a theory of
three states of a body, shown in Figure 1 [3, 4]. A solid body undergoes a series of
deformations from a stress free state to a static deformation or a dynamic deformation.
The position vector defines the position of a point in the natural state of zero stress
and zero strain. X defines the position of a point in the initial state when the body
undergoes a static deformation due to residual stress during the manufacturing
processes or due to the applied stresses. Similarly x defines the position in the final
states when a dynamic deformation such as the ultrasonic wave through the body. The
displacement of a point from one state to another can be described mathematically as:
u i ( ) X ; u f ( ) x ; u ( ) x X uf ui
Figure 1. Coordinates for material point in three states
Based on the three-state theory, the controlling equation of the acoustic wave in a
solid with initial stress can be written as
( ) X uX
2
i u I 2u I
IK JL + C IJKL
K
+f i
0 (1 NN ) (1)
J L t t 2
where i is the Cauchy stress tensor in the initial state, i the initial strain tensor and
0 the mass density in the natural state, is the acoustic damping coefficient, f is
the external force loading on the body. And for isotropic material the elastic constant
can be expressed as
166 C. Pei and K. Demachi / Numerical Simulation of Acoustoelastic Effect in Pre-Stressed Media
C IJKL IJ KL + ( IK JL + IL JK ) + [( + v1 ) IJ KL
i
+ ( + v2 )( IK JL + IL JK )] NN + 2( + v2 )( IJi KL + KL
i
IJ ) (2)
i i i i
+ 2( + v3 )( JL + JK + IL + IK )
IK IL JK JL
where and are the well known Lame constants and vi (i 1, 2,3) are the
third-order elastic constants (TOE constants).
1.2 Numerical simulation method for Ultrasonic wave
According to FEM, Eq. (1) can be calculated by solving the discrete wave motion Eq.
(3)
[ M ]{U&&} + [C ]{U& } + [ K ]{U } {F } (3)
where [ M ] denotes the mass matrix, [C ] the damping matrix, [ K ] the stiffness
matrix, {U } the nodal displacement and {F } the force vector. Eq. (3) is rearranged
into the following equation by using the explicit integration method in time-domain [7]
{U& }t +t = {U& }t t 2t [ M ]1 [C ]{U& }t 2t [ M ]1 [ K ]{U }t + 2t [ M ]1 {F }t
(4)
{U& }t +t + {U& }t
{U }t +t = {U }t + t
2
1.3 Numerical method for EMAT Receiver
A typical configuration for an EMAT receiver of acoustic waves in a test-piece is

shown in Figure 2. It is usually composed of a static magnet and a set of coils (named
pick-up coil). When the ultrasonic wave occurred in the test-piece under the EMAT
receiver, the vibration by the ultrasonic wave would interact with the static magnetic
flux density of the static magnet B0 to yield transient eddy current J e in the metal.
Je e v B0 , v is the velocity of a particle, e is the conductivity of the metal.
And a micro current would be induced by the electromagnetic induction effect. The
magnetic flux density B0 of a permanent magnet can be calculated by equivalent
magnetic charge approach [7]. The most direct way to calculate the pick-up signals of
the EMAT receiver is to use Biot-Savart's law. According to Faraday's law, the
electromotive signal of the pick-up coil is produced in the pick-up coil by the flux
variation,
N
B ef
Ve
i =1 Si t
dS (5)
f
where B e is the reaction magnetic flux density at a position of the pick-up coil
produced by the transient eddy current, N is the number of turns of the pick-up coil,
and Si is a surface surrounded by the wire of i-th pick-up coil. Substituting
B ef A ef into Eq. (5) and applying Bio-Savat's law, we have,
(6)
where i is boundary of surface Si and r denotes the distance from a current

source point in the conductor to a point in the pick-up coil.
2. Simulation of the Acoustoelastic effect in LCR wave
2.1 Numerical model
In order to demonstrate the feasibility of this simulation method, the LCR waves
acoustoelastic effect related to the in-plane stress was simulated in a three-dimension
model, shown in Figure 2. As the piezoelectric (PZT) ultrasonic transducer is better as
generator; and EMAT is better as detector. A PZT angle transducer was used to
generate the LCR wave, and an EMAT probe was used to receive the time behavior of
the LCR wave signal for different initial stresses x , uniaxially directed along the x
axis. As shown in Table 1[6, 8], two kinds of material have been used here. Where, the
sensitivity constant kc is defined as a relative change in wave speed per unit change in
stress. When the longitudinal wave speed through a wedge is 2720 m/s, based on
Snells law, the incidence angle w should be set at about 26o to generate the LCR
wave in the model.
2.2 Numerical results and analysis
To give a preliminary judgment of the validity of this method, the ultrasonic pulse was
excited by one damped cycle of a 1 MHz sinusoidal force loading on a wedge with an
angle. The simulation result of the ultrasonic wave field in a cross section at a given
time is shown in Figure 3. The time behavior of the EMAT coil voltage is plotted in
z y
x
Figure 2. A pitch catch setup model in simulation
Table 1 Material parameter of the model

Material / kg m 3
e / S m
1 / Pa / Pa v1 / Pa v2 / Pa v3 / Pa kc / MPa
Al Alloy 2719.0 38.2E6 49.1E9 26.0E9 379.0E9 198.0E9 80.0E9 8.79E 5
D54s
Rail Steel 7800.0 1.1E6 115.8E9 79.9E9 36.0E9 266.0E9 178.5E9 1.214E 5
Figure 3. Ultrasonic wave field excited by PZT
Figure 4. LCR wave received by EMAT
Figure 4. Compared to the Ultrasonic wave field, it can be seen that the first pulse in
Figure 4 is the receiving signal of LCR wave.
In Figure 5 and Figure 6, the close-up of the LCR wave signals for two initial
stresses in Al Alloy and rail steel is provided. The acoustoelastic effect with a small
phase delay induced by the stress can be observed. It can be seen that the variation in
LCR wave speed due to acoustoelastic effect in rail steel is much smaller than that in
Al alloy. The relative change in LCR wave speed for different initial stresses is
simulated, shown in Figure 7. It can be seen that the simulation results show a very
good agreement with the theoretical values.
Figure 5. Acoustoelastic effect in Al alloy

Figure 6. Acoustoelastic effect in rail steel
Figure 7. Relative change of LCR waves speed in Al Alloy and rail steel
3. Simulation of the polarization of transient Rayleigh wave
When Rayleigh wave travels across the surface of isotropic solids, the surface particles
move in ellipses in planes normal to surface and parallel to the direction of the
propagation. The polarization of Rayleigh wave is defined as the ratio between the
maximum in-plane, and the maximum out-of-plane displacement components. As
shown in Eq. (7), the sensitivity constant k p is defined as a relative change in
polarization per unit change in stress
0
k p (7)
0
where, the subscript 0 indicates the parameter at zero stress. In this work, the
polarization of pulse Rayleigh wave excited by the PZT transducer was investigated by
FEM. In order to make a comparison with the results based on the theory of steady
Rayleigh wave, three kinds of materials used in Junges paper were chosen here. As
shown in Table 2, k p' is the sensitivity constant in polarization of the Rayleigh wave
in steady mode[6].
Table 2 Material parameters
Material / kg m 3 / Pa / Pa v1 / Pa v2 / Pa v3 / Pa k 'p / MPa
Al Alloy 2719.0 49.1E9 26.0E9 379.0E9 198.0E9 80.0E9 6.673E 5
D54s
Al (99.3%) 2710.0 50.9E9 26.1E9 27.7E9 91.7E9 89.3E9 3.5809E 5
Rail Steel 7800.0 115.8E9 79.9E9 36.0E9 266.0E9 178.5E9 9.011E 6
The model is the same as in Figure 2. In order to yield a pure surface wave, the
o
angel of incidence w is set at about 70 . The simulation result of Rayleigh wave
field in a cross section at a given time is shown in Figure 8. Figure 9 presents the in-
plane and out-of-plane displacement components at point P on the surface of the
unstressed Al alloy model. As can be seen, the two components have a phase-shift
of / 2 . The polarization of Rayleigh wave is presented in Figure 10.
Fig. 8 Pulse Rayleigh wave field at a given time in Al alloy model
Figure 9. Rayleigh wave components at point P

Figure 10. Rayleigh wave polarization at point P
Figure 11. Polarization of Rayleigh wave for different initial stresses in Al alloy model
Figure 11 presents the polarization of Rayleigh wave for different initial stresses in
Al alloy model. It is observed that the polarization increases with increasing tension
and decrease with increasing compression. Figure 12 presents the relative change of
polarization for different initial uniaxial stresses x . It shows that the relative change
in polarization of pulse Rayleigh wave is much larger than the reference values based
on the theory of steady Rayleigh wave.
4. Conclusion
In this paper, a numerical code is developed for numerical simulation of acoustoelatic

effect in pre-stressed media. The possibility of assessing the stress status, by using the
EMAT for precise measuring the LCR wave, was investigated. The numerical results
showed a very good agreement with the theoretical values. Finally, the relationship
between the polarization of transient Rayleigh wave to the state of stress was also
predicted. The numerical results showed that the relative change in polarization of
transient Rayleigh wave have a much larger value than that of steady Rayleigh wave
due to the initial stress.
Figure 12. Comparison of acoustoelastic effect of pulse Rayleigh wave with reference values of steady
Rayleigh wave
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by China Scholarship Council (CSC).
References
[1] Shamachary Sathish, Thomas J. Moarn, Residual stress measurement with focused acoustic wave,
Materials Science and Engineering A 399 (2005), 84 91.
[2] Development of non contact stress measurement system during tensile testing using the
electromagnetic acoustic transducer, NDT&E 39 (2006), 299 303.
[3] Michael Junge, Jianmin Qu, Relationship between Rayleigh wave polarization and state of stress,
Ultrasonics 44 (2006), 233 237.
[4] Dequennoy M. Ouaftouh M., Ultrsonic evaluation of stresses in orthotropic materials using Rayleigh
waves, NDT&E 32 (1999), 189 199.
[5] Shailesh Gokhale, Determination of applied stress in rails using the acoustoelastic effect of ultrasonic
waves, Master's thesis, Texas A&M University, Dec. 2007.
[6] Michael Junge, Measurement of applied stress using polarization of Rayleigh waves. Masters thesis,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, August, 2003.
[7] Cuixiang Pei, Zhenmao Chen, Development of simulation method for EMAT signals and application to
TBC inspection, Int. J. Appl. Electromagn. Mech., Vol.33, 2010.
[8] R.T. Smith, R. Stern, and R.W.B Stephens. Third order elastic module of polycrystalline metals from
ultrasonic velocity measurements. Journal of Acoustical Society of American, 40(5):1002 1008, 1966.
[9] Don E. Bray, Wei Tang, Subsurface stress evaluation in steel plates and bars using the LCR ultrasonic
wave, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 207:231 240, 2001.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-173
BEMLAB Universal, Open source,

Boundary Element Method library applied
in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems1
Pawe WIELEBA a,2 and Jan SIKORA b,a
a
Department of Measurement and Diagnostic Systems, Electrotechnical Institute,
ul. Pozaryskiego 28, 04-703 Warszawa, Poland
b
Department of Electronics, Lublin University of Technology,
ul. Nadbystrzycka 38a, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
Abstract. BEMLAB [1] is the open source project implementing Boundary Ele-
ment Method (BEM) [2,3] comprehensively. BEMLAB binary packages and the
source code are distributed under GNU LGPL (Lesser General Public License) li-
cense terms. The project provides universal library and the reference application,
which is the easiest way for solving problems using BEM. The article presents ex-
ample BEMLAB application in modelling comb capacitors used in Micro-Electro-
Mechanical Systems (MEMS). Finally capacitance will be calculated using BEM
results. Particularly Asymptotic Boundary Conditions (ABC) will be used to model
external space of the capacitor (the geometry of innite half-lane) as an internal
BEM problem. This approach will allow to calculate total capacitance with dis-
persed capacitance included. Results will be compared with the simplied model.
Keywords. BEMLAB, BEM, Boundary Element Method, MEMS, Micro-Electro-
Mechanical Systems, Comb capacitors, Comb actuators, Asymptotic Boundary
Conditions, Open source, Objectivity, Multi-threading
Introduction
Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) are very small devices which dimensions
vary in the range from 0.1m to 0.1mm. They exchange energy either from electri-
cal to other type for example mechanical, or mechanical to electrical. The most com-
monly known MEMS devices are ink-jet printers heads or accelerometers used in airbags.
MEMS design process involves two modelling types electrostatic and mechanical. This
article incorporates electrostatic one and will concentrate on comb capacitors used in
MEMS devices. The comb capacitors design stage problem requires to calculate capac-
itance C [4]. One method of calculating capacitance is usage of the simplied model
based on the ideal parallel-plate capacitor. However this approach does not incorporate
dispersed capacitances appearing in the corners and thus results are not precise enough.
1 http://bemlab.org/
2 E-mail: p.wieleba@iem.pw.edu.pl
174 P. Wieleba and J. Sikora / BEMLAB
The most precise modelling method which can be used for associating real physical
properties and processes is the eld method. Field method applied in electromechanics
satises the Laplace equation. The most common numerical method of solving Laplace
equation is the Finite Element Method (FEM) [5,6]. Many open source and commer-
cial packages, which can be used to solve problems using FEM exist [7]. However this
method is a domain one and requires discretization of the whole domain. While estimat-
ing condenser capacitance it is a worthless overhead. Therefore it is tempting to use the
boundary method. However, there was no universal package which made it possible until
BEMLAB [8,1] came into existence. Now it is possible and fairly easy.
1. BEMLAB open source and objective project
BEMLAB [1] is the open source project implementing Boundary Element Method
(BEM) [2,3] comprehensively. BEMLAB binary packages and the source code are dis-
tributed under GNU LGPL (Lesser General Public License) license terms. The project
provides universal library and the reference application, which is the easiest way for
solving problems using BEM. There are also auxiliary programs provided to facilitate
engineers tasks. A very important factor for the end user is the input/output data for-
mat, therefore the title library uses format compatible with Matlab M-les, Octave script
les [9] and Scilab sci-les [10]. The project is objective and is developed using Unied
Modeling Language. BEMLAB is implemented in C++. BEMLAB uses multi-threading
(MT) to speed up calculations on multi-processor and multi-core platforms nowadays
CPUs have at least 2 cores. Threads introduced in C++0x specication are used. As an
example GNU Compiler 4.4 or newer provides C++0x API.
2. Boundary Element Method
BEM is the numerical method designed for solving physical problems described by Par-
tial Differential Equations (PDE) but expressed as Boundary Integral Equation (BIE):

G
c + d = Gd + f Gd (1)
n n

where: problem domain; domain boundary; eld function potential; G

Green function, a so-called fundamental solution; n boundary element normal vector
directed outwards the problem domain ; n
normal derivative; f domain (source)
function; c coefcient removing or restricting the singularity from the primitive func-
tion of PDE solution.
Field modelling of comb capacitors requires Laplace PDE to be solved in the prob-
lem domain :
2 (x) = 0 (2)
BIE (1) can be used to solve Laplace equation if proper Green function is applied. Green
function (fundamental solution) for Laplace equation in 2D space is:
P. Wieleba and J. Sikora / BEMLAB 175
1 1
G(R) = ln (3)
2 R
where R is the distance between the observation point for which the BIE equation is be-
ing set and the integration point of the element being integrated using the Gauss Quadra-
ture.
3. Comb capacitors in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems use comb capacitors for detecting mechanical forces

(conversion of mechanical energy into electrical) or for driving mechanical structures
(conversion of electrical energy into mechanical). The structures using comb capaci-
tors for driving mechanical parts are named comb actuators. An example MEMS device
schema is presented in gure 1. It is a micro device of the scanning mirror, which consists
of a mirror and four comb capacitor banks with two nger pairs each.
Figure 1. Scanning micro mirror with vertical comb capacitors.
Comb capacitors may have various shapes, dimensions and types. The article
presents vertical comb capacitors with angular actuation. They are called Angular Verti-
cal Comb (AVC) capacitors. Angular vertical comb capacitor nger in a tilted position
was presented in gure 2 on the left side. Whereas on the right side it was presented in the
rest position from the top perspective. Example dimensions of the AVC capacitor used
Table 1. Angular Vertical Comb condenser ngers dimensions.
Description Symbol Dimension [m]
Finger length l 150
Finger width w 4
Finger height h 40
Gap between ngers d 3
Number of ngers in comb capacitor N 12
for driving micro mirror are gathered in table 1 based on [11]. The capacitor is powered
with the voltage of 20V, where potential of -10V is applied to one electrode and 10V to
the second one.
Figure 2. Angular Vertical Comb capacitor nger in a tilted position from the side perspective (left) and in a
rest position from the top perspective (right).
4. Vertical Comb capacitor eld model using Asymptotic Boundary Conditions
In this section the problem for the AVC capacitor is dened and solved in order to calcu-
late capacitance C. Field model is created for the boundary element method (BEM). All
calculations are done using BEMLAB software.
Firstly the geometry have to be dened. Here 2D model is considered. Gap between
electrodes presented in gure 3 is to be modeled. The model was dened in the way so
Figure 3. Gap between AVC capacitor electrodes.
dispersed capacities are included in calculations. Due to the existence of the open space,
an articial boundary (1t) have to be introduced. The gap is the domain of the problem
marked by (1) . (1) is the boundary around the examined domain (1) . Only nger
halves are modeled because the whole structure of the comb capacitor is repeatable, as
it consists of N nger pairs. Therefore boundary conditions of the second type n = 0
are applied on the left and right side of the presented model. The vertical dashed lines on
the left and right of the gure 3 are placed in the center of particular ngers. The hori-
zontal dashed line at the bottom of the gure also cuts particular ngers into two halves.
Therefore zero boundary conditions of the second type (Neumann Boundary Conditions)
n = 0 are also applied. Electrodes are conductors, therefore Dirichlet Boundary Con-
ditions (boundary conditions of the rst type) are applied on the boundary of electrodes.
On the left nger (yellow) potential = V is applied and on the right nger (right)
potential = +V is applied.
Almost all boundary conditions of the internal problem were dened. The only prob-
lematic boundary is (1t) . The width of the (1t) is a as marked at the gure 3 and is de-
ned by d(t) length away from the electrodes. The (1t) boundary placed in the innity:
d(t) (4)
forms a half-lane beginning on the boundary of electrodes. Therefore special boundary

conditions has to be introduced on (1t) . Setting of zero Dirichlet Boundary Conditions
is a one possibility, but the boundary should be moved far away towards the innity:
d(t) a (5)
which will increase the domain size and number of boundary elements used. Another one
which will be used in the model, is using of Asymptotic Boundary Conditions (ABC)
[12, chapter 4].
5. Asymptotic Boundary Conditions
Asymptotic Boundary Conditions [12, pp. 52-73] for the half-lane are in the following
form:

+ =0 (6)
y a
where a is the width of the half-lane. According to the BEMLAB software, the follow-
ing notation has been used:

= +0
y a
(7)

= m + n
y
According to dimensions gathered in the table 1, parameters m and n of the

ABCs (7) for the model presented in gure 2 are calculated below:
w w
a= +d+ =d+w =3+4=7
2 2
(8)
m = = = 0, 44879
a 7
n=0
6. Field model calculations using BEMLAB
When appropriate model denition is created, mesh of the geometry has to be generated.
Figure 4 presented the boundary (1) mesh of the model dened in gure 2. It was
0 5.75 11.5 17.2 23
-3.5 6 5
-1.75
8 7
1 2
1.75
Z Y
3.5 X 3 4
Figure 4. Boundary mesh of the AVC capacitor air gap between electrodes for the problem geometry dened
in gure 3 with d(t) = 3.
generated using Gmsh software [13]. Corner geometric nodes has been marked with their
numbers from 1 to 8. The modeled problem is 2D, therefore z coordinate equals 0.
Boundary element method requires boundary elements normal vector n to be di-
rected outwards the analyzed domain . Therefore special attention has to be brought to
the process of generating boundary mesh and after creating one its correctness has to be
checked. BEMLAB software has the functionality of calculating normal vectors for any
3.5
1.5
x
1.5
3.5
0 20 23
y
Figure 5. Boundary elements normal vectors

n.
dened input mesh. Figure 5 presents normal vectors drawn against the generated mesh.
As can be seen, blue normal vectors n are directed outwards the domain (1) enclosed
by the boundary domain (1) marked with the solid line. The following BEMLAB com-
mand was used to calculate normal vectors of mesh dened in the input le dened by
parameter -i:
% obem_solve -i comb_cap_mesh.m -m 7 -o normal_vecs.m
Results are written to the output le dened by the command parameter -o.
The mesh and boundary conditions described in the previous section are gathered in
one le:
comb_cap_mesh.m
Values of potential and its normal derivative
n are the direct result of BEM. To start
BEM calculations and obtain and n the following command has to be issued:
% obem_solve -i comb_cap_mesh.m -m 1234 -o solution.m
To visualize layout of potential along the domain (1) , values of potential in
internal nodes have to be calculated. This stage is optional and not required to calculate
capacitance C, but is helpful to detect big calculation errors. This stage can be processed
when potential and its normal derivative n are known on the whole boundary . To
proceed calculations the following shell command has to be issued:
% obem_solve -i comb_cap_mesh.m -S solution.m -m 5 \\
-I comb_cap_internal_nodes.m -o internal_potential.m
where -i denes the input le with the input mesh with boundary conditions and
material parameters (as in the previous paragraph), -S denes the input le with the
solution on the boundary (potential and its normal derivative n ), -I denes the
input le with the internal nodes coordinates, -o denes the output le with calculated
internal potential .
Figure 6. Layout of potential inside the AVC capacitors air gap dened in the gure 4.
Figure 6 presents the layout of calculated potential inside the air gap (domain (1) )
calculated using the previous command.
7. Capacitance calculations using BEM results
Capacitance is calculated using the following relation:

Q C
C= [F] = (9)
U V
where Q charge gathered on one electrode, U voltage between two electrodes of the
capacitor.
The charge Q can be calculated using the following integral:

Q = d = Dn d = En d = d (10)
n

where the surface charge density, Dn electric displacement eld , En electric

eld, electric permittivity, and Dn = Dn .
Finally the capacitance can be written in the following form:

1
C = d (11)
U n

Normal potential derivative n on the boundary is the direct result of BEM, there-
fore it can be directly inserted into equation (11). Figure 7 presents the layout of poten-
tial normal derivative
n on the boundary of the right electrode (starting from node no.
1 to node no. 3 of mesh from gure 4). Potential normal derivative n , presented on the
12
10
potential normal derivative
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
element number
Figure 7. Layout of potential normal derivative on one electrode.
vertical axis, matches the number of the element presented on the horizontal axis.
Firstly the charge Q was calculated for the half of one nger (as presented in the
model):
Q = 144.863 (12)
The integration was done using BEMLAB software by issuing the following command:
% obem_solve -i int_electrode.m -m 8
integratedValue=[ 144.863 ];
where -i denes the input le with geometry to be integrated and values of integrated
function in the geometric nodes.
Then the capacitance per unit length for half of one nger, using the eld model with
ABC applied, was calculated as follows:
Q 144.863
CI(half) = = = 7.24 [F]
U 20 (13)
= 7.24 106 8.854187817 1012 = 64.104 [aF]
The capacitance between two electrodes of one nger (2 halves) of the comb capac-
itor with the length l = 150 (the z dimension) and the gap width d = 3 is as follows:
C (nger eld) = 2 (l d) CI = 2 (150 3) 64.104 = 18.847 [fF] (14)
The total capacitance C (total) for the whole comb capacitor with N = 12 ngers is
2N times bigger than capacitance between two electrodes of one nger, as one nger has
two sides (vertical). Therefore the total capacitance can be calculated as follows:
C (total) = N C (nger) = 12 18.847 = 226.164 [fF] (15)
8. Vertical comb capacitor simplied model
In the previous section calculations using the eld model were proceeded. In this section
the calculation of capacitance using the simplied model will be presented for the com-
parative purposes. The model for half of the nger as presented in previous section and
on gure 2, consists of one parallel plate capacitor, which can be calculated as follows:
C h(l d) 40(150 3)
C (nger simple) = = = 106 = 17.354 [fF] (16)
S d 3
9. Summary
Universal, open source, objective and multi-threaded BEMLAB software can be suc-
cessively used for modelling MEMS devices. Field modelling using boundary element
method includes dispersed capacitance which occurs in comb capacitors, while simpli-
ed models not. The difference between calculated capacitance values using eld and
simplied model is 9%:
C (nger eld) = 1.09 C (nger simple) (17)
BEMLAB software also allows three dimensional modelling for more complicated struc-
tures or in a tilted position, which cannot be modeled in 2D. BEMLAB input/output text
le format implementation compatible with Matlab M-les, GNU Octave script les and
Scilab .sci les makes cooperation with that software straight forward. Moreover engi-
neering tools are provided to simplify cooperation with mesh formats provided by Gmsh
[13] or Netgen [14].
References
[1] P. Wieleba and J. Sikora: Open Source BEM Library, Advances in Engineering Software 40 (8), 564569,
2009.
[2] L. C. Wrobel and M. H. Aliabadi: The boundary element method, vol. 1 and 2, Wiley, 2002.
[3] J. Sikora: Boundary Element Method for Impedance and Optical Tomography, Ocyna Wydawnicza
Politechniki Warszawskiej, 2007.
[4] G. Of, M. Kaltenbacher and O. Steinbach: Fast multipole boundary element method for electrostatic eld
computations, The International Journal for Computation and Mathematics in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering 28 (2), 304-319, 2009.
[5] O. C. Zienkiewicz and R. L. Taylor: The nite element method, vol. 1, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
[6] R. Sikora: Teoria pola elektromagnetycznego, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, 1997. In Polish.
[7] J. Mackerle: Object-oriented programming in FEM and BEM: a bibliography (1990-2003), Advances
in Engineering Software, 35, 325-336, 2004.
[8] BEMLAB homepage, http://bemlab.org/
[9] Octave homepage: http://www.octave.org/
[10] Scilab homepage: http://www.scilab.org/
[11] W. Piyawattanametha, P. R. Patterson, D. Hah, H. Toshiyoshi and Ming C. Wu: A Surface and Bulk
Micromachined Angular Vertical Combdrive for Scanning Micromirrors, IEEE Optical Fiber Commu-
nications Conference vol. 1, 251-253, 2003.
[12] S. Gratkowski: Asymptotyczne warunki brzegowe dla stacjonarnych zagadnien elektromagnetycznych
w obszarach nieograniczonych algorytmy metody elementw skonczonych, Wydawnictwo Uczelniane
Zachodniopomorskiego Uniwersytetu Technologicznego w Szczecinie, 2009. In Polish.
[13] Gmsh homepage: http://geuz.org/gmsh/
[14] Netgen homepage: http://www.hpfem.jku.at/netgen/
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-183
Use of Half-Analytical Method for the

Detection of Defects in Diet Pulses
Hassane MOHELLEBIa,1, Ferroudja BOUALIa, Mouloud FELIACHIb
a
Laboratoire de Gnie Electrique, Universit de Tizi-Ouzou, BP 17 RP, ALGERIA
b
IREENA Laboratory, IUT-CRTT, Nantes University, 44600 Saint-Nazaire, France
Abstract. The present work concerns the development of pulsed eddy currents
non destructive testing techniques applied to defects analysis. The impulse currents
are produced with capacitor discharge bank [1], [2]. Coupled circuits method
employed is based on the mutual inductances calculation [3] and associated to
Kirchhoff laws yields to a real algebraic equation system which is solved at each
time step. The model developed is used to the defects analysis of a cylindrical
device [4].
Keywords. Half analytical method, eddy currents inspection, multi defects

analysis , diet pulses.
Introduction
The eddy currents sensors are used in diverse industrial domains which concern the
evaluation of the physical properties of materials, the load dimensions, defect detection
in a piece etc.
Pulsed eddy current (PEC) sensing is a new emerging technique and has gained
considerable research attention in recent years [5]. Their first applications have been
developed for the measure of material's thickness. The possibility to inject an important
energy in short time with rich spectrum of low frequencies have induced an increase in
use of them in the detection of multi-defects in pieces. This technique is used to inspect
the riveted assembly, the slants and the objects of irregular surfaces, it holds the
voltages of becoming the primary means of detecting corrosion in multilayered
structures and to inspect, characterize the coatings [6],[8],[9],[10].
The present work deals with the study of the differential eddy currents sensor in
pulsed diet by using a half-analytical method coupled with an equivalent electric circuit
[2], [11]. The impulse currents technique is chosen instead of multi-frequency study
which induces some difficulties when the number of frequencies exceeds four [7],[10].
In this case the use of impulse currents method present more advantages. The
application of the method concerns the detection of two defects realized in a
conducting cylinder scanned with differential probe. A cylinder with two layers is
investigated too and a comparison with existing data is realized.
1
Corresponding Autor: Hassane MOHELLEBI, aLaboratoire de Gnie Electrique, Universit de Tizi Ouzou,
BP 17 RP, ALGERIA ; e mail :mohellebi@yahoo.fr
184 H. Mohellebi et al. / Use of Half-Analytical Method for the Detection of Defects in Diet Pulses
1. Coupled Circuits Method
The half-analytical method used is the coupled circuits one based on a discretization of
the inductor and load sections in (r,z) plane. The elementary sections constructed
permit one to define elementary coils with associated elementary parameters (figure 1).
Electrical parameters of the device as mutual and appropriate inductances exploits an
integral calculus.
Ub1 Ub2
Rb1 Lb1 Rb2 Lb2
Rb1n Lb1n Rb1n Lb2n
Inductor
Rc1 Lc1
Rcm L cm
Short-circuited load
Figure 1. Coupled Circuits Model of device
Ub1, Ub2 are electric voltages of differential probe. Indices n and m are the maximum
numbers of elementary coils of the inductor and short-circuited load.
This process allows expressing the resistance of every elementary turn, the self-
inductance and the mutual inductances between the various turns [12]. The electric
equations of the load and the inductor are given by Eqs (1) and (2) as following:
dI m dI N dI
i + j
0 = Ri I i + L M ij + M ik k (1)
i dt j =1 dt k =1 dt
j i
dI N
dI m dI
k + q (2)
U = Rk I k + L M kq + M ki i
k k dt q =1 dt i =1 dt
qk
H. Mohellebi et al. / Use of Half-Analytical Method for the Detection of Defects in Diet Pulses 185
Ri, Li and Ii; Rk, Lk and Ik are the resistance, the constant inductance and the current.
Indices i and k are related to load and inductor respectively.
Mij: mutual inductance between both elements i and j of the load.
Mik: mutual inductance between load and inductor elements.
Ij: current in the element j of the load; Ik: current in the element k of the inductor.
Mkq: mutual inductance between both elements k and q of the inductor;
Mki: mutual inductance between the element k of the inductor and the element i of the
load.
Ik: current traversing the element k of the inductor. Iq: current traversing the element q
of the inductor.
1.1. Model parameters computation
Several methods have been proposed for the calculation of the parameters of the
models. We can classify these in two big classes [4], [3]:
- Methods based on the magnetic vector potential
- Methods based on the mutual inductances calculation
1.1.1 Mutual inductance
The mutual inductance betweentwo turns is given by [12]:
2 2 (3)
M = a .b ( k ) K ( k ) E( k )
k k
4. a.b (4)
k2 =
(a + b)2 +h2
: Magnetic permeability; a: radius of the turn 1; b radius of the turn 2 ; h:

distance between the two turns; K(k) and E(k) represent the elliptic integrals of first
and second species respectively;
M2
c a
M1
b
b
h
Figure 2. Distance between two turns
1.1.2 Appropriate inductance

While joining the two turns, we get the expression of the self-inductance given by [12]:
8.a (5)
L = a ln 1.75
Rc
Rc : conductor radius
1.1.3. Resistance
The turn resistance of elementary turn coil is given by Eq. (6):
"
R= (6)
S
: Material resistivity, S: Cross-section; " : Middle length of the turn.
2. Equivalent electrical circuit Model
2.1. Electrical Circuit Model
The relative electric model to the diet pulses is comprised of the equivalent circuit of
the sensor-load coupled to the energizing circuit composed of a capacity and a
resistance. The equivalent electric circuit of the system is given by the following
Figure 3 [2]:
ic(t) Rext
Sensor system
Lb
+ Vc(t)
C
Rb
Figure 3. Equivalent electrical circuit
The electric equation modelling this system is given by Eq. (7):
dic (t )
V C (t) (Rext + Rb )ic (t) Lb =0 (7)
dt
dvc (t )
iC (t ) = C (8)
dt
Rb and Lb are the resistance and the inductance of the system load-inductor; Rext:
external resistance; C: capacity.
2.2. Analytical solution of electrical equation
The resolution of Eq. (7) combined with Eq. (8) yields to the following solution:
1 2 (9)
ic ( t ) = C V0 ( )( e t e t )1 2
1 2
(R ext + R eq ) (R + R eq ) 4 (Rext + Req ) + (R + Req ) 4

2 L eq 2 Leq
With: ext
C
; ext
C
1 = 2 =
2 Leq 2 Leq
1 , 2 are constants values. Initial time conditions v c (t = 0) = V0 , i c (t = 0) = 0
3. Application and Results
The application considered in the present work is the one studied in [5]. It makes use of
a differential probe used for the tubing inspection generator. The defects realized on the
conducting cylinder are axisymmetric with resistivity W= 10-6[.m]. The physical and
geometrical characteristics corresponding to differential probe are: coil width: 1.75*10-
3
[m], distance between coils: 0.5*10-3, high in z direction: 0.75*10-3 [m], internal
radius: 7.5*10-3 [m], magnetic permeability: 4X*10-7 [H/m] and the electrical
conductivity: 5.59*10+7 [.m]-1(Figure 4).
z
J +J
Inductor turns
Cylindrical object r
+J J
Figure 4. Differential sensor with cylindrical tube inspection
3. 1 Analysis of the current response of several defects
In this section we consider a healthy load (flawless) and loads with different types of
defects (internal, in depth and external defect). The electrical circuit parameters used
are: C = 10-7 F, Rext = 0.55 Y, Req= 1.6*10-3 Y, Leq= 1.0054*10-8 H, V0 = 1V.
0.04 0.045
0.035 0.04
0.035
0.03
0.03
0.025
0.025
z [m ]
z [m ]
0.02
0.02
0.015
0.015
0.01
0.01
0.005 0.005
0 0
75 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
r[m] 3 r[m] 3
x 10 x 10
0.045
0.045
0.04 0.04
0.035 0.035
0.03 0.03
0.025 0.025
z [m ]
z [m ]
0.02 0.02
0.015 0.015
0.01 0.01
0.005 0.005
0 0
7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
r[m] 3 r[m] 3
x 10 x 10
Figure 5. Solving domain for a load presenting different defects
Figures 6 and Figure 7 represent the variation of the current for different defect types:
0.07 0.1
Defect thickness 20%
Healthy load
0.06 Defect thickness 40%
Load with external defect 0.08 Defect thickness 80%
Load with defect in depth
0.05 Load with internal defect
0.06
0.04
C urrent[A ]
Current[A ]
0.03 0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0
0
-0.01 -0.02
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time[s] 7 Time[s] 7
x 10 x 10
Figure 6. Variation of the current for different Figure 7. Variation of the current with defect
defect types thickness
While examining the results given in Figure 6 we notice that the current increase
every time the sensor is near to the defect. The internal defect with maximum value of
current Im constitute the more detected one because it is most near the sensor, then
comes the defect in depth and finally the external defect.
In Figure 7 there is represented the current response of the differential probe when
considering different defect thickness (20%, 40%, 80%). In this case we notice that the
parameter which varies more is the crest value of the current that increases
progressively as the defect thickness increases.
3.2. Presence of two defects in the load
In this application we consider a load with a combined defect, internal defect (40 %
width) and an external defect (20 % width) (Figure 8). Figure 9 represents the variation
of the differential current i(t) in the case of the load with an internal defect and in the
case of the load with a combined defect, for C=10-6 F and R=0.2 .
0.045 0.3
Combined defect
0.04 Internal defect
0.25
0.035
0.2
0.03
0.15
C u rre n t[ A ]
0.025
z [m ]
0.02 0.1
0.015
0.05 T0
0.01
0
0.005
0 -0.05
7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
r[m] 3 Time[s] 6
x 10 x 10
Figure 8. Solving domain with combined defects Figure 9. Differential currents variations
Table 1. Internal and combined defects characteristics
Im[A] T0[s]
1
Internal defect 1.846 10 4.2129 10 7
Combined defect 2.075 10 1 4.4925 10 7
In Table 1, Im represents the maximum value of the current which results from
difference between two currents turns; T0 is the time corresponding to current when it
vanishes.
According to the results presented in Figure 9, we note a difference between the
differential currents i(t) in the case of the internal defect and the same unknown
obtained in the case of the combined defect. The combined defect supplies amplitude
Im with a time of passage by zero T0 more important. We can thus conclude that in spite
of the internal defect is important; it does not hide the presence of the external defect.
3.3. Case of a load presenting two layers
In this application we consider a load with two healthy layers and two layers with
defects.
0.04 0.04
0.035 0.035
0.03 0.03
0.025 0.025
h a u te u r[m ]
h a u t e u r[ m ]
0.02 0.02
0.015 0.015
0.01 0.01
0.005 0.005
0 0
7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
rayon[m] 3 rayon[m] 3
x 10 x 10
Figure 10. Load with two healthy layers Figure 11. Load with two layers with defects
The Figure 12 represents the variation of the induced electromotive force (e. m. f) u(t)
in an elementary spire of the inductor for a flawless load, a load with defect, a load
with two layers without defects and a load with two layers with defects.
0.12 1
load w th defect load with defect [1]
0.1 08 healthy load [1]
healthy load
load with defects
load w th two healthy layers
06 healthy load
0.08 load w th two layers with defects
Relative values of e m f
04
0.06
02
0.04
e.m.f [V]
0
0.02
02
0
04
-0.02
06
-0.04 08
0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1
time[s]
-0.06
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time[s] 7
x 10
Figure 12. Induced e.m.f u(t) variation in an Figure 13. Comparison with results
given in [1]
elementary coil of the inductor
This relative value of induced e.m.f (Figure 13) increases with increase of the
layers number and also with the number of defects. These results with relative value
variation with time allow to the same conclusion than the one given in [1].
4. Conclusion
The half-analytic model developed in the current study is applied to the non destructive
eddy current testing device. The study is undertaken in pulsed diet and a response of
current is investigated for several defects nature of conducting tube. The case of the
presence of two defects is considered and analysed. A cylinder with two layers is also
studied and the results obtained are in a good agreement according to existing results.
The model developed has shown its capability to analyse multiple defects in a
conducting cylinder or multiple layers one with defect. The advantages of the model
are less time consuming, which is very interesting compared to numerical models
because in this case the air region was note discretized, and its capability to take into
account of the movement of the sensor without changes in domain discretization.
References
[1] N. Boucherou, M. Zergoug, A. Hammouda, G. Kamel, H. Boudjelal, A. Boutaghane, O. Bourdjam,

Conducting materials evaluation using pulsed eddy currents, 18th Frenchs congress of mechanics,
Grenoble (2007), pp. 27 31.
[2] H. Mohellebi, F. Bouali, A. Diche Use of half analytical method for non destructive pulsed eddy current
study, Colloquium of induction, April 13-14, Laghouat (2009), Algeria.
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Grenoble, France 1987.
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induction heating. RGE (1984), Vol. 4, no.84, pp.225 230.
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sensor for eddy current non destructive testing, NDT&E International, (2009), pp. 573 580
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-192
Imperialist Competitive Algorithm Applied

to Eddy Current Nondestructive Evaluation
Ammar HAMELa,1 Hassane MOHELLEBIb and Mouloud FELIACHIc
a
Electrical Engineering Laboratory, Departement of Electrical Engineering,
University of Bjaa, Algeria hamelkane@yahoo.fr
b
Electrical Engineering Laboratory, Departement of Electrical Engineering,
University of Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria b mohellebi@yahoo.fr d hocini.farid@yahoo.fr
c
IREENA Laboratory, IUT of Saint-Nazaire, University of Nantes, France
mouloud.feliachi@univ-nantes.fr
Abstract. The imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA) is a new global search

strategy inspired by the socio political process of Imperialistic competition. ICA
has higher performances such as faster convergence and better global minimum
achievement [1]. Considering its undeniable effectiveness, its limitations and
applicability in various fields, ICA is currently explored. In this paper we adopt
ICA to deal with the inverse problem applied in eddy current non destructive
evaluation. We present test results and a comparison between ICA and the particle
swarm optimisation algorithm (PSO).
Keywords. Non destructive evaluation, eddy currents, inverse problem, imperialist

competitive algorithm.
Introduction
To improve time necessary to the inversion in eddy current non-destructive evaluation,

the specialists tackle the problem by considering two principal aspects, in the event the
development of direct models reliable and applicable to cases of complex geometry and
especially which are fast on the one hand, and the implementation and adaptation of
sure and fast algorithms of inversion on the other hand. In this work we are interested
rather in the second aspect in which the methods which are already used can be shared
in two groups. The first group includes what is called the non-phenomenological
methods and which are based on the techniques of signal processing [1], [2]. If they
are fast, these methods have nevertheless a major disadvantage which is the need for an
enormous data base of signals and various forms with a very good precision. Increasing
interest has been granted in recent years, with the use of stochastic optimization
methods that guarantee the convergence to the global optimum of the function to
optimize. Several algorithms based on these methods are used in eddy current non-
destructive evaluation, namely genetic algorithms, simulated annealing, taboo search
and recently particle swarm optimization [3]- [5]
1
Ammar HAMEL, Electrical Engineering Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Bjaa, Algeria hamelkane@yahoo.fr.
A. Hamel et al. / ICA Applied to Eddy Current Nondestructive Evaluation 193
The main contribution of this paper is an extension to eddy current non-destructive

evaluation of a new inversion algorithm called imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA).
ICA is an iterative evolutionary computation technique and a socio-politically
motivated global search strategy that has recently been introduced for dealing with
different optimization tasks. The proposed method is applied to a simple
axisymmetrical conducting tube with a groove made arbitrarily. The aim is to
reconstruct sizes of the groove by combining the finite element method for the
computation of eddy current with the optimization algorithm in the inverse process.
1. 2D Electromagnetic equation
Starting from an impedance measurement, the aim is to reconstitute the profile of an

axi-symmetrical groove practiced inside an aluminum tube inspected by a differential
probe. The solution is obtained by using a forward model based on the finite element
method and ICA algorithm to solve the inverse problem.
The axisymmetric diffusion equation can be expressed in variational terms by the
energy functional [6],
! 1 1 2
A j 2
2
F "
r A A J s . A 2 .r.dr.dz (1)
2 r r z 2
R
The energy terms corresponding to the magnetic field, eddy current and source
current are represented by the first, second and third terms, respectively, of the
integrand. The impedance of a filamentary circular loop of radius ri can be calculated
from the magnetic vector potential Ai at ri and the value of the impressed current I s
in the loop as follows:
#
E t j.2 .ri . Ai
Zi (2)
Is Is Is
Hence, the total impedance of the circular coil whose cross section is discretized
into N triangular elements is given by
j.2 .N s N j.2 .J s N
Z
Is
$ ci ci i
r . A %
I s2
$
rci .% i .Aci (3)
i 1 i 1
Where
N s : turn density [turns / m 2 ] ,
% i : area of i-th element,
rci , Aci : central values of r , A in i-th element.
So the total impedance of a differential probe can be obtained by summing the
impedance of each coil of the differential probe.
194 A. Hamel et al. / ICA Applied to Eddy Current Nondestructive Evaluation
2. Imperialist competitive algorithm
Like other evolutionary techniques, ICA starts with an initial population. Population
individuals called countries are divided into two types: colonies and imperialists that all
together form some empires. Imperialistic competition among these empires forms the
basis of ICA. During this competition, weak empires collapse and powerful ones take
possession of their colonies. Imperialistic competition hopefully converges to a state in
which there is only one empire and its colonies are in the same position and have the
same cost as the imperialist. The pseudo code of Imperialist competitive algorithm is as
follows [7]:
& Select some random points on the function and initialize the empires.
& Move the colonies toward their relevant imperialist (Assimilation).
& Randomly change the position of some colonies (Revolution).
& If there is a colony in an empire which has lower cost than the imperialist,
exchange the positions of that colony and the imperialist.
& Unite the similar empires.
& Compute the total cost of all empires.
& Pick the weakest colony (colonies) from the weakest empires and give it
(them) to one of the empires (Imperialistic competition).
& Eliminate the powerless empires.
& If stop conditions satisfied, stop, if not go to second point.
To start the optimization algorithm we generate the initial population of size N pop .
We select N imp of the most powerful countries to form the empires. The remaining
N col of the population will be the colonies each of which belongs to an empire. Then
we have two types of countries: imperialist and colony. To form the initial empires, we
divide the colonies among imperialists based on their power. That is the initial number
of colonies of an empire should be proportionate to its power. Figure 1 shows an
example of an initial population of each empire.
Imperialist 1
Colony 1
Imperialist 2
Colony 2
Imperialist 3
Colony 3
Imperialist n
Colony n
Figure 1. Initial empires.
The movement of colonies toward their relevant imperialist is shown in figure 2 in

which the colony moves toward the imperialist by x units. In this movement, and x
are random numbers with uniform distribution as illustrated in formula (4) and d is the
distance between colony and the imperialist.
x ~ U
0, d , ' ~ U
, (4)
Where and are parameters that modify the area that colonies randomly
search around the imperialist. In our implementation and are considered as 2 and
0.5 (Radian) respectively.
Imperialist
New position
of colony
x
' d
Colony
Figure 2. Movement of colonies toward imperialist.
In imperialistic competition, all empires try to take possession of colonies of other

empires and control them. Powerless empires will collapse in the imperialistic
competition and their colonies will be divided among other empires. In modelling
collapse mechanism, different criteria can be defined for considering an empire
powerless. In our implementation we assume an empire collapsed and eliminate it
when it loses all of its colonies. Convergence is obtained when all the empires except
the most powerful one will collapse and all the colonies will be under the control of
this unique empire.
2.1. Validation with test functions
ICA was implemented and then tested with some benchmark functions. The results
which we give hereafter are those found with the function F which is written [7]:
F x sin
4 x 1.1 sin
2 y (5)
Figure 3 shows a 3D plot of the function F . The global minimum of this function
is in the interval 0 ( x ( 10 , 0 ( y ( 10 , is located in
x, y
9.039,8.668 and has the
cost of 18.5547 .
Figure 3. 3D plot of the function F.
The initial population is of 30 countries. We choose 4 of the best countries to form

the imperialists which are shown by stars marks in different colors while the colonies
by round points in the same color as the imperialist. Figures 4 (a, b, c, d) show the
countries at iterations 5, 10 and 20 (convergence). We can see that at iteration 5, the
imperialists are located at local minima of the function and one of them has reached to
the global minimum. At iteration 10, only two imperialists are remained and the others
have collapsed. At iteration 20, all the imperialists have collapsed except one and
colonies are in the same position as the imperialist. Due to the mutation at last iteration,
some of the colonies are in different position.
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
y
y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x x
(a) (b)
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
y
y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x
(c) x
(d)
Figure 4. Initial empires (a). Empires at iteration 5 (b). Empires at iteration 10 (c) Empires at iteration 20 (d).
We also applied Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm to the function

F [8]. To make a comparison we choose a population of 30 particles. Both global and
local attraction parameters are equal to 1.4. Figure 5 shows average and best cost of
population versus iterations obtained with PSO and ICA.
20 -11
Minimum Cost Minimum Cost
15 Mean Cost Mean Cost
10 -13
F u n c tio n c o s t
F unc tion c os t
5
0 -15
-5
-10 -17
-15
-18.5547 -18.5547
0 40 80 120 160 200 260 0 20 60 100 140 180 220 260
Iterations Iterations
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Mean and minimum cost versus iterations by PSO (a) and ICA (b).
Results show that with ICA the convergence is reached more quickly than with
PSO. Indeed with PSO convergence is obtained after approximately 240 iterations
whereas with ICA it is obtained after 20 iterations. We noted that the execution time of
iteration is practically the same one for both algorithms. Consequently, ICA finds the
global minimum successfully.
3. Application and results
The problem geometry is that studied in [9]. A differential probe is used to scan a
conducting tube (aluminum) having an electrical conductivity c 1M )s / m* . The
geometrical and electrical data of the eddy current differential probe is as follows:
height of a coil according to z: 0.75e-3 m, inner radius of a coil: 7.75e-3 m, outer radius
of a coil: 8.5e-3 m, vertical distance between the coils: 0.5e-3 m, number of turns of a
coil: 70. The probe is supplied by a current with intensity of 5mA and a frequency of
100kHz . The impedance measured when the medium of the coil is opposite the lower
edge of the groove is Z m (0.55 j1.45)+ .
The inversion is based on an iterative approach that employs a direct finite element
model to simulate the fundamental physical process, as shown in figure 5. The
inversion algorithm starts with an initial estimate of the groove profile and then
determines the signal by solving a finite element direct problem. The error between the
measured and the calculated signals is minimized iteratively by updating the groove
parameters by keeping the best profile of the previous iteration. When the error is
below a threshold, the profile determined is the desired solution.
Measured signal
Calculated
Z m
Initial groove signal
profile Forward
Z c Yes Desired

Z m Z c , - solution
model
Update groove No
profile
Figure 6. Inversion principle method
Figures 7 (a) and (b) illustrate the evolution of the groove parameters obtained by
PSO and ICA respectively. By PSO, convergence is obtained after 124 iterations. The
value of the height and the depth of the groove are h 3.98mm and p 0.508mm
respectively. On the other hand, by ICA, convergence is practically obtained with 22
iterations and then the value of the height and the depth of the groove are h 3,97 mm
and p 0,509mm respectively. In order to make comparison we used the same number
of particles in PSO as of countries in ICA i.e.30. We noted that the execution time of
iteration is the same one for both algorithms. Consequently, this enables us to
conclude that ICA converges more quickly than PSO algorithm. Nevertheless, with
regard to the precision of the results, PSO proves to be slightly better than ICA.
-3 -3
x 10 x 10
6 7
Groove depth [m] Groove height
5 Groove height [m] 6 Groove depth
Groove parameters [m]
Groove parameters [m]
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1 1
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
(a) Iterations (b) Iterations
Figure 7. Groove parameters by PSO (a) and ICA (b).
4. Conclusion
The method proposed in this paper, Imperialist Competitive Algorithm (ICA) uses an
evolutionary algorithm in order to inverse eddy current non-destructive evaluation
signals. The aim is to reconstitute the profile of an axi-symmetrical groove. The
method uses a finite-elements forward model to simulate the physical process and
Imperialist Competitive Algorithm to solve the inverse problem. This evolutionary
optimization strategy has shown great performance in both convergence rate and global
optima achievement. Indeed, from the experimental results, it can be seen that the ICA
method outperforms the PSO one in terms of speed convergence. However, PSO
remains a method which gives results with a better precision. In continuing this work,
the proposed algorithm could be extended to reconstitute complex profiles.
References
[1] S. Hoole, S. Subramaniam, R. Saldanha, and J. Coulomb, Inverse Problem Methodology and Finite
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Locations, IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 27 (1991), pp. 3433 3443.
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1853 1856.
[5] A. Hamel, H. Mohellebi, M. Feliachi and F. Hocini, Particle Swarm Optimization for Reconstitution of
Two Dimensional Groove Profiles in Non Destructive Evaluation, ISEF 2009 XIV International
Symposium on Electromagnetic Fields in Mechatronics, No. 4, September 10 12, Arras, France,
(2009), pp. 1079 1082.
[6] O.C.Zienkiewicz and R.L.Taylor, The Finite Element Method, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1989.
[7] E. Atashpaz Gargari, C. Lucas, Imperialist Competitive Algorithm : An Algorithm for Optimization
Inspired by Imperialistic Competition, IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation, Singapore ,(
2007), pp 4661 4667.
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International Symposium on Micro Machine and Human Science (Nagoya, Japon), IEEE Service
Center, Piscataway, NJ (1995), pp. 39 43.
[9] J.L Thomas, Modlisation du Contrle Non Destructif par Courants de Foucault des Gnrateurs de
Vapeur, Rapport de Stage 3me anne de cycle dingnieur, CEA, France, 1998.
Transducers and Techniques
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-203
Pulsed ECT Method for Evaluation of Pipe

Wall-thinning of Nuclear Power Plants
using Magnetic Sensor
Shejuan XIEa, Toshihiro YAMAMOTOb, Toshiyuki TAKAGIa,1 and Tetsuya
UCHIMOTOa
a
Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University, Japan
b
Japan Power Engineering and Inspection Corporation, Japan
Abstract. In nuclear power plants, there may happen local wall-thinning on the
inner surface of a pipe due to the flow of coolant flowing inside the pipe. Pulsed
eddy current testing (pulsed ECT) technology is developed in recent years.
Because of its rich frequency components and applicability of large electric current,
a pulsed ECT method may show promising capability of detecting and evaluating
the defect in the deep region of the material. The aim of this study is to discuss the
feasibility of detection and evaluation of local wall-thinning of the bottom surface
in one thick layer and also in the lower layer of two-layer structure pipe using a
pulsed ECT method. Concerning the large thickness of the specimen, a high
sensitive flux gate (FG) sensor has been employed and the corresponding
differential exciting mode has been developed to efficiently apply the FG sensor.
Experimental results show that this FG sensor combined with differential exciting
mode could detect a very small defect that is located in a thick specimen while
which could not be detected by Hall sensor.
Keywords. local wall-thinning, pulsed ECT, differential exciting mode, FG sensor
Introduction
In nuclear power plants, there may happen local wall-thinning on the inner surface of a
pipe due to of the flow of coolant flowing inside the pipe (flow accelerated corrosion
(FAC)). Normally, the thickness of the pipe is very large. In addition, in Japan, there is
a special concern about local wall-thinning under an enforcement plate that covers the
outside of a pipe where a branch pipe is connected to a main pipe. Because the
enforcement plate and the pipe wall form two layers of the metal plate, also the
existence of thick insulators outside the pipe, these make it very difficult to inspect the
inside of the pipe by ultrasonic testing method. Pulsed eddy current testing (pulsed
ECT) technology is one of the methods developed in recent years [1, 2]. Because of its
un-necessity of contact between the probe and the inspected specimen, also its rich
frequency components and applicability of large electric current [3-5], pulsed ECT
method may show promising capability of detecting and evaluating the defect in the
deep region of the material with lift-off. The aim of this study is to discuss the
feasibility of detection and evaluation of local wall-thinning of the bottom surface in
1
Corresponding Author: Toshiyuki TAKAGI. Katahiri 2-1-1, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan;
E-mail: takagi@ifs.tohoku.ac.jp
204 S. Xie et al. / Pulsed ECT Method for Evaluation of Pipe Wall-Thinning of Nuclear Power Plants
one thick layer and also in the lower layer of two-layer structure pipe using a pulsed
ECT method with small lift-off.
When the specimen is rather thick, low frequency is preferred due to the skin effect
phenomenon. It has been pointed out that the sensitivity of pulsed ECT technique can
be greatly enhanced when magnetic sensors are applied instead of pick-up coils for
picking up the field. The enhancement can especially be beneficial when deeply buried
defects are of the prime concern [6].
There is a family of magnetic field sensors, such as, SQUID (Superconducting
Quantum Interference Device), FG (flux gate) sensors, AMR (anisotropic magneto-
resistive), GMR (giant magneto-resistive) and Hall devices [6]. As we know, SQUID
possesses the highest sensitivity but its use is still limited due to practicality and some
cost-related reasons [7]. Hall sensor is not a bad choice when the specimen is not very
thick and also the defect is not very small, but for the small defect detection in a thick
specimen Hall sensor is not preferred due to its relative big noise level (i.e. poor
resolution, according to the reference [6] and also the experience of the author). Thus
FG, AMR and GMR sensors are good candidates for the small defect detection in
rather thick specimen. In this study, FG sensor was employed for the local wall-
thinning detection in large diameter pipes.
Concerning the characteristics of FG sensor, of course, high sensitivity and high
resolution are its obvious merits, but at the same time, small measurement range is its
inherent demerit, normally inside several Gauss. To overcome the trade off of high
sensitivity and small measurement range, in this study, a differential exciting mode has
been developed and the corresponding two identical exciting pancake coils have been
designed.
1. Duty analysis of square wave pulse exciting signal

Figure 1 shows the ideal square wave pulse. The corresponding FS representation in
trigonometric series can be given by equation (1),
d N 1 1
u (t ) = + [ sin(n d ) * cos(nt ) + (1 cos(n d )) *sin( n t )] (1)
T n 1 n n
Where, (1/n)sin(nd)=an, (1/n) (1-cos(nd))=bn, d denotes pulse width (the

duration of exciting pulse) and T denotes pulse period, thus duty can be expressed by
d/T (i.e. = d/T ). The fundamental angular frequency =2/T, n denotes the harmonic
order and N is the number of summation terms (in case of ideal square wave pulse, N is
positive infinite).
Figure 1. Ideal square wave pulse

The amplitude of n-th harmonic frequency could be written by equation (2),
S. Xie et al. / Pulsed ECT Method for Evaluation of Pipe Wall-Thinning of Nuclear Power Plants 205
2
An = an 2 + bn 2 = * 1 cos(n d ) (2)
n
So, when duty is , the amplitude of n-th harmonic frequency is,
2 2
An , = * 1 cos(n d ) = * 1 cos(2n ) (3)
n n
When duty is 1-, the amplitude of n-th harmonic frequency is,
2 2
An ,1 = * 1 cos(n (T d )) = * 1 cos(2 n ) (4)
n n
From the above equation (3) and (4), we can see that when the duty of two square
wave pulse signals is complementary to 1, their spectrum distribution should be
completely the same only except the spectrum of DC component. FFT was applied to
the square wave pulse under condition of different duties (0.1, 0.2,, 0.9), then the
energy (here amplitude was considered as energy) percentage of the fundamental
frequency, which means energy of fundamental frequency divided by the energy of all
the harmonic frequencies (except DC component) has been obtained and shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Energy percentage of the fundamental frequency

From Figure 2 we can see that when duty is 50%, the energy percentage of
fundamental frequency is the biggest. Therefore, if the defect is located on the
subsurface of a thick specimen, big pulse period (which means low fundamental
frequency) and 50% duty are preferred because more information from deep position of
the specimen can be expected by low frequency. However, if the defect is located on
the surface of the specimen, short pulse period combined with small duty (e.g. 10%
duty) is more suitable in pulsed ECT technique. In this study, 50% duty of pulse was
applied to detect the local wall-thinning on the bottom side of pipes.
2. Pulsed ECT system

2.1. Specimens
To simulate the local wall-thinning on the bottom side of one layer thick pipe, three
AISI316 austenitic stainless steel flat plates with a slot defect were prepared in our
experiments. The size of the three plates is the same, 300mm in length, 100mm in
width and 20mm in thickness. A rectangular slot was arranged along the center line of
the bottom side of the plate in the shorter direction. The size of the slot defect
(widthdepth) is 2010, 1010 or 105 (mm), respectively. The slot defect is to be
detected from the top surface of the plate. The specimen is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. One plate specimen with a slot defect simulating local wall-thinning in one layer thick pipe
To simulate the local wall-thinning on the bottom side of a pipe which is covered
by an enforcement plate, we have prepared two AISI316 austenitic stainless steel flat
plates for our experiments. The size of the two plates is the same, 500mm in length,
300mm in width and 8mm in thickness. One plate is placed on the top of the other. A
rectangular slot has been arranged along the center line of the bottom side of the lower
plate in the shorter direction. The width of the slot is 10mm, and the depth is 1, 3 or
5mm, respectively. The slot is to be detected from the top surface of the upper plate.
The specimen is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Double-plate specimen with a slot defect simulating local wall-thinning in two layer pipes
2.2. Experiment setup

The pulsed ECT experiment system we established consists of a function generator
(WF1945, NF), a power amplifier (BP4610, NF), a scanning stage, an AD board and a
PC etc. In the experiments, a square wave pulse was generated from the function
generator and then amplified by the power amplifier by which the output current could
be controlled instead of the output voltage. Then the amplified current signal of the
square wave pulse was applied to the exciting coils as the exciting signal. A magnetic
sensor is supposed to be the pick-up sensor for picking up the magnetic field. The
pulsed ECT experiment setup is shown in Figure 5.
2.3. Pick-up sensor
As mentioned in the Introduction part, because of demerit of SQUID and Hall device,
in this study a TMF-FG sensor, one kind of FG sensor, was employed to detect local
wall-thinning in large diameter pipes. The manufacturer of this FG sensor is Canon,
sensitivity 1V/G, voltage source DC 5V, offset 2.5V, measurement range about from -
2.5G to 2.5G and resolution is about 1mG according to the manual. The circuit board
of sensor and its output property are shown in Figure 6(a) and Figure 6(b), respectively.
From Figure 6(a) we could see that on the circuit board there are two sensors which can
measure the magnetic field of two directions (measuring direction is parallel to the
length direction of the sensor). In experiments, one sensor or two sensors can be used at
one time according to the experiment request. Figure 6(b) shows that the output has
good linear property to external magnetic field within the measurement range.
Figure 5. Pulsed ECT experiment setup
(a) TMF-FG sensor (b) Output property

Figure 6. TMF-FG sensor and its output property
2.4. Exciting and pick-up mode

Generally speaking, as far as the magnetic sensor is concerned, there is trade off
between the sensitivity and the measurement range, i.e. low sensitivity with large
measurement range while high sensitivity with small measurement range. For FG
sensor, small measurement range is its inherent demerit. To overcome this problem, in
this study, a differential exciting mode has been developed and shown in Figure 7(a).
There are two almost identical exciting coils, coil 1 and coil 2, the parameters of which
are shown in Table 1. Reverse exciting signal has been applied to the two exciting
coils and FG sensor has been located at center of the two coils (see Figure 7(b)).
It has been pointed out that the ratio between the variations of the perturbed field
to the unperturbed field is maximized along the direction which is perpendicular to the
coil circle plane [7]. So in experiments, the magnetic field of vertical direction
(perpendicular to the coil circle plane and surface of specimen) was measured by FG
sensor. The distance from the sensor to the bottom plane of the coil is 6mm (The
smaller, the better. 6mm is the minimum value that we can set because of the big size
of the circuit board of the sensor). To simulate the insulator outside the pipes, firstly
2mm lift-off was applied.
Concerning this mode, there are mainly two aspects of advantage:
(1) FG sensor only measures the signal of the perturbed field that is affected by the
existence of defect because the direct magnetic field of vertical direction (generated by
exciting current in coils) at the position of FG sensor could be counteracted to be zero.
The perturbed field is rather small, thus the small measurement range of FG sensor can
be satisfied.
(2) Eddy current in the specimen decreases very slowly along depth direction and
deeper penetration depth could be expected.
(a) Differential exciting mode (b) Exciting coils and FG sensor

Figure 7. Differential exciting mode and coils
Table 1. Parameter of exciting coils
Items Coil 1 Coil 2
ID 30mm 30mm
OD 60mm 60mm
Height 30mm 30mm
Wire diameter 1mm 1mm
Turn 389 387
Impedance (at 50Hz) 1.847Ohm 1.850Ohm
Distance between two coils 80mm (center to center)
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Results of local wall-thinning detection in one layer pipe
In this study, the local wall-thinning on the bottom side of a plate (shown in Figure 3,
20mm thick) is to be detected using the above pulsed ECT system and FG sensor. The
magnitude of the DC part of the pulse exciting current is 4A for each coil, the period is
0.02s, duty is 50%. The pick-up signal collected by the FG sensor was averaged over
100 cycles of the transient output for duration of 2.0s, to reduce noise. Inspection
condition is shown in Figure 8. In experiments, scanning signals were obtained using
scanning stage and the center of the defect was chosen as the origin. The center of two
exciting coils (also the position of FG sensor locates at) started from the point which is
75mm far from the origin point (coordinate is -75mm) and moved along the scanning
direction to the position of 75mm coordinate in which the interval of every step is 3mm.
The peak value at every scanning point was extracted from the pick-up signal to detect
the slot defect of the plate.
Figure 9(a) shows the results of three specimens with different size of slot defect.
Figure 9(b) shows the relationship between value of peak to peak of scanning signal
and the size of defect. We can see that local wall-thinning in one thick layer could be
detected and different size of defect has different value of peak to peak. This lays a
good foundation for the future quantitative work.
Figure 8. Inspection condition
(a) Scanning signal (b) Relationship between value of peak to peak of scanning signal and size of defect
Figure 9. Pick-up signal and relationship between signal and defect
3.2. Results of local wall-thinning detection in double layer pipes

In this study, the local wall-thinning on the bottom side of the lower layer in double
layer plates (shown in Figure 4, 8mm plus 8mm thick) is to be detected using the same
experiment system and the same parameters of exciting signal as in section 3.1.
Inspection condition is shown in Figure 10. In experiments, S1 is the pick-up signal at
position 1 where sensors are far from defect (ideally S1 is 0) as the reference signal. S2
is the pick-up signal at position 2 where the center of coil 2 locates at the center of the
defect.
Figure 10. Inspection condition

Figure 11(a) shows the results of differential signal (S2-S1) of the three
specimens with different depths of slot defect using FG sensor and Hall sensor,
respectively. The results show that FG sensor is much better than Hall sensor for small
defect detection in a thicker specimen because of the big noise level of Hall device.
Similarly Figure 11(b) shows the relationship between pick value of the differential
signal and the depth of the defect. We can see that local wall-thinning in double layer
pipes could be detected and different depth of defect has different peak value. This also
lays a good foundation for the future quantitative work.
(a) Pick-up signal using FG sensor and Hall sensor (b) Relationship between peak value and depth of defect
Figure 11. Pick up signal and relationship between signal and defect
4. Conclusion
In the paper, it has been analyzed how to choose a suitable duty of square wave pulse
in pulsed ECT method. A differential exciting mode was developed to efficiently apply
TMF-FG sensor in pulsed ECT experiment system. The experiment results state that
local wall-thinning in one thick layer pipe (20mm) and double layer pipes (8mm+8mm)
with small lift-off (2mm) could be detected using the above detection mode. In addition,
experiment result shows that FG sensor is much better than Hall sensor for small defect
detection in thicker specimen. This study gives a good foundation for the future
quantitative work.
Acknowledgements
This work was conducted as a part of Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA)
project on Enhancement of Ageing Management and Maintenance of Nuclear Power
Plants in Japan and supported by the Grant-in-Aid for the Global COE Program,
"World Centre of Education and Research for Trans-Disciplinary Flow Dynamics",
from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) of
Japan. The authors would like to thank Mr. Takeshi Sato of Tohoku University, for the
preparation of the specimens and the fabrication of the probe.
References
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NDT&E International 38 (2005) 77-82.
[2] J. Kim, G. Yang, L. Udpa, S. Udpa. Classification of pulsed eddy current GMR data on aircraft structures.
NDT&E International 43 (2010) 141-144.
[3] M. Fan et al. Analytical modeling for transient probe response in pulsed eddy current testing. NDT&E
International 42 (2009) 376 383.
[4] T. Chen et al. Feature extraction and selection for defect classification of pulsed eddy current NDT.
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[5] M. Morozov, G.Y. Tian and D. Edgar. Comparison of PEC and SFEC NDE Techniques. NDT&E
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(2005) 277-279.
[7] M. Valentino, G. Pepe, A. Ruosi and G. Peluso. Eddy-current nondestructive measurements with
different HTS-SQUID spatial orientations. J. Phys. IV France 8 (1998) 249-252.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-211
Developing ECT System with AMR Sensor

for Combustion Chamber
Dongfeng HE a,1, Mitsuhara SHIWAa, Jianping JIAa, Hisashi YAMAWAKIa, Ichizo
UETAKEa, Junji Takatsubo b, Shinichi MORIYAc, and Koichi OKITAc
a
National Institute for Materials Science, Sengen 1-2-1, Tsukuba, 305-0047, Japan
b
Advanced Industrial Science and Technology1-2-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, 305-8564, Japan
c
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Sengen 2-1-1, Tsukuba, 305-8505, Japan
Abstract. An eddy current testing (ECT) system with a high sensitive AMR sensor
was developed. In our experiments, a specimen of cooper plate with grooves and
slits was used to simulate the cooling grooves of the combustion chamber of liquid
rocket and the defect in it. Three defects, with the width of 0.2 mm, the length of 4
mm and the depth of 0.2 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.8 mm respectively, were made in the
bottom of the grooves. Using a 4.5 mm and 30 turn circular excitation coil, ECT
experiments were done for the AMR sensor with Z, X and Y directions at the
frequency of 2 kHz. The results show that the variance of lift off had big influence
on the ECT result with the Z direction AMR sensor and smaller influence on that
with the X, Y direction AMR sensor. The defects with the depth of 0.8 mm and
0.5mm, 0.2 mm were clearly observed, but the signal of the defect with the depth
of 0.2 mm was very small.
Keywords. ECT, AMR, combustion chamber
Introduction
For the liquid rocket, liquid Oxygen and liquid Hydrogen are used as the propellant.
The wall of the combustion chamber is made of Cu-Cr-Zr copper alloy. High
temperature gas over 3000 K is generated in the combustion chamber and liquid
hydrogen flowing in the cooling groove is used for the cooling. Due to the big thermal
gradient and the excessive thermal strain generated in the cooling groove, two kinds of
damages might be generated in the wall of the combustion chamber. One is from the
inner wall side, which is caused by the oxidation/reduction of the oxide layer; another
is the melt damage from the cooling grooves, which is caused by the growth of the
small crack in the grain boundary of the copper alloy. The aim of this research is to
find an effective method for the tiny defect detection and evaluation of the combustion
chamber.
Eddy current testing (ECT) is an effective method to detect defects in conductive
materials. It has the advantage of low price and easy operation. Inductive coil,
anisotropic magneto resistance (AMR), giant magneto resistance (GMR), flux gate,
superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) have been used as the sensors
in ECT systems [1-4]. SQUID has the best magnetic field resolution especially at low
frequency. However, SQUID must be cooled by liquid nitrogen or liquid helium, so the
ECT system with SQUID is expensive, complex and is not easy to handle. High
sensitive flux gate is also expensive. The sensitivity of coil become worse at low
212 D. He et al. / Developing ECT System with AMR Sensor for Combustion Chamber
frequency and GMR sensor also has big noise at low frequency. AMR sensor is
cheaper than SQUID and flux gate and has better sensitivity than inductive coil and
GMR sensor at low frequency.
Using the low noise driving circuit developed by us, the magnetic field resolution
of AMR sensor was improved to 12 pT/Hz at the frequency of above 1 kHz [5]. The
driving circuit operated in amplifier mode or feedback mode and the linearity could be
improved for feedback mode, which is important for a moving ECT system in
unshielded environment. ECT experiments were once been done for an aluminum plate
[6]. In this report, we will present our ECT results for the specimen of copper plate
with the X, Y, and Z sensing directions of the AMR sensor.
1. Experimental setup
Figure1 shows the block diagram of the ECT system with AMR sensor. The circular
coil was used to produce the excitation field. Then, eddy-current was induced in the
specimen. If there was some defect in the specimen, the distribution of the eddy-current
was changed and the field produced by the eddy current was detected by the AMR
sensor. Through the lock-in amplifier, the amplitude signal and the phase signal could
be obtained; then it was sent to a computer for data acquisition and data processing. In
our experiment only the amplitude signal was used. The AMR sensor was fixed with
the X-Y stage for the scanning.
Figure 1. The block diagram of the ECT system with AMR sensor
1.1. Specimen
To simulate the real combustion chamber of liquid rocket, the specimen was made of
copper alloy plate. Figure 2 shows it. The thickness of the plate was 4 mm. Grooves
with the width of 1 mm and the depth of 3 mm were made on one side of the copper
plate. Three slit defects were made in the bottom of some grooves with the length of 4
mm, the width of 0.2 mm and the depth of 0.2 mm, 0.5 mm, and 0.8 mm respectively.
The surface of the copper was not flat; bending exists in some part of the copper plate,
which caused the variance of the lift off.
D. He et al. / Developing ECT System with AMR Sensor for Combustion Chamber 213
Figure 2. The specimen of copper plate with grooves and slit defect to simulate the combustion chamber of
liquid rocket.
1.2. AMR sensor and the driving circuit
A commercially available AMR sensor of HMC1001 was used [7]. The magnetic field
sensitivity of the AMR sensor was about 3.2 mV/V/Gauss. To improve the field
resolution, higher bias voltage of 24 V and low noise preamplifier were used. To
improve the linearity of the response, a driving circuit operating in feedback mode was
designed [5]. The AMR sensor has flat response till to 5 MHz and the magnetic field
resolution was about 12 pT/Hz at the frequencies of above 1 kHz.
1.3. The excitation coil and the sensing direction of AMR sensor
A 30 turn, 4.5 mm circular coil was used to produce the excitation field. Figure 3
shows the three sensing direction of the AMR sensor. Figure 3 (a) shows the Z
direction AMR sensor. The coil was attached to the bottom of the AMR and the
position was adjusted to get the biggest output for the excitation field. Figure 3 (b)
shows the X direction sensor. The sensing direction of the AMR sensor was along the
direction of the groove. The coil was attached to one side of the AMR sensor and the
position of the coil was adjusted to get the smallest output. Figure 3 (c) shows the Y
direction sensor. The sensing direction of the AMR sensor was perpendicular to the
grooves direction.
D
D E
E F
F
Figure 3. The excitation coil and the sensing direction of AMR. (a). Z direction. (b). X direction. (c). Y
direction
1.4. The experimental condition
The conductivity of the copper alloy is about 5.8106 S/m. In our experiments, the
excitation frequency was 2 kHz. From the formula = 1 f , where, is the
penetration depth, f is the excitation frequency, is the permeability of the material and
is the conductivitythe penetration depth is about 1.5 mm for copper alloy at 2 kHz.
The amplitude of the current flow in the excitation coil was about 20 mA. The
amplitude of the magnetic field at the center of the coil was about 2 Gauss. X
direction was parallel to the direction of the grooves, Y direction was perpendicular to
the direction of the grooves, and Z direction was vertical direction perpendicular to the
surface of the specimen. For the XY scanning, first, fixing the X position and line
scanning along Y direction; then changing the X position. Due to the bending of the
specimen, the variance of the lift off was from 0.2 mm to 1mm.
We did the ECT experiments for the AMR sensor with Z direction, X direction and Y
direction. For the Z direction sensor, the big excitation field was also detected by the
AMR senor. For the X and Y direction sensor, the excitation field was not detected by
the AMR sensor.
2.1. Z direction
Figure 4 shows ECT results when using the AMR sensor with Z direction. Figure 4 (a)
shows the Line scanning where the defects exist. Figure 4 (b) shows line scanning
where no defects exist. Figure 4 (c) shows the 2D contour map of the XY scanning
results. The defects with the depth of 0.8 mm and 0.5 mm were observed. Due to the
big background field and the influence of the variance of the lift off, the smallest defect
with the depth of 0.2 mm was not observed.
Figure 4. ECT results using AMR with Z direction. (a). Line scanning result where defects exist. (b). Line
scanning result where no defects exist. (c). Contour map of the XY scanning results.
Figure 5 (a) shows the subtraction results of the line scanning Figure 4 (a) and
Figure 4 (b). Figure 5 (b) shows the 2D contour map of the subtraction results. The
D. He et al. / Developing ECT System with AMR Sensor for Combustion Chamber 215
defects of 0.8 mm and 0.5 mm become clearer; A very small signal appeared for the
defect signal with the depth of 0.2 mm.
Figure 5. (a). The subtraction result of Figure 4 (a) and Figure 4 (b). (b). The contour map of subtraction
results.
2.2. X direction
Figure 6 shows ECT results when using the AMR sensor with X direction. Figure 6 (a)
shows the Line scanning where the defects exist. The defect signal was positive at one
end of the defect, and it is negative at another end of the defect. Figure 6 (b) shows the
2D contour map of the XY scanning results. Using the AMR sensor with the X
direction, the influence of the variance of the lift off was reduced. A small signal
appeared for the defect with the depth of 0.2 mm.
Figure 6. ECT results using AMR with X direction. (a). Line scanning result where defects exist. (b). 2D
Contour map of the XY scanning results.
2.3. Y direction
ECT experiments using AMR sensor with Y direction were also done. Figure 7 (a)
shows line scanning results where defects exist. For each defect, a peak and a valley
signal appeared. The defects with the depth of 0.8 mm and 0.5 mm were clearly
observed. The signal of the defect with the depth of 0.2 mm was small. The influence
of the variance of lift off was also reduced. Figure 7 (b) shows the contour map of the
results.
Figure 7. ECT results using AMR with Y direction. (a). Line scanning result where defects exist. (b). 2D
Contour map of the XY scanning results.
3. Summary
ECT system with AMR sensor was constructed and ECT experiments for the copper
specimen were done using the AMR sensor with the Z, X and Y directions. Variance of
lift off had big influence when using Z direction AMR sensor. The influence of the
variance of lift off was reduced when using X and Y direction AMR sensor. The
defects with the depth of 0.8 mm and 0.5 mm were observed. The signal of the defect
with the depth of 0.2 mm was very small.
Acknowledgment
We thank the helps from Prof. H. Itozaki and Dr. M. Tachiki.
References
[1] K. Allweins, M. von Kreutzbruck, G. Gierelt, Defect detection in aluminum laser welds using an
anisotropic magnetoresistive sensor array, J. Appl. Phys., 97, 10Q102, (2005)
[2] T. Dogaru, S.T. Smith, Giant magnetoresistance based eddy current sensor, IEEE Trans. Magn., 37,
pp.2790 2793, (2001).
[3] C. Carr, J.C. Macfarlane, The performance of flux gate magnetometers for nondestructive evaluation,
Insight, 41, pp.20 24, (1999).
[4] H. Weinstock, R.A. Welsh, SQUIDs for nondestructive evaluation, Superconductor Industry, 10,
pp.23 28, (1997).
[5] D.F. He, M. Tachiki, H. Itozaki, Highly sensitive anisotropic magnetoresistance magnetometer for
Eddy current nondestructive evaluation, Rev. Sci. Instru , 80, 036102, (2009).
[6] Dongfeng He, Mitsuharu Shiwa, et al., Basic Examination for the Defect Detection of Combustion
Chamber Using ECT, submitted to Journal of JSNDI, (2010).
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-217
Flux Leakage Measurements for Defect

Characterization Using NDT Adapted
GMR Sensors
Matthias PELKNER1, Andreas NEUBAUER, Mark BLOME, Verena REIMUND,
Hans-Martin THOMAS and Marc KREUTZBRUCK
Federal Institute for Material Research and Testing
Unter der Eichen 87, D 12205 Berlin, Germany
Abstract. High precision magnetic field sensors are of increasing interest in non
destructive testing (NDT). In particular GMR sensors (giant magneto resistance)
are qualified because of their high sensitivity, high signal to noise ratio and high
spatial resolution. We performed magnetic flux leakage measurements of artificial
cracks with a GMR gradiometer and a 3 axes GMR magnetometer. Cracks of a
depth of 44 m still could be detected with a sufficient high signal to noise ratio.
A semi analytic magnetic dipole model was used for swiftly predicting magnetic
stray fields. The reliable reconstruction based on measurements of artificial
rectangular shaped defects is demonstrated.
Keywords. GMR, NDT, magnetic flux leakage, reconstruction
Introduction
Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) is one of the most popular methods for defect
detection and characterization of magnetic components in NDT. The most prominent
method for a MFL application is the magnetic particle inspection (MP). In this method
magnetic particles accumulate at magnetic stray fields generated by surface cracks in a
magnetized component. By means of MP the number of defects and their length can be
determined precisely. However, the estimation of defect depth and the automation of
MP-applications is rather difficult. To examine the depth and width of inhomogeneities
in more detail it is necessary to measure the stray field near cracks. This can be done by
any magnetic field sensor, such as flux gate sensors, hall probes, SQUID, or XMR
sensors (magneto resistance; X = G (giant), A (anisotropic), etc.) [1-6].
In this work we used two types of GMR (giant magneto resistance) sensors optimized
for NDT applications: a gradiometer measuring the normal component of the magnetic
flux leakage and a new 3-axes magnetometer measuring all three directions in space.
GMR sensors are well suited for NDT applications thanks to their high sensitivity, high
signal-to-noise ratio and small sensing area associated with a high spatial resolution. In
contrast to commercial GMR sensors that are usually embedded in a bulky
encapsulation, the sensitive layers of the GMR sensors used in this work are located
1
Corresponding Author: E mail: matthias.pelkner@bam.de. This work is supported by the Federal Ministry
of Education and Research, Germany, project no. 16SV3787.
218 M. Pelkner et al. / Flux Leakage Measurements for Defect Characterization Using NDT
only a few tens of m from the chip edge, resulting in a small sensor-to-surface
distance. This helps to visualize the defect signature with a very good spatial resolution.
Further, having a fast inverse scheme in mind based on a semi-analytic model for MFL
to estimate the defect parameters like width, depth and length, it is helpful to work with
point-like sensing devices. Therefore the active sensing area should be adapted to the
liftoff and has to be smaller. Otherwise, the field gradients along the active area must
be considered via integration over the whole sensing area, leading to distinct layers
calculation times.
1. GMR sensors and semi-analytical model for MFL.
1.1. Experimental setup
The experimental setup consists of three high precision manipulators (Aerotech) for the
three directions in space, providing a maximum scanning velocity of 0.5 m/s and a
spatial resolution of 1 m. The manipulators are fixed on a 2000 kg bloc of granite
eliminating environmental vibrations.
To record the data of the sensors a fast data acquisition hardware based on a 18 bit
AD-converter with a maximum sampling rate of 600 kHz (National Instruments) was
used. To achieve a high signal-to-noise ratio, the sensor signals were pre-amplified.
1.2. GMR gradiometer and 3D magnetometer
(a) (b)
Figure 1. GMR gradiometer measuring the gradient in x direction of the normal field component Hz. (a)
Sketch of the electric circuit of the GMR chip (Sensitec GmbH). The sensing areas (R1 R4, green and red)
are sensitive to Hz. The distance between R2/R4 and R1/R3 is 250 m. (b) Schematic of an artificial crack with
dimensions length l, depth h and width w. The induced polarization on the defect wall is indicated by
plus signs. The white squares represent the sensing elements of the GMR gradiometer above the defect.
The GMR effect was discovered in 1988 by Peter Grnberg [7] and Albert Fert (Nobel
Prize in Physics, 2007). Independently they found a giant magneto resistance (GMR)
in a multilayer structure consisting of ferromagnetic layers divided by nonmagnetic
M. Pelkner et al. / Flux Leakage Measurements for Defect Characterization Using NDT 219
layers which depend on the directions of magnetization in each layer. The effect is
based on quantum-mechanical scattering of the conduction electrons at the boundary
surface between the ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic layer.
Generally a GMR gradiometer consists of four not-shielded elements fabricated as
a Wheatstone-bridge as shown in fig. 1(a), resulting in a distinct temperature-
independent output signal. The measured quantity is the difference of the magnetic
field (here the normal component Hz) between the two active areas and it is detected by
measuring the bridge voltage. In our case, the sensing areas have a size of only
7060 m and a transfer function of 14 mV/V(kA/m)-1 in its linear range between
1kA/m.
The 3-axes magnetometer (Sensitec GmbH) consists of three Wheatstone bridges
that allow to measure absolute field values via special flux concentrators. As its
prominent feature the new 3-axes magnetometer detects simultaneously all three spatial
components of the magnetic field in the same parallel plane next to the surface under
investigation. Fig. 2 depicts the layout of the sensor. The x and y components are
measured with special flux concentration layers, which are rotated by 90. Both flux
concentrators have a diameter of 140 m. This results in a spatial resolution that is
worse than for the gradiometer described above. The z-component is measured by the
field distortion in the vicinity of two flux concentrator strips with dimension about
10160 m and separated by a distance of 30 m. The transfer function for the 3-axes
magnetometer is 30 mV/V (kA/m)-1 and it has its linear range for fields between
1kA/m. For further details see [8].
Figure 2. Prototype of a 3 axes GMR magnetometer (Sensitec GmbH) measuring the three directions in
space of the magnetic field in the same plane. On the right a SEM picture of the 3 axes magnetometer is
shown [8].
1.3. Semi analytic model
Inversion of MFL signals requires an adequate forward solver for predicting magnetic
stray field signals. To account for defects we employed the magnetic dipole model
intro-duced by Shcherbinin [9,10]. According to this model MFL signals arise due to
induced magnetic polarizations on the defect walls [11].
This model allows to calculate magnetic stray fields of a rectangular defect with
length l, width w and depth h (see fig. 1(b)). Especially for GMR sensors that can be
positioned very close to the surface of the test piece, it is important to carefully
consider the dimensions of the probe, i.e., the size of their active sensing areas, in the
calculation process. In our calculation we therefore numerically integrated the magnetic
stray field expressions over the active sensor areas of the GMR testing probe (fig. 1(b))
to obtain a fast algorithm.
For the inverse calculation of the defect parameters we employed the trustt-region
reflective algorithm to minimize the difference between the predicted( dsyn F(m) )
and measured ( dobs ) GMR sensor data iteratively using an L2 norm approach. Initially,
the forward solution is estimated for an arbitrarily chosen start model m0 (comprising
the defect parameters l, w and h). Subsequently, the sought-after model parameters are
updated in an iterative fashion by minimizing the objective function
2
dobs j
dsyn with dsyn
j
F(m j )
, (1)
where j denotes the iteration number and F(m j ) the forward solution step as outlined
above. Minimization is continued until convergence is reached yielding an estimate of
the true defect parameters.
2. Results
As test object we used a steel plate with artificial cracks of varying depth (see fig. 3).
The artificial cracks were introduced by electrical discharge machining. The width of
the cracks varies between 100 to 200 m with a length around 5500 m. The depth
ranges between 10 m and 2240 m. The measurements were performed in remanence
(no applied field during measurement), i.e., the test object was magnetized before. The
direction of the applied field was normal to the defect geometry.
Figure 3. Schematic cross section of the steel plate. The field was applied along the x direction.
2.1. Gradiometer detecting the z component of the magnetic field
Using the gradiometer line scans with different liftoffs were recorded. Fig. 4 shows
the gradient of the magnetic stray field as a function of position x. Clear signatures of
the field gradient illustrate the defect positions and the amplitude of H scales with the
depth of the defects [11]. The right panel in fig. 4 illustrates the signals of the defects
with a depth between 44 m and 380 m in more detail. The attenuation of the signal
for an increasing liftoff is in agreement with the theoretical model. Further, it is found
that even the 44 m deep defect can be observed. However, for the 30 m and 10 m
deep cracks no clear signal can be distinguished from the noise. Possible contributions
to the noise level may originate from the roughness of the surface or from spatial
variations of the permeability.
Figure 4. Line scan with a gradiometer for three different distances between sensor and surface of the test
object.
2.2. Reconstruction
Magnetic field sources generally create a blurred magnetic field distribution above
the samples surface. This is due to the divergence of the magnetic field and the
position of the sensing device, which in an exterior investigation is naturally always a
certain distance from the source of the field. What starts as a distinct field distribution
inside the sample turns into a broad field distribution when the field sensor is either too
large or positioned at too far a distance above the samples surface. This blurredness
complicates the data interpretation and begs for additional support through signal
processing to evaluate the mechanical state of the sample. Thus, small sensors
providing high spatial resolution in combination with a large signal-to-noise ratio are
helpful to gain better insight into the type of defect, its size and its location.
In fig. 5 the measurement and the results of the reconstruction of two defects are
shown. For the reconstruction data in the vicinity of the defect was used to calculate the
defect parameters (approx. 120,000 data points).
The false rendering plots in the upper panel of fig. 5(a) show the experimental and
calculated data of the stray field gradient of a 210 m deep crack. In addition 10 line
scans across the defect, extracted from both data sets, are shown aside.
In the lower panel of fig. 5(a) the results of the reconstruction process are shown,
in which the parameters length, depth and width were reconstructed simultaneously. A
relative fast converging process is observed. The length converges after less then 10
iterations and the depth can be reconstructed after less than 5 iterations. In total this
reconstruction requires only a few seconds on a standard PC.
It is worth mentioning that the crack width does not converge to the real value.
This is in agreement with the sensitivity matrix and is due to the fact that in the
analytical model the crack width has a minor influence to the stray field [11].
Remarkably, we find a good reconstruction quality also for the 44 m-deep defect
although dealing with a significant decrease in SNR, as illustrated in fig. 5(b).
Figure 5. False color renderings of two different defects: (a) 210 m and (b) 44 m deep. The top left picture
shows the measurement and the middle one the synthetic generated signal form of the reconstruction
algorithm. Right to them ten lines are exemplary illustrated ( measurement, simulation). In the bottom
diagram the defect parameters and the steps of reconstruction are presented.
2.3. 3 axes Magnetometer
Finally, in this section first measurements of the magnetic flux leakage using a new 3-
axes magnetometer are shown. The same test plate was used as for the gradiometer.
The prototype 3-axes magnetometer measures Hx, Hy and Hz simultaneously at the
same lift off. This provides additional information of the magnetic field which is
required, e.g., for a more voxel-based reconstruction algorithm.
In fig. 6 the results for the Hx and Hz component of the magnetic field are
presented. Panel (a) and (c) show false rendering plots for both magnetic field
components. For each field component three line scans, indicated by the black, red and
green line, are shown in panels (b) and (d). These line scans illustrate the stray field at
the edges (black, green) and the center (red) of the cracks, respectively. As expected
from the analytic model, the stray field signals are most pronounced in the center of a
crack and decline towards the edges. Since a magnetometer was used the defect signals
appear superimposed on magnetic stray fields originating from the magnetic steel plate
itself. The typical signatures of these background fields are a maximum in the center of
the plate for the Hx component and a gradual decline for the Hz component.
The Hy field component (not shown) is characterized by MFL signatures at the
edges of the long sides of the cracks. Since the direction of the magnetization was
along the x direction, only at these end positions distinct signatures of Hy are expected.
Figure 6. Stray field distribution represented in a false color renderings. (a) False rendering plot of field
component Hx. (c) Hz component. (b) and (d): Extraction of 3 line scans across the left and right edge of the
crack (black and green) and the center of the crack (red), where field amplitude is maximum.
In fig. 7 the scanning area was adapted to three defects for the Hx component of the
magnetic field. Compared to the gradiometer we observe a somewhat higher noise level.
In addition to the 380 and 210 m deep defects the 44 m deep defect can be imagined.
Figure 7. Field distribution of the Hx component measured by a 3D magnetometer. Extraction of defects

with a depth of 380, 210 and 44 m.
3. Conclusion
The automation of flux leakage testing is an active research field, where the use of
adapted magnetic field sensors detect stray field distributions of defects above the test
specimen. For this purpose, the sensors require a high spatial resolution and an
excellent field sensitivity. We therefore propose in this work the use of NDT-adapted
GMR sensors that enable us to detect several artificial defects with depth down to 44
m. Detecting the magnetic field close to the surface offers the advantage to obtain
more detailed information on the geometrical parameters of the defects. Using a few
m-sized GMR gradiometer, where the sensing MR-layer is positioned close to the
chip edge, we obtained distinct crack signatures with good spatial resolution and
showed that a reconstruction of the length and depth can be reliably carried out. The
width can also be determined, however, less accurate due to the smaller influence of the
width on the stray field. In addition we proposed the use of a 3-axes magnetometer
measuring all three field component simultaneously. These results can be regarded as a
further step towards the use of GMR sensors in NDT providing a more complete
picture of the real magnetic field distribution of the samples outside world. This paves
the way for new visualization techniques, precisely defect localization, defect
characterization, and tomography-like mapping techniques.
Electromagnetic testing based on small magneto resistive layers with high spatial
resolution can be provided with relatively high cost effectiveness. This also allows
GMR-sensors to follow the miniaturization trend providing an adequate testing method
for quality control of small components. GMR-technology thus has the potential to
bridge the micro-gap between the mm-sized conventional induction coils for detecting
macroscopic material defects and the scanning magnetic force microscopy for the
detection of field distribution on the nm-scale.
References
[1] K. Allweins, M. v. Kreutzbruck, G. Gierelt, Defect Detection in Aluminium Laser Welds Using an AMR
Sensor Array, J.Appl.Phys. 97 (2005), 10Q102
[2] H. Pries, Giant Magnetic Resistance Sensoren in der industriellen ZfP, Report of Annual Meeting of the
German Society of Nondestructive Testing 2008, St. Gallen, Switzerland
[3] Y. Kataoka et al., Application of GMR line sensor to detect the magnetic flux distribution for
nondestructive testing, International Journal of Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics 15
(2001/2002), 47 52
[4] H. J. Krause, M. v. Kreutzbruck, Recent Development in SQUID NDE, Physica C 368 (2002), 70 79
[5] C. Dolabdjian, G. Wach, L. Perez, Improvement in the detection of subsurface fatigue cracks under
airframe fasteners using improved rotating giant magneto resistance magnetometer head, Paper
presented at the 9th European Conference on NDT, 25 29 September 2006, Berlin
[6] F. Gruhl, M. Mck, M. v. Kreutzbruck, J. Dechert, A scanning superconducting quantum interference
device microscope with high spatial resolution for room temperature samples, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 72
(2001), 2090 2096
[7] P. Grnberg, et al., Layered Magnetic Structures: Evidence for Antiferromagnetic Coupling of Fe Layers
across Cr Interlayers, Phys.Rev.Lett. 57 (1986), 2442
[8] C. Glenske, U.Loreit, New 3D Magnetic Field Sensors with GMR Spin Valve Layers, Paper presented
at the 10th Symposium Magnetoresistive Sensors and Magnetic Systems, 31. March/1. April 2009,
Wetzlar (Germany)
[9] N. Zatsepin, V Shcherbinin, Calculation of the magneto static field of surface defects. I. Field topography
of defect models, Defektoskopija 5 (1966), 50 59
[10] V. Shcherbinin, A. Pashagin, Influence of the extension of a defect on the magnitude its magnetic field,
Defektoskopija 8 (1972), 74 83
[11] F. Frster, New findings in the field of non destructive magnetic leakage field, NDT International 19
(1986), 3 14
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-225
Evaluation of EMAT signals using

magnetostrictives for imaging
Yoshihiro NISHIMURA a,1 , Akira SASAMOTO a and Takayuki SUZUKI a
a
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-2-1 Tsukuba
Ibaraki-prefecture, 305-8564, Japan
Abstract. Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) is a means of contact

free nondestructive testing (NDT). They are useful for high speed scanning of in
spection materials or for scanning high temperature materials. EMATs have inter
nal permanent magnets that induce a strong magnetic eld in the inspected mate
rials. They employ pulsing current to induce eddy currents on the surface of in
spected materials and generates an ultrasound signal by Lorenz force or by magne
tostrictive effect in the inspected material. The ultrasound signals propagate to and
are reected from the edge of the inspected material or aws. The EMAT probe
then acquires a time series of echo signals as the output, similar to those derived by
piezoelectric transducers. However, the time series of data derived by the EMAT
probe is too noisy due to the Barkhausen effect to identify reections from internal
ows, unlike the time series of data derived by the piezoelectric probe. We em
ployed a low pass lter method and Z direction averaging method to decrease the
Bartkhausen noise and compared them.
Keywords. EMAT, image reconstruction, Hilbert transformation, Barkhausen
noise
Introduction
In these years, technology for imaging aws in structural materials using non-destructive
testing methods has become important for the safety of society. The recent progress
of high speed computational ability of PCs has enabled the widespread use of aws
imaging technology.[1][2][3] Conventionally, piezoelectric probes have been employed
for detecting and imaging aws in structural materials. Piezoelectric probes usually are
in contact with samples directly or are indirectly coupled through water and therefore
cannot easily scan samples quickly. Piezoelectric probes are not available for detecting
aws in large samples.
An electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) is a major nondestructive (NDT)
device that detects aws in a sample using an ultrasound signal induced by electromag-
netic force.[4] EMAT can address the problem of slow-speed scanning because EMATs
can scan without contacting the samples. An EMAT measures a time series of data, that
is waveforms similar to those produced by ordinary piezoelectric transducers. Two kinds
of EMAT are availables, one using Lorenz force and another using magnetostrictive ef-
1 Corresponding Author: Yoshihiro Nishimura, AIST, 1 2 1 Namiki Tsukuba Ibaraki, Japan; E mail:
nishimura.yoshihiro@aist.go.jp.
226 Y. Nishimura et al. / Evaluation of EMAT Signals Using Magnetostrictives for Imaging
fects. The latter can be used for easily detecting aws in a sample with ferromagnetic
oxide scale. However, the data generated by EMAT using magnetostrictive effects are
very noisy due to the Barkhausen effect, compared to data produced by ordinary piezo-
electric transducers. It is important to decrease such noise to reconstruct images of aws
in samples because the noise from Barkhausen effects is sometimes too large to ignore.
Of course, some noises come from electoronic amplier circuit also. Such noise can be
decreased by staying at one position and averaging over a time series of data derived
repeatedly. However, if the probe scans a large surface area on a sample in a limited time
for imaging , the probe cannot remain long at one position for averaging. The frequency
of these noise is much higher than that of the signicant signal data. A low-pass lter,
that can remove high frequency noise, is one way to address this problem but introduce
another kind of noise. Some other method for reducing noise when imaging aws should
be explored.
1. EMAT Principles
An EMAT is used in an NDT method similar to the conventional ultrasound testing (UT),
except that its probe output signal has more noise and that it is a contact-free method.
The EMAT probe has a coil (or coils) and a strong internal magnet (Figure.1). Pulsing
Figure 1. EMAT operation principles
current induces eddy current on the surface of the inspected material as much as the
eddy current testing (ECT) probe does. The induced eddy current generates an ultrasound
signal by Lorenz force or by magnetostrictive effect( Figure.1). The ultrasound signal
propagates to and reects from the edges of the sample or the aws (Figure.2). The
probe output is observed as a time series of echo signal intensities on the EMAT screen(
Figure.3).
A typical time series of data derived by an EMAT from reference specimen is de-
picted in Figure.3. The initial peak induced by the rst current pulse and many subse-
quent peaks from multiple reections at the edge of reference sample can be observed.
The initial peak is too large compared to later peaks and so is saturated in the full input
scale range. This measurement was made at 2GHz.
Y. Nishimura et al. / Evaluation of EMAT Signals Using Magnetostrictives for Imaging 227
Figure 2. Signal propagation in EMAT operation
Figure 3. EMAT signal observed from reference specimen sample at 2GHz
2. EMAT Signals From Sample With Oxide Scale Surface
A sample with some internal aws was prepared. Its geometry and dimensions are de-
picted in Figure.4. Its oxide scale was generated in an environment similar to those of
actual use. The 3-D scanner depicted in Figure.5 was developed and applied to the
prepared sample. A FA computer controlled the scanning movement of the EMAT probe
and the trigger timing of the pulser/receiver. An AD converter collected the time series
of data from the receiver and the FA computer stored them in its data strorage. A block
diagram of the 3D-scanner is presented in Figure.6. Scanning was done as illustrated in
Figure.7. The specication of the 3D scanner are listed in Table.1.
The measurement was made under the conguration listed in Table 2. The observed
time series of data is very noisy, as illustrated in Figure. 8(a),(b), but averaging mea-
sured data(time-based-averaging) can decrease such noise (Figure.9(a),(b)). These noisy
signals were observed all over the surface and can be decreased by averaging.
Figure 4. Samples geometry and dimensions
Figure 5. 3D scanner
Table 1. 3D Scanner Specications.

Scan speed 1 line/s(max 1000m/s)
Precision(X,Y,Z) 0.5 m
Maximum image resolution 8192 8192
Measurable area 360mm 310mm 80mm
Table 2. Scanning condition.

Scan area 75mm 75mm
X Y resolution 1024x1024
Sampling rate 400MHz
Sampled Number 16000
If the probe scans a large surface area on a sample in a limited time, the probe cannot
stay long at one position for averaging. The time-based-averaging method thus cannot be
Figure 6. Block diagram of 3D scanning system
Figure 7. The movement of the probes scanning over a sample
Figure 8. (a)Raw signal derived from the sample in Figure.4 and (b) Magnied image of reection signal from
bottom edge.
Figure 9. (a)Signal averaged over 400 raw signals derived from the sample(in Figure.4) and (b)Magnied
image of reection signal in (a)
used for scanning a large area. The power spectra of Figures.8(a) and 9(a) are plotted in
Figures.10(a) and (b). Most of the noise can be minimized by averaging.
Figure 10. Power spectra of Figure.8(a) and Figure.9(a)
A low-pass lter that passes frequencies below 5.5MHz was applied to the time se-
ries data in Figure.8(a). The time series data in Figure.8(a) was converted to the one
shown in Figure.11(a),(b). Most of the noise in Figure.8(a),(b) could be removed success-
fully. However, the low-pass-ltered data reveals noises generated by the lter function
at the initial peak in the left half of Figure.11(a).
3. Noise Reduction By Converting 2GHz-sampled Data to 400MHz-sampled Data
We tried another noise reduction method. In this measurement, the data was sampled
in the X and Y directions at a pitch of 100m by 3D-scanner. However, the sampling
interval in the Z direction is equivalent to a sampling pitch of 7.5m because the velocity
of the transverse wave in steel is 3000m/s and the sampling frequency is 400MHz in
Figure 11. (a)Signal ltered from Figure.8 by a low pass lter (in Figure.11) and (b)Magnied image of
reection signal in (a)
Figure.8(a). Compared to the sampling pitch in the X and Y directions, the sampling
pitch in the Z direction is thought to be too small. We therefore tried 1D-position-based
averaging. First, we derived a time series data by sampling at 2GHz. Second, we averaged
every 50 samples to derive a time series data equivalent to the one sampled at 40MHz.
We tried averaging every 10 samples, every 20 samples , every 50 samples and every 100
samples and decided to employ evey-50-samples-averaging. Sampling the time series
data at 40MHz is though to be equivalent to sampling pitch of 75m in the Z direction.
AD converters supporting under 100MHz or 400MHz are used for common uses of UT
equipments. AD converters supporting 2GHz or more are not popular. But a 2GHz AD
converters was found to be particularly useful for real time noise-reduction and imaging
of aws by such noisy EMAT using magnetostrictive effect.
Figure 12. (a)Signal derived by averaging raw data sampled at 2GHz at every 50 samples raw(in Figure.8)
and (b)Magnied image of reection signal in (a)
In this way, the noise depicted in Figure.8 was decreased successfully. The distribu-
tions of reection intensities in a sample have to be derived to reconstruct a 3D-image
of aws in a sample. By applying Hilbert transformation to the time series data in Fig-
ure.12, a curve illustrating their envelope could be derived in Figure.13(a). Hilbert trans-
formation provides an analytical expression of the signal and its absolute value provides
an envelope curve of the signal. A sectional image of the sample can be reconstructed by
putting the time T-axis in the vertical direction and the X-axis in the horizontal direction
and allocating the the reection from the aws at a position (X,T) on the X-T plane. An
example of the sectional image of sample is depicted in Figure.13(b). The vertical axis
denotes time and the horizontal axis denotes the position in the X direction. The top edge
of Figure.13(b) means the surface. The reection from the aw and the one from bottom
edge can be identied easily and their depth 33mm can be quite precisely measured in
Figure.13(b) because the velocity of the transverse wave in steel id 3000m/s.
Figure 13. (a)Envelope curve derived by Hilbert transformation and (b) Reconstructed sectional image of
reected signal
4. Conclusion
We investigated the noises of EMAT using magnetostrictives to realize high-speed

inspections of large samples. 1D-position-based-averaging method was evaluated by
converting 2GHz-sampled signal to low frequency-sampled signal. 1D-position-based-
averaging was found to produce better signal waves in real time. 1D-position-averaging
requires the higher performance AD than the one for common use. It maybe a problem
for the on-site use.
References
[1] K.Nakahata, S.Hirose, The study of the qualities of the reconstructed image by array probe , JSNDI
preceedings, (2006),39 42
[2] R.G.Pratt:Seismic waveform inversion in the frequency domain I Theory and verication in a physical
scale model, Geographics (1999), 888 901
[3] Toshiki Watanabe:Full wave inversion, JSNDI Jornal vol 53 (2005), 274 279
[4] Nishimura, Y,. Sasamoto, A,. Suzuki, T,. Study of 3D Image reconstruction using EMAT, Int.J. of Ap
plied Electromagnetics and Mechanics, 28(1), p171 176, 2008
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-233
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-241
An ECT Probe with Widely Spaced Coils

for Local Wall Thinning in
Nuclear Power Plants
Toshihiro YAMAMOTOa, Tetsuya UCHIMOTOb and Toshiyuki TAKAGIb,1
a
Japan Power Engineering and Inspection Corporation
b
Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University
Abstract. Currently, local wall thinning on the inner surface of a pipe is evaluated
mostly by ultrasonic thickness measurement from the outer surface of the pipe in
nuclear power plants in Japan. However, it has been pointed out that there are two
major issues of this evaluation method. Firstly, this method is not able to evaluate
local wall thinning from the top of a reinforcing plate that covers the outer surface
of a pipe because this two layer structure hinders the propagation of ultrasound.
Secondly, because ultrasonic thickness measurement of a pipe wall is conducted at
certain intervals on the outer surface of the pipe, it may overlook a hole like defect
if the defect size is small compared to this interval. We propose an eddy current
testing (ECT) method using widely spaced excitation and pick up coils to alleviate
these problems. Our experimental results show this method can be applied to in
spection of a double plate that consists of two 8 mm thick austenitic stainless steel
plates, and a defect indication is observed in a much larger area than the defect.
Keywords. Eddy current testing, Local wall thinning, Pancake coil
1. Introduction
In nuclear power plants, local wall thinning on the inner surface of a pipe is evaluated
mostly by ultrasonic thickness measurement from the outer surface of the pipe. How-
ever, some improvements are still required for thorough and efficient inspection of
local wall thinning to maintain aging nuclear power plants. In Japan, it is considered a
problem that ultrasonic thickness measurement is not able to evaluate local wall thin-
ning from the top of a reinforcing plate that covers the outer surface of a main pipe
around a branch pipe perpendicularly connected to the main pipe because this two-layer
structure hinders the propagation of ultrasound (Figure 1). Also, it is of special concern
that ultrasonic thickness measurement may overlook a small hole caused by liquid
droplet impingement (LDI) because ultrasonic thickness measurement of a pipe wall is
conducted at certain intervals on the outer surface of the pipe and the defect size is
sometimes smaller than this interval. Decreasing the interval of course reduces the
incidence of this problem, but piping maintenance in nuclear power plants already
takes an enormous amount of time, and inspection time is not easily allowed to be
extended any longer. The aim of this study is to propose an inspection method for two-
1
Corresponding Author: Professor, Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University, 2 1 1 Katahira, Aoba ku,
Sendai, Miyagi, Japan; E mail: takagi@ifs.tohoku.ac.jp
242 T. Yamamoto et al. / An ECT Probe with Widely Spaced Coils for Local Wall Thinning
Figure 1. Reinforcing plate
Figure 2. Absolute probe Figure 3. Inspection procedure
layer part of piping and to prevent overlooking a hole-like defect on a pipe.

The authors have recently reported an eddy current testing (ECT) technique for
evaluating local wall thinning [1]. In this technique, an excitation coil and a pick-up
coil are aligned at a distance to detect a defect in a deep region after the model of re-
mote field ECT usually used for inspection of small tubes with bobbin coils aligned at a
distance [2,3]. Prior to our study, remote field ECT using pancake coils to be applied to
flat geometries has been introduced in [4,5], later specialized in inspection of aircrafts.
In this study, we assess the applicability of our ECT technique to detection of local
wall thinning of a thick-walled double plate and a hole-like defect on a thick-walled
single plate.
2. Experiments
The ECT probe we used in this study has one excitation coil and one pick-up coil
shown in Figure 2. The excitation and pick-up coils are 10 mm in outer diameter, 5 mm
in inner diameter and 5 mm in height. The number of turns of the excitation and pick-
up coils is 301 and 3,465 respectively. The wire diameter of the excitation and pick-up
coils is 0.2 mm and 0.05 mm respectively. The center-to-center distance between these
coils was set to be 50 mm. The equipment used in our experiments consists of a func-
tion synthesizer (WF1945B, NF Corporation), a bipolar amplifier (HSA4011, NF Cor-
poration) and a lock-in amplifier (LI5640, NF Corporation). In the experiments, the
detection signals were measured while the pair of excitation and pick-up coils was
moved on the surface of a plate as shown in Figure 3. The excitation frequency was set
to be 1 kHz.
2.2. Specimens
Tables 1 and 2 show the information of the specimens used for evaluation of the per-
T. Yamamoto et al. / An ECT Probe with Widely Spaced Coils for Local Wall Thinning 243
Table 1. Rectangular slit specimens
Material 316 austenitic stainless steel
Size 500 mm300 mm8 mm
Defect Rectangular slit

(Width 10 mm, Depth 1,3,5 mm)
Table 2. Square hole specimens
Material 316 austenitic stainless steel
Size 500 mm300 mm12 mm
Defect Square hole

(Bottom 10 mm10 mm, Depth 1,3,5 mm)
Figure 4. Double plate
(a) Plate with a rectangular slit (b) Plate with a square hole
Figure 5. Specimens
formance of our ECT technique. The material of these plates is 316 austenitic stainless
steel. A reinforcing plate part of piping was simulated by two 8 mm-thick plates. An
intact plate was placed on the top of the other plate that has a rectangular slit on the
bottom side as shown in Figure 4. The rectangular slit was cut along a half of the center
line on the bottom side in the shorter direction (Figure 5 (a)). A defect caused by LDI
was simulated by a square hole. The square hole was made at the center of a 12 mm-
thick plate (Figure 5 (b)). For each of the rectangular slit and the square hole, three
plates were prepared so as to vary the depth of these simulated defects (1 mm, 3 mm
and 5 mm).
2.3. Evaluation procedure
The specimens described above were inspected from the opposite side of the defect to
be detected. Figure 6 shows how we scanned the surface of the specimens. For a double
plate with a rectangular slit, five equally-spaced lines along the longer direction of the
plate were selected as the scanning lines. Each of the scanning lines has a length of 150
(a) Rectangular slit (b) Square hole

Figure 6. Scanning areas
(a) Original signals (b) Processed signals

Figure 7. Signal processing
(a) Original distribution (b) Processed distribution
Figure 8. Example of signal processing
mm at 1 mm intervals. The left three lines run above the rectangular slit while the other
two do not. For a square hole, a 150 mm60 mm area at the center of the surface of the
plate was scanned. The intervals of scanning were 1 mm in the longer direction and 2
mm in the shorter direction of the plate.
2.4. Signal processing to reduce lift off noise
Because the specimens used in this evaluation have a wide-area surface (500 mm300
mm) and also have a slight warp, the lift-off distance between the probe and the surface
of the specimens varies with the position of the probe, which causes considerable lift-
off noise. To cope with this problem, we processed raw signals obtained from the lock-
in amplifier.
Figure 7 (a) shows the Vx and Vy components of ECT signals obtained from one of
the scanning lines going over a rectangular slit in Figure 6 (a). It can be observed that
the rectangular slit induces a big change in the signals around the center position. Al-
though the end point of the scanning line is far enough away from the slit, the signal
values do not return to zero at the end point. To make the signal values zero at both
ends of the scanning line, the voltage value on the line that connects both ends of a
signal curve in Figure 7 (a) is subtracted from the voltage value on that signal curve for
each point. Figure 7 (b) is obtained in consequence of this processing.
For a signal distribution obtained as described in Figure 6 (b), the above process-
ing is applied in the X direction as well as in the Y direction so as to make the values
on the boundary of the scanning area zero. Figure 8 shows an example of this signal
processing. The removal of gradual changes in the signal distribution highlights a de-
fect indication due to a square hole.
2.5. Results
Figure 9 shows the signal distributions obtained from the specimens with a rectangular
slit. To simulate a reinforcing plate part, an intact plate was placed on the top of a plate
with a rectangular slit as shown in Figure 4. The results indicate that our ECT tech-
(a) 1 mm deep slit (b) 3 mm deep slit (c) 5 mm deep slit

Figure 9. Signal amplitude distributions (rectangular slit)
(a) 1 mm deep hole (b) 3 mm deep hole (c) 5 mm deep hole

Figure 10. Signal amplitude distributions (square hole)
nique can detect a 1 mm-deep defect on the bottom side of two 8 mm-thick plates.
Figure 10 shows the signal distributions obtained from the specimens with a square
hole. A 1 mm-deep square hole on the bottom side of a 12 mm-thick plate is clearly
recognized in the signal distributions. Defect signals are observed in a much larger area
than the defect (The defect area of a square hole is 10 mm10 mm. The area where a
defect indication appears due to a square hole is about 20 mm40 mm). This property
helps prevent overlooking a small defect.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between the maximum signal amplitude and the
defect depth obtained from Figures 9 and 10. There is an almost linear relationship
between them. It implies that the defect depth can be estimated from the maximum
amplitude of a defect indication.
In above experiments, an LDI defect is simulated by a square hole, but a real LDI
defect tends to have a cone shape. Then, a specimen with a cone-shaped hole shown in
Figure 12 was also used for evaluation of the detectability of an LDI defect with our
ECT technique. The specimen is 300 mm in length, 100 mm in width and 7.1 mm in
thickness. The base diameter and the height of the cone-shaped hole are 10.2 mm and
3.6 mm respectively. Because the surface of this specimen is not large enough, the
scanning area was reduced from the area described in Figure 6 (b) by decreasing the
width in the X direction from 60 mm to 40 mm. Figure 13 (a) shows the signal ampli-
tude distribution obtained by this scanning. The appearance of the defect indication is
almost the same as Figure 10, which was obtained with square holes. Figure 13 (b)
provides the profiles on the lines X=0 and Y=0 in the amplitude distribution. Whereas
the defect is located from -5 mm to 5 mm in both the X and Y directions, a big varia-
tion in signal amplitude is still observed at 10 mm in the X direction and at 20 mm in
the Y direction. This indicates that a defect can be found even if the scanning line is 5
mm away from the edge of the defect with the coils aligned parallel to the scanning line.
When the coils are aligned perpendicular to the scanning line, the defect can be found
even if the scanning line is 15 mm away from the edge of the defect (Figure 14).
(a) Rectangular slit (b) Square hole

Figure 11. Relationship between the maximum signal amplitude and the defect depth
Figur 12. Specimen with a cone shaped hole

(a) Amplitude distribution (b) Amplitude profiles in the X and Y directions

Figure 13. Signal amplitude distribution (cone shaped hole)
(a) Parallel to the scanning line (b) Perpendicular to the scanning line
Figure 14. Scanning directions
3. Summary
The aim of this study is to propose an inspection method to evaluate local wall thinning
on a reinforcing plate part of piping and detect a defect located out of the scanning line.
We proposed an ECT technique using widely spaced excitation and pick-up coils to
detect a defect on the bottom side of a thick-walled plate. The experimental results
show this probe can detect a 1 mm-deep rectangular slit on the bottom side of two 8
mm-thick austenitic stainless steel plates and a 1 mm-deep square hole on the bottom
side of a 12 mm-thick austenitic stainless steel plate. There is an almost linear relation-
ship between the maximum signal amplitude and the defect depth. This implies that the
defect depth can be estimated from the maximum signal amplitude due to a defect.
These defect signals are observed in a much larger area than the defect size. When the
coils are aligned perpendicular to the scanning line, this method can detect a defect
located within 15 mm from the scanning line.
The proposed method can be applied to two-layer structure and detects a defect
even if the defect is not on the scanning line. These properties are expected to alleviate
concern over ultrasonic thickness measurement conducted for evaluation of local wall
thinning of piping in nuclear power plants.
Acknowledgment
This study was conducted as part of Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA)
project on Enhancement of Ageing Management and Maintenance of Nuclear Power
Plants in Japan.
References
[1] T. Yamamoto, T. Takagi and T. Uchimoto, Remote field ECT for evaluation of local wall thinning using
pancake coils, The 14th International Workshop on Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation (ENDE
2009), 130 132.
[2] T. R. Schmidt, The remote field eddy current inspection technique, Materials Evaluation, 42 (2) (1984),
225 230.
[3] T. R. Schmidt, History of the remote field eddy current inspection technique, Materials Evaluation, 47
(1) (1989), 14 22.
[4] Y.S. Sun, S. Udpa, W. Lord and D. Cooley, A remote field eddy current NDT probe for the inspection of
metallic plates, Materials Evaluation, 54 (4) (1996), 510 512.
[5] Y.S. Sun, T. Ouang and S. Udpa, Remote field eddy current testing: one of the potential solutions for
detecting deeply embedded discontinuities in thick and multiplayer metallic structures, Materials Evalua-
tion, 59 (5) (2000), 632 637.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-249
PLL BASED EDDY CURRENT

MEASURING SYSTEM FOR
INSPECTION OF OUTER FLAW IN
TITANIUM ALLOY PLATE
Tomasz CHADY1, Jacek KOWALCZYK, Leon NAWOS-WYSOCKI, Grzegorz PSUJ
and Ireneusz SPYCHALSKI
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, West Pomeranian University of
Technology, al. Piastow 17, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. In this paper a new nondestructive eddy current system will be

presented. The system was design for detection of shallow outer flaws in thick
titanium alloy specimens (e.g. plates, discs). A Lock in amplifier was used in a
measuring subsystem in order to increase the efficiency of inspections of minor
defects. The verification of a performance of the system was done using 6.9 mm
titanium plate with artificial EDM (Electrical Discharged Machinated) notches.
Keywords. Eddy current testing, measuring system, titanium alloys inspections
Introduction
Titanium because of its mechanical properties (high corrosion resistance, high strength-
to-weight ratio) is an important material in many leading industries e.g. aerospace. It is
commonly used to manufacture new components such as turbine disc. The disc is
machined from a titanium billet which is a cylindrical solid bar of up to 400mm of a
diameter. In-service failures of such components can often lead to catastrophic
consequences with significant economic impact. NDT techniques that are commonly
utilized to examine traditional aerospace materials are not always sufficient to detect
sub-surface defects created during the manufacturing process in titanium alloys [1]. In
the case of components having large diameter a reasonable technique to apply is
Ultrasound UT. However its effectiveness is limited to shallow regions close to the
components surface. This results in a strong need for new advanced NDT technologies
for the inspection of titanium components during the manufacturing process. We
introduce a novel automated quality control system for the inspection of titanium billets
in response to this need in this paper. The system combines two subsystems: eddy
current testing (ECT) for evaluation of the material not deeper than 5mm beneath the
surface and phased array (PA) ultrasonic for deeper inspection. In this paper the ECT
1
Corresponding Author: West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, ul. Sikorskiego 37, 70 313 Szczecin, Poland; E mail:
tchady@zut.edu.pl.
250 T. Chady et al. / PLL Based Eddy Current Measuring System for Inspection of Outer Flaw
a) b)
Figure 1. Photo of the measuring system: a) front panel, b) top view.
measurement system is introduced. We verify the performance of the system by

measuring the depth of a defect in a flat titanium plate using a dedicated transducer.
1. ECT measuring system
NDT systems in industrial applications have to be robust in that interference coming

from various sources should not affect measurement results. The presence of noise in
EC signals may mislead the flaw identification algorithms. This is important especially
in the case of low testing frequency used for deeper material evaluation (greater
penetration depth) which however cases week EC response signal (low signal-to-noise
ratio). The most widely used noise suppression technique is digital filtering. It gives
the best results if the signal can be separated from noises in a frequency domain. In
many practical cases this condition is not fulfilled, and therefore filters may cause
distortion of the original signals. It also affects the frequency characteristic. Therefore,
a single frequency system with lock-in amplifier is proposed (Figure 1). Such system
allows to detect signals caused by minor defects and having the amplitude lower than
the noise level by extracting from whole spectrum only that signals component that
has the same frequency as the excitation signal (reference signal). In consequence lock-
in technique allows to increase the sensitivity to minor flaws located deeper in the
material.
The proposed system allows to monitor amplitude and phase responses of a
transducer using single testing frequency ranging from 1 kHz up to 100 kHz. The main
part of the system is a lock-in amplifier based pick-up signal block.
1.1. Portable device of the system
The block diagram of the measuring system is shown in Figure 2. A high speed 16-bit
multifunction data acquisition converter (DAQ) with D/A and A/D modules (NI USB-
6251) are used in the system for both generating and acquiring signals. The DAQ
device in connected via USB interface to the PC class computer which accumulates,
computes data and controls the system. A generated in the D/A DAQ module
sinusoidal signal is gained utilizing a high speed power amplifier (TDA 7294) before
driving transducer's excitation coils. TDA 7294 is very low distortion and noise power
amplifier with DMOS power stage. The driving current was controlled through LEM
Components electronic transducer with no galvanic connection to the main circuit and
was cut off if its value exceeds the maximum calculated for a measuring transducer.
T. Chady et al. / PLL Based Eddy Current Measuring System for Inspection of Outer Flaw 251
NI 6251 LIA BVD 150 H

REAL
LOCK IN SIGNAL
A/C IMAG IN
LOCK IN
DIGITAL
REF IN
PC
TRANSDUCER
OUT
USB
COMPUTER
C/A
TDA 7294 SWICH
POWER AMPLIFIER
Figure 2. Block diagram of measuring system.
Induced voltage in the pickup coils are amplified by a programmable gain

amplifier in lock-in LIA-BVD-150-H module [2]. It is a dual phase lock-in amplifier
with digital phase shifter and detection of real component, imaginary component and
amplitude of input signal. Such arrangement enables significant noise suppression.
Lock-in amplifiers are commonly used to detect and measure very small AC
signals - all the way down to a few nanovolts. Accurate measurements can be made
even when the small signal is obscured by noise sources many thousands of times
larger. Lock-in amplifiers use a technique known as phase-sensitive detection in order
to separate real and imaginary components of a signal at a specific reference frequency
and phase. Noise signals, at frequencies other than the reference frequency, are rejected
and do not affect the measurement. Signals from lock-in module are then supplied to
A/D DAQ module.
Figure 3. View of the LabView environment software application.

The proposed system works with specialized software operating in the National
Instruments' LabView environment. The software interface is shown in Figure 3. The
application is used to drive the DAQ converter in order to control excitation
instruments, configure PLL operating parameters (such as sensitivity and time
constant) and acquire measuring signals (a real and imaginary part of measuring
signal). All parameters of lock-in amplifier, DAQ and excitation signal can be
introduced to the system through a configuration file. The application enables external
and internal triggering of acquisition events. During the measurements, real time results
of acquired signal, its absolute value, real and imaginary part, phase shift and finally
plot of real versus imaginary part are presented to an operator. In the system there were
three processing algorithms implemented utilizing statistical analysis, gradient and
lowpass filtering. They allows to eliminate trends in the signal caused by the lift off
and surface roughness. The algorithms compute correction values for a signal basing on
value measured at present step and past ones and can be applied in-situ or after the
measurements.
1.2. The transducer
The transducer used in the system is presented in Figure 4. In order to make possible
defect detection located 5 mm beneath the sample surface its dimensions (Figure 4b)
and excitation frequency were optimized using FEM (Finite Element Method) and
Comsol software.
The transducer is built using an E-type ferrite core with excitation coils wound on
exterior columns of the ferrite core and a pick-up coil on a central one. The excitation
coils generate contrary directed fluxes in the pick-up coil. Therefore, the flux flowing
through pick-up coil is close to zero in equilibrium state. If a flaw appearing close to
one of the excitation coils distorts the generated flux flow, the signal different from
zero is induced in the pick-up coil. Such configuration of the transducer allows us for
the optimal usage of the dynamic range of the A/D converter module. In order to
achieve the greatest equilibrium the excitation coils of the transducers were driven by
separate power amplifier.
a) 1 b) c) 4
44
3
1 5
3
25
2 2
Figure 4. Photo and view with dimensions of the transducer: a) photo of the transducer, b) 3D view of the
transducer, c) photo of the transducers head; all dimensions are in [mm]; 1 ferrite core, 2 excitation coils,
3 pick up coil, 4 transducer head, 5 sample
Figure 5. Photo and view of the titanium plate: a) photo, b) drawing of the notch, c) cross section drawing of
the notch; x axis is the scanning axis
2. The verifying experiments
The system is designated for the detection of minor outer flaws OF (casing
discontinuity in the surface at the opposite site of the plate to the scanning side) in thick
titanium specimens. In order to verify the performance of the proposed system several
experiments were carried out.
2.1. Object of the experiment
A titanium alloy plate having artificial EDM notches of different depth d was used
(Figure 5.). The depth was ranging from 10 to 100% of the plate thickness (6.9 mm).
All measurements were carried out for outer flaws.
2.2. Results of the experiment
Results presented in the paper were obtained for 40% notch. First, the A-scan
measurements using different exciting frequencies were carried out in order to find the
optimal one. Figure 6 shows the results of real and imaginary component as well as
amplitude and phase of the signal acquired during the experiments versus excitation
frequency.
From the set of achieved spectrograms one can notice that the frequency range
between 8 and 16 kHz gives the greatest chance to detect the flaw. Considering result
obtained for the real component of the signal (Figure 6a) it is clearly visible that
frequency equal to 11.2 kHz is the optimal one.
In the second stage of the experiments C-scan measurements were done. The two
dimensional distribution of the signals amplitude measured in both scanning direction
over selected area of 40% OF was presented in Figure 7a. In order to better visualize
changes of signal caused by the flaw, plot of amplitude and phase shift as well as real
and imaginary component of a signal measured in selected y line were shown in
Figure 7b and Figure 8. The presented results allow easily to detect the flaw.
a)
f [kHz]
b)
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
c) d)
f [kHz]
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
Figure 6. Multi frequency results of measurements obtained for 40% OF: a) real part of measured signal
Re(Usig), b) imaginary part of measured signal Im(Usig), c) amplitude of measured signal |Usig|, d) phase of
measured signal arctg(Im(Usig)/Re(Usig)).
a) b)
Usig [V]
y [mm]
x [mm] x [mm]
Figure 7. Single frequency results obtained for 40% OF: a) amplitude of signal |Usig| measured in selected
area in both scanning direction, b) amplitude of signal |Usig| measured in selected y line.
3. Conclusions
The newly developed ECT system for observation of minor defects in titanium alloy
was presented. The system uses lock-in technique which allows to detect signals having
the amplitude lower than the noise level by taking into consideration only that
component of a signal which frequency is equal to the reference one. In consequence it
a) b)
Re(U) [V]
Im(U) [V]
x [mm] x [mm]
c) d)
arctg(Im(U)/ Re(U)) [rad]

Im(U) [V]
Re(U) [V] x [mm]

Figure 8. Single frequency results of 1D scan obtained for 40% OF: a) real part of measured signal Re(Usig),
b) imaginary part of measured signal Im(Usig), c) amplitude of measured signal |Usig|, d) phase of measured
signal arctg(Im(Usig)/Re(Usig)).
leads to increase the possible depth penetration. The results of experiments with the
titanium alloy plate having artificial notches confirm the possibility of using this
system in industrial application. In the future, further experiments will be carried out
for titanium discs with artificial flaws.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported in part by Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education
and by European Commission sponsored project QualiTi which is a collaboration
between the following organizations: I.S.O.TEST Engineering s.r.l, West Pomeranian
University of Technology (ZUT), Tecnitest Ingenieros S.L., TIMET UK Ltd, TWI Ltd
and Vermon SA. The project is co-ordinated and managed by TWI Ltd and is partly
funded by the EC under the Research for the Benefit of Specific Groups Project (ref:
FP7-SME-2007-1-GA-222476.)
References
[1] National Transportation Safety Board Aircraft Accident Report NTSB AAR 98/01
[2] http://www.femto.de/datasheet/FEMTO_Product_Overview.pdf
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-256
Giant Magneto-Resistive Sensor based

Magnetic Flux Leakage Technique for
Inspection of Track Ropes
W. Sharatchandra SINGH, B.P.C. RAO1, S. MAHADEVAN, T. JAYAKUMAR
and Baldev RAJ
Nondestructive Evaluation Division, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research,
Kalpakkam, TN-603102, India
Abstract. Giant magneto resistive (GMR) sensor based magnetic flux leakage
(MFL) technique is proposed for detection of defects in 64 mm diameter track
ropes. Helmholtz coil is used for magnetization and tangential component of
leakage flux from defects is measured using a GMR sensor. This technique is able
to detect local flaws and loss of metallic cross sectional area type defects in the
track rope.
Keywords. GMR sensor, magnetic flux leakage, track rope, finite element model
Introduction
Steel wire ropes are used for material handling in mines and hauling of men in ski-lift
operations [1]. In wire ropes, corrosion and wear are the main causes for damage such
as formation of local flaws (LF) and loss of metallic cross-sectional area (LMA) [2-4].
LFs are external and internal discontinuities such as broken wires, cracks and corrosion
pitting. Reasons for wire breaking can be due to fatigue, inter-strand nicking or
martensitic embrittlement. LMAs are distributed defects such as missing of wires
caused by corrosion, abrasion and wear resulting in loss of cross-sectional area.
Periodic inspection of wire ropes is important to assess the structural integrity and to
take corrective actions. Nondestructive inspection of wire ropes is challenging due to
the heterogeneous structure of wire ropes, multiplicity, uncertainty of broken wires and
hostile working environment. Visual and magnetic flux leakage (MFL) techniques are
widely used for nondestructive inspection of wire ropes [4]. A variety of procedures
that use different types of sensors and magnetizing devices have been employed for
detection of defects in wire ropes by MFL technique [6-10]. Jomdecha et al. [7] used
printed circuit-shaped coils connected in series as field sensors and solenoid as
magnetization unit for inspection of wire ropes and reported detection of 2 mm deep
surface defects in a 38 mm diameter wire rope. Kalwa et al. [9] developed an MFL
system comprising of magnetic concentrators, Hall sensors and sensing coils and
suggested that measurement of tangential component is more versatile than normal
component for detection of multiple defects in wire ropes.
1
Corresponding Author: Dr. B.P.C. Rao, Head, EMSI Section, NDE Division, Indira Gandhi Centre for
Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, TN 603102, India, E mail: bpcrao@igcar.gov.in.
W.S. Singh et al. / GMR Sensor Based MFL Technique for Inspection of Track Ropes 257
In this paper, we propose MFL technique for detection of defects on the outer
surface of 64 mm diameter track rope used for transportation of coal. The track ropes
are stationary and are rigidly supported at periodic intervals. They are operated for
about 10 hours every day transporting nearly 3000 tons of coal with the help of 256
numbers of stationary buckets each carrying nearly 1.6 tons of coal. The schematic of
cross-section of the track rope is shown in Figure 1. The track rope has 8 layers of
stranded wires of different diameters as detailed in Table 1. The width of the outer
surface of the Z wire is 6.45 mm and the gap width between two outer Z wires is 0.76
mm. The carriage wheels of the bucket are in contact with the track rope and thus
causing damage to the outer surface of the Z-wire. Service induced surface flaws are
the major causes of failure in these ropes. When more than two Z wires of the outer
layer are broken, they will be separated from the adjacent layers.
Table 1 Track rope cross sectional details.
Layer Wire details Wire diameter or

thickness, mm
1 1 centre wire 4.00
2 6 round wires 4.66
3 6 filler wires 1.93
7 32 Z wires 5.50
8 34 Z wires 6.48
Figure 1. Cross section of track rope.
Recently, GMR sensors are being widely used in MFL testing for detection of
defects in carbon steel plates [10], pipelines [11] in view of their high sensitivity for
low magnetic fields, good signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and high spatial resolution. GMR
sensors are attractive for measurement of feeble magnetic fields from shallow surface
defects and deeply located sub-surface defects. They are also useful for detection of
stress and fatigue damage [12]. This paper discusses MFL technique proposed using
Helmholtz coil and GMR sensors for detection of defects in the track ropes. The results
of the developmental studies carried out on artificial LFs and LMA defect in track rope
are discussed. In order to interpret the measured MFL signal from LMA defect in the
track rope, 3-D finite element modeling is performed and results are discussed.
1. GMR based MFL Technique
1.1. Measurement Set-up
The schematic of the proposed MFL technique is shown in Figure 2. It consists of

magnetization device, variable DC power supply, GMR sensor, track rope with defects,
amplifier, and personal computer for data acquisition. The magnetization device
consists of a Helmholtz coil with two circular coils of 70 turns each separated by 50
mm. The width and height of each coil are 20 mm and 15 mm respectively. The use of
Helmholtz coil ensures uniform axial magnetization of the track rope. GMR sensor is
258 W.S. Singh et al. / GMR Sensor Based MFL Technique for Inspection of Track Ropes
used for detection of tangential component (along the scan direction) of leakage flux
from defects and is kept at the middle of the Helmholtz coil.
Measurements are made by moving the GMR sensor and Helmholtz coil together
as a single unit over the track rope in steps of 1 mm and at each axial location GMR
sensor is scanned circumferentially. A constant lift off of 0.3 mm is maintained
between the GMR sensor and the track rope to avoid physical damage to the sensor. In
order to enhance the sensitivity of GMR sensor, its output is first amplified using a
low-noise amplifier consisting of a differential amplifier, notch rejection filter at 50 Hz,
100 kHz low-pass filter and a single-ended variable gain amplifier with DC
suppression. The variable gain amplifier is set such that it amplifies the sensor output
10 times. The amplified GMR sensor output is digitized using a 2-channel data
acquisition system (16 bit) and stored in the computer for analysis.
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Figure 2. GMR sensor based MFL testing set up.
1.2 GMR Sensor
GMR sensor works on giant magneto-resistive effect in which there is a large drop in
electrical resistance of the multilayer for an incident magnetic field due to spin
dependent scattering of electrons at the interface between two ferromagnetic layers
(few nm thick) separated by a nonmagnetic layer. The GMR bridge sensors (AA003-
02) manufactured by M/s NVE Associates are used. These sensors measure differential
output voltage and ensure high stability with low noise (sensitivity ~260 VT -1 at 5V
bias voltage). They exhibit linear response in 0.2-1.3 mT range followed by saturation.
1.3 Artificial Defects
Localized flaws are simulated by introducing electro-discharge machined (EDM)

notches on the outer surface of the track rope. Four axial (A, B, C, D) notches and four
circumferential (E, F, G, H) notches of 5.5 mm length, 2 mm width and of different
depths are machined as shown in Figure 3. The depths of the EDM notches measured
using replica technique are given in Table 2. The distance between the notches is
maintained at 80 mm which is slightly more than the length of Helmholtz
magnetization unit. One LMA type defect is simulated by removing material (42.0 mm
length, 9.2 mm width and 3.0 mm depth) from the outer surface of the Z wire and this
is around 46% of the outer Z-wire (6.48 mm diameter).
PP

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Figure 3. Schematic of track rope having axial and circumferential machined artificial notches.
1.4 Magnetizing Current
The magnetizing current in the Helmholtz coil is optimized such that detectable leakage
field comes from all the notches. Current is optimized by studying the MFL signal peak
amplitudes for shallow axial notches (A and C) and shallow circumferential notches (E
and G). The signal amplitude is found to increase up to 6 A, beyond that it is decreased
due to the penetration of significant amount of magnetic flux into the inner layer of the
rope, as shown in Figure 4. Hence, a magnetizing current of 6 A is considered optimum
and is used in this study.
2.05 mm deep axial notch (A)

2.5 5.86 mm deep axial notch (C)
1.94 mm deep circum. notch (E)
5.90 mm deep circum. notch (G)
GMR Signal Amplitude, V
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnetizing Current, A
Figure 4. Optimization of magnetizing current.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. LF defects
GMR signals (tangential component of the leakage flux) of axial notches A, B, C and D
are shown in Figure 5. The GMR sensor output for the shallowest axial notch (2.05 mm
deep) is approximately 2.0 times the background noise that comes mainly from 0.76
mm wide stranded structure of the track rope. As can be observed all the four axial
notches are detected by the technique with two distinct peaks correlated to the edges of
axial notches. To access the detection and sizing capability of the technique, peak
amplitude and Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) are determined after Gaussian
fitting and interpolation and the results are shown in Table 2. The error in the
determination of FWHM is 0.1. As can be noted the amplitude of the MFL signals is
found to increase with increase in notch depth. The FWHM is found to be nearly the
same for all the axial notches, because of the constant notch length (5.5 mm).
MFL signals of circumferential notches viz. E, F, G, and H are shown in Figure 6.
The GMR response of circumferential notches is seen sharp with a single peak and the
amplitude of 1.94 mm deep notch is 3.2 times the background noise. As can be seen
from Figure 6, all the four notches are detected by this technique. The signal amplitude
increases up to a depth of 5.90 mm and then decreases while the FWHM remains
nearly constant (refer Table 2). It is observed from Table 2 that the amplitude of the
circumferential notches is 2 to 3 times higher than that of axial notches of similar depth.
However, the FWHM of circumferential notches is found to be nearly 2 to 3 times
lower than that of the axial notches. These observations are due to the axial
magnetization of the track rope causing circumferential notches to leak out higher flux
in comparison to the extended axial notches. Using a simple threshold FWHM, it is
possible to identify axial and circumferential defects in the track rope. Alternately, a set
of array sensors covering the circumference can be used.
1 .2
A x ia l N o tc h e s C D
1 .0
0 .8 B
GMR Output, V
0 .6
A
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
-0 .2
-0 .4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
S c a n D is ta n c e , m m
Figure 5. MFL signals of axial notches.
2.5
Circumferential Notches H
G
F
2.0 E
GMR Output, V
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Scan Distance, mm
Figure 6. MFL signals of circumferential notches.

Table 2. The MFL signal amplitude and FWHM of axial and circumferential notches.
Notch Notch Depth, mm Amplitude, V FWHM, mm
A (axial) 2.05 0.58 4.8
B (axial) 4.11 0.91 5.5
C (axial) 5.86 1.22 4.8
D (axial) 7.91 1.25 4.6
E (circumferential) 1.94 1.86 1.8
F (circumferential) 3.88 2.33 1.6
G (circumferential) 5.90 2.56 2.0
H (circumferential) 8.24 2.50 1.7
The performance of the MFL technique is assessed for detection of a fine

circumferential saw cut that simulates a fatigue crack in the track rope. The saw cut
(length 15 mm, width 0.5 mm and depth 2 mm) and corresponding GMR sensor output
are shown in Figure 7. Clearly GMR sensor has detected the saw cut. The signal
amplitude nearly matches with the MFL signals of circumferential notches of Figure 6.
The signal amplitude is found to be slightly less than the signal amplitude of
circumferential notch E of similar depth due to smaller width of the former. Thus, this
technique can be used for early detection of localized cracks in track ropes.
In order to assess the resolution to multiple cracks, 5 saw cuts (C1, C2, C3, C4 and
C5) are simulated with each of length 23 mm, width 1 mm and depth 2 mm, separated
by a distance of 13.5 mm, 10.0 mm, 5.5 and 3.2 mm and the GMR sensor output is
shown in Figure 8. As can be seen, the technique is able to detect all the 5 saw cuts and
resolve the saw cuts separated by 3.2 mm distance.
2.2. LMA defects
Photograph of LMA defect and its GMR sensor response are shown in Figure 9. The
depth distribution (profile) of the LMA defect is measured using optical method. As
can be observed, the GMR sensor has detected the LMA with good SNR.
1.2
1.0
0.8
GMR Output, V
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
2 4 6 8 10 12
Scan Distance, mm
Figure 7. Photograph of a 2 mm deep saw cut in track rope and the measured GMR sensor output.
2.0
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
1.5
1.0
GMR Output, V
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Scan Distance, mm
Figure 8. Photograph of series of 2mm deep saw cuts machined in track rope and the corresponding
measured GMR sensor output.
The LMA signal is found, as expected, extended as compared to the LF signal.

There is a decrease in sensor output with respect to the baseline background, observed
for the LMA defect. In order to understand this aspect, 3-D finite element modeling has
been performed using COMSOL 3.4 Multiphysics software package. The model
predicted tangential component of leakage field profile is also shown in Figure 9. In the
model, the relative magnetic permeability and magnetization of the track rope are
assumed as 100 and 106 A/m respectively. There is a good agreement between the
measured and the model predicted signals and the decrease in signal amplitude for
LMA defect appears to be due to the pulling of magnetic field lines into the track rope.
Distance along LMA, mm

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2.8 1
GMR response (experimental)
2.6 GMR response (model)
LMA depth distribution
0
2.4
LMA Depth, mm
2.2
GMR Output, V
-1
2.0
1.8 -2
1.6
-3
1.4
1.2 -4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Scan Distance, mm
Figure 9. Photograph of LMA (42.0 mm length, 9.2 mm width and 3.0 mm depth) machined in the track rope,
GMR sensor response scanned along dotted line direction and optically measured depth profile.
3. Conclusion
GMR sensor based MFL technique has been proposed for detection of LF and LMA
type of defects on the outer surface of 64 mm diameter track ropes. Performance of this
technique has been validated by detecting a few saw-cuts and EDM notches simulating
cracks in the track rope. For LMA type defects, a decrease in signal amplitude has been
observed and confirmed by 3-D finite element model. This proposed MFL technique
can be used for detection of both LF and LMA types of defects in track ropes. In order
to further enhance the detection sensitivity and to implement the technique in field,
work on the use of split type coils and array GMR sensors is underway.
4. Acknowledgements
Authors thank Mr. S. Vaidyanathan and Mr. P. Krishnaiah, Electromagnetics,

Modeling, Sensors and Imaging Section, NDE Division, Metallurgy and Materials
Group, IGCAR, Kalpakkam for their help during the experiments.
References
[1] S.S. Udpa and M.O. Patrick, Nondestructive Testing Handbook - Electromagnetic Testing, ASNT, 3rd
Edition, Vol. 5, 2004, p. 437.
[2] D. Basak, S. Pal and D. Chandra Patranabis, In situ non destructive assessment of a haulage rope in a
monocable zigback passenger ropeway, Insight, Vol. 50, No. 3, March 2008, pp. 136 137.
[3] Herbert R. Weischedel and R. P. Ramsey, Electromagnetic testing, a reliable method for the inspection
of wire ropes in service, NDT International, June 1989, pp. 155 161.
[4] Herbert R. Weischedel, The Inspection of Wire Ropes in Service: A Critical Review, Materials
Evaluation, Vol. 43, December 1985, pp. 1592 1605.
[5] N. Sumyong, A. Prateepasen and P. Kaewtrakulpong, Influence of Scanning Velocity and Gap Distance
on Magnetic Flux Leakage Measurement, ECTI Transactions on Electrical Engineering, Electronics
and Communications, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2007.
[6] E. Kalwa and K. Piekarski, Design of Hall effect sensors for magnetic testing of steel ropes, NDT
International, Vol. 22, No. 5, October 1987, pp. 295 301.
[7] C. Jomdecha and A. Prateepasen, Design of modified electromagnetic main flux for steel wire rope
inspection, NDT&E International, Vol. 42, 2009, pp. 77 83.
[8] Wang Hong yao, Hua Gang and Tian Jie, Research on Detection Device for Broken Wires of Coal
Mine Hoist Cable, Journal of China University Mining & Technology, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 376 381.
[9] E. Kalwa and K. Piekarski, Design of inductive sensors for magnetic testing of steel ropes, NDT
International, Vol. 20, No. 6, December 1987, pp. 347 353.
[10] W. Sharatchandra Singh, B. P. C. Rao, S. Vaidyanathan, T. Jayakumar and Baldev Raj, Detection of
Leakage Magnetic Flux from near side and far side Defects in Carbon Steel Plates using Giant
magnetoresistive Sensor, Measurement Science and Technology, Vol. 19, 2008 015702 (8pp).
[11] L. Chen, P.W. Que and T. Jin, A Giant Magnetoresistance Sensor for Magnetic Flux Leakage
Nondestructive Testing of a Pipeline, Russian Journal of NDT, Vol. 41, No.7, 2005, pp. 462 465.
[12] T. Chady and G. Psuj, Data fusion from multidirectional remanent flux leakage transducers for NDT
of stress and fatigue loaded steel samples, IEEE Trans. on Magn., Vol. 44, Nov. 2008, pp. 3285 3288.
Application of Electromagnetic
Nondestructive Techniques
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-267
Pipe Wall Thickness Measurement by

Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer
using Band Exciting Method
Daigo KOSAKA a, Fumio KOJIMA b,1 and Kosuke UMETANI c
a
Graduate School of Engineering, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
b
Organization of Advanced Science and Technology, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
c
Graduate School of System Informatics, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
Abstract. This paper is concerned with a quantitative nondestructive evaluation of

pipe wall thinning using an Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT). First,
two methods for sizing wall thickness, pulse-echo method (PEC) and
electromagnetic resonance measurement technique (EMAR) are examined using
calibration specimen of SS400. It was shown that EMAR is superior to PEC for its
sizing accuracy. Secondly, we discuss a feasible measurement strategy based on
EMAR technique. Finally, the feasibility studies of the method are summarized for
evaluating mock Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) test samples.
Keywords. Nondestructive test, Condition monitoring, Signal processing, Flow-

accelerated corrosion
Introduction
Phenomena of pipe wall thinning are critical issues on ageing management of nuclear
power plants [1-7]. Pipe wall thinning management in nuclear power plants is aimed at
providing a life management process ensuring replacement or repair prior to in-service
failure. The main objective of pipe wall inspection is to identify the location of
maximum thinning, to ascertain the extent and depth of the thinning, and to evaluate
the wear rate. Currently the conventional technique is ultrasonic testing (UT) which
provides the accurate resolution for the pipe wall thickness measurement. However, in
UT, we must remove insulation from the piping area at each in-service inspection.
There also exist so many inaccessible locations for the in-situ inspection by
surveyors in practical plants. Therefore, continuous surveillance during operation is
much more important than the periodical inspection by UT. Recently, we propose a
monitoring technique of pipe wall thinning using Electro-Magnetic Acoustic
Transducer (EMAT) [8]. EMAT is a non-contacting inspection device that generates an
ultrasonic pulse in the sample inspected [9-13]. The advantage of our method is that
measurements can be remotely implemented and the exciting test signals can be
automatically reproduced by electrical circuits. EMAT consists of a magnet and a coil
of wire and relies on electro-magnetic acoustic interaction for elastic wave generation.
1
Corresponding Author: Fumio KOJIMA, Organization of Advanced Science and Technology, Kobe
University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku,Kobe 657-8501; Japan, E-mail: kojima@koala kobe-u.ac.jp
268 D. Kosaka et al. / Pipe Wall Thickness Measurement by EMAT Using Band Exciting Method
Figure 1 illustrates our experimental apparatus. It is composed of EMAT, a burst power

supply, an oscilloscope and a computer. A using sensor is shown in Figure 2. The
sensor is a vertical type of EMAT which produces SH wave. The magnets generate a
static magnetic field. The coil generates a dynamic magnetic field that induces eddy
currents in a surface of a sample specimen. An ultrasonic wave is generated in the
surface by the static magnetic field and the eddy currents. This type of sensor fits
thickness measurement of pipe. There are two thickness measurement techniques for
EMAT. Pulse-echo method (PEC) is a fundamental technique based on time domain
approach. PEC is ease of use and rapid processing. However, unlike the conventional
UT technique, the detecting signal by EMAT is not so large. Therefore, the use of PEC
is not adequate for pipe wall thickness measurement. Electromagnetic resonance
method (EMAR) is another thickness measurement technique based on frequency
domain [14-15]. The method can estimate wall thickness from seeking a sequence of
peak spectrums of detecting signals corresponding to sweeping frequencies of exciting
test signals. Comparing that PEC method use one single frequency for exciting,
measurement process by EMAR requires tedious treatment of signal processing.
Nevertheless EMAR has advantages on the accurate resolution for sizing thickness of
pipe.
This paper is organized as follows: First, two measurement methods were
compared in the point of thickness measurement method. Second, we propose a
measurement method that uses an exciting voltage with a wide band. A receiving
voltage of a wide band exciting voltage has information of with wide band frequency.
This means this method is able to obtain the resonant frequency at one time. Finally,
the method was applied to evaluate mock Flow-Accelerated Corrosion sample
specimens.
Figure 1. Experimental setup. Figure 2. Top view of EMAT.
1. Thickness measurement by EMAT
Our experimental apparatus is composed of an EMAT, a pulser receiver, an

oscilloscope, an auto stage and a computer. Burst waveform of the excitation voltage of
800Vpp is added to EMAT by pulsar. Two methods for sizing wall thickness are
examined using calibration plate sample specimen of SS400.
D. Kosaka et al. / Pipe Wall Thickness Measurement by EMAT Using Band Exciting Method 269
1.1. Pulse-echo method
The pulsar signal was taken by two pulses with 2MHz. The reflective waveforms were
recorded by a computer coupled to an oscilloscope. Using PEC, thickness calculation
can be represented by
vt
T= (1)
2
where T , v and t denote thickness, sound velocity and time of flight (TOF). Sound
velocity of SS400 is 3.216103m/s. Detecting waveforms are shown in Figure 3. Figure
3(a) is a waveform of a plate sample specimen with 8mm thickness. Noting that the
time of flight (TOF) t was 4.9s and from Eq. (1), the estimated thickness was taken
as 7.9mm of which error became 0.1mm. Figure 3(b) is a waveform of a plate sample
specimen with 6mm thickness. Since TOF was t = 3.6s, the estimated thickness was
5.8mm where the error was 0.2mm. Taking into account that TOF t becomes
proportional to the thickness, it is more difficult to recognize TOF t for a smaller
thickness.
Figure 3. Detecting waveforms using pulse-echo method.

1.2. Resonance method
EMAR utilizes collections of resonance frequencies by sweeping exciting voltages

with wide frequency range. In our experiment, exciting time is 100s, and exciting
frequency range is 0.6MHz to 2.6MHz. The interval of the sweeping frequency was
taken as 1kHz. For measurements by EMAR, the estimate of thickness can be derived
from
v
T= (2)
2f
where f denotes a peak interval with respect to the frequency. The detecting
waveforms of 4.7mm and 4.9mm thickness are shown in Figure 4. The f is very clear
that, if T is smaller, then the t of pulse-echo method becomes smaller interval while
the f becomes larger interval. The f of 4.7mm thickness and the f of 4.9mm
thickness are clearly distinguishable. This implies that EMAR method is more accurate
measurement technique than PEC method. The f of the detecting waveform of 4.7mm
and 4.9mm thickness are 0.343MHz and 0.330MHz. Detecting thickness of the sample
specimens is 4.69mm and 4.87mm.
Figure 5 depicts the total resolution of the method presented here. In Figure 5, we
admit the detecting accuracy was up to 0.1mm for SS400. On the other hand,
measurement becomes time-consuming because EMAR requires sweeping exciting
frequencies with wide range. In our experiment, each measurement spent about 2
minutes for obtaining sizing estimate.
Figure 4. Resonance frequency using EMAR method

Figure 5. Thickness resolution of resonance method.
2. Measurement method using band exciting in EMAR
In this section, we discuss a feasible measurement strategy for implementing EMAR

method. As already suggested in the previous section, EMAR is time consuming in
order to seek resonant state with wide frequency ranges. Figure 6 and 7 demonstrate
one typical example for measurement strategy using an exciting waveform with a large
frequency band. Figure 6, a frequency band of the exciting waveform was chosen from
0.9MHz to 1.8MHz. Then it was found that the detecting waveform in Figure 7 has
some resonance frequencies at one shot. Hence we can reduce the measurement time by
using a set of exciting signals with wide band.
Figure 6. Exciting waveform with wide band.

Figure 7. Spectrums waveforms of band exciting method.
3. Application to pipe wall thickness measurement
In this section, the band exciting resonance method is applied to evaluate a mock FAC
sample specimen. As shown in Figure 8, a 6B-SS400 pipe was tested and the corrosion
shape was fabricated to simulate flow accelerated corrosion (FAC). The extent of FAC
was taken as 200 mm with the maximum thinning depth b = 1.0mm. Figure 9 shows
estimating sizing results of the sample specimen by our measurement method. For the
purpose of the comparative discussions, the conventional UT techniques were also
performed.
Figure 8. Sample specimen of FAC model (a=160mm, b=1.0mm)

Figure 9. Estimated sizing results for mock Flow-Accelerated Corrosion sample specimen.
4. Conclusions
Two measurement methods for pipe wall thickness measurements were examined
using calibration specimen of SS400. It was shown that EMAR is superior to PEC
for its sizing accuracy. It was shown that the measurement strategy using the
exciting voltage with a wide band has achieved the rapid processing for thickness
measurements. The feasibility studies of the method are summarized for evaluating
mock Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) test samples. Detecting results of the
method agreed well with detecting results of ultrasonic testing.
Acknowledgments
This work has been performed as a part of the National Research Project for
Enhancement of Measures against the Ageing of Nuclear Power Plants sponsored by
the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA). The authors also gratefully
acknowledge the Institute of Nuclear Safety System Inc. (INSS).
References
[1] C. Schefski, J. Pietralik, T. Dyke, M. Lewis, A physical model to predict wear sites engendered by flow-
assisted corrosion, US DOE Rep, pp. 149-154, 1995.
[2] B. Chexal et al., Flow-accelerated corrosion in power plants, EPRI report, TR-106611, 1996.
[3] R. B. Dooley, V. K. Chexal, Flow-accelerated corrosion of pressure vessels in fossil plants, International
Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Volume 77, Issues 2-3, pp. 85-90, 2000.
[4] Flow-accelerated corrosion in nuclear power plants: Application of CHECWORKS at Darlington,
[5] T.R. Allen, P J. King, and L. Nelson: Flow Accelerated Corrosion and Cracking of Carbon Steel Piping
in Primary Water Operating Experience at the Point Lepreau Generating Station, Proceedings of the 12th
International Conference, pp. 773-784, 2005.
[6] K. D. Efird, Flow accelerated corrosion testing basics, Pap Corros, p. 16, 2006.
[7] S. Uchida, M. Naitoh, Y. Uehara, H. Okada, N. Hiranuma, W. Sugino, S. Kishizuka and D. H. Lster:
Evaluation of Wall Thinning Rate with the Coupled Model of Static Electrochemical Analysis and
Dynamic Double Oxide Layer Analysis, Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology Vol. 46, No. 1, pp.
31-40, 2009.
[8] D. Kosaka, F. Kojima, H. Yamaguchi and K. Umetani, Monitoring System for Pipe Wall Thinning
Management using Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer, Vol.2, No. 1, pp.34-42, 2010.
[9] H.M. Fros, Electromagnetic-ultrasonic transducer: Principles, practice and applications, in: Physical
Acoustics, Vol. 14, W.P. Mason and R.N. Thurston eds., Academic Press, New York, pp. 179-275, 1979.
[10] B.W. Maxfield and C M. Fortunko, The design and use of electromagnetic acoustic wave transducers,
in: Material Evaluation, Vol.41, pp. 1399-1408, 1983.
[11] R.B. Thompson, Physical principles of measurements with EMAT transducers, in: Physical Acoustics,
Vol.19, Academic Press, New York, pp. 157-200, 1990.
[12] K. Mirkhani et al. Optimal design of EMAT transmitters, in: NDT&E International, Vol. 37, pp. 181
193, 2004.
[13] D. MacLauchlan, S. Clark, B. Cox, T. Doyle, and B. Grimmett, Recent advancements in the application
of EMATs to NDE, in: Proc. of the 16th WCNDT 2004, Montreal, Canada.
[14] K. Kawashima, Very high frequency EMAT for resonant measurement, in: Proc IEEE Ultrasonic
Symposium, No. 2, pp.1111-1119, 1994.
[15] H. Ogi, Field dependence of coupling efficiency between electromagnetic field and ultrasonic bulk
waves, J. Appl. Phys. 82 (8), 15, pp. 3940-3949, 1997.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-275
Applicability of Magnetic Flux Leakage

Method for Wall Thinning Monitoring in
Nuclear Power Plants
Hiroaki KIKUCHI1, Isamu SHIMIZU, Katsuyuki ARA,
Yasuhiro KAMADA and Satoru KOBAYASHI
NDE & SR-C, Faculty of Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate,
020-8551, Japan
Abstract. This paper presents an applicability of magnetic flux leakage (MFL)

method for a nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of wall thinning in nuclear power
plants. Since MFL method has already been applied to other industry field, this
method should be an effective tool in nuclear power plants. The ancillary yoke
poles were employed to adapt to the piping shape, and higher sensitivity was
achieved to estimate the depth in a slit on piping. The distribution of magnetic flux
density corresponding with profile of wall thinning depth was also obtained.
Additionally, an applicability of MFL method for probing a slit fabricated on
superposed specimens was investigated.
Keywords. Wall thinning, magnetic flux leakage (MFL), ancillary yoke pole,
reinforcing plate, dual layer
1. Introduction
An ageing management for nuclear power plants is quite important issue due to its
long-term operation in Japan. One of ageing problem is wall thinning on pipe. Wall
thinning occurs at orifices, elbows and under reinforcing plates, etc., through Flow-
Accelerate Corrosion and Liquid Droplet Impingment erosion. Although several
methods like ultrasonic, eddy current are available tools, the magnetic flux leakage
(MFL) [1-4] also must be an effective nondestructive evaluation (NDE) technique for
the wall thinning, because this method has already been applied to industry field such
as gas pipeline. It is difficult to assess wall thinning under a reinforcing plate, where
steels are superposed for reinforcements, using ultrasonic and eddy current, because of
the reflection of signal and the wall thickness. Therefore MFL method is expected to
apply for an evaluation of wall thinning under the reinforcing plate.
The fundamental experiment of MFL using a single-yoke was examined and it
was clarified that sizing of a rectangular slit fabricated on steel plates is possible [5].
However, a development of a probe feasible for piping and a feasibility study of MFL
for application in a reinforcing plate are required for practical uses. Therefore, in this
study, an applicability of MFL method for wall thinning monitoring in nuclear power
plants was investigated, and a possibility to evaluate wall thinning under reinforcing
1
Corresponding Author: Hiroaki Kikuchi, NDE & Science Research Center, Faculty of Engineering,
Iwate University, 4 3 5 Ueda, Morioka 020 8551, Japan; Phone:+81 19 621 6890; Email: hkiku@iwate
u.ac.jp
276 H. Kikuchi et al. / Applicability of Magnetic Flux Leakage Method for Wall Thinning Monitoring
plates using MFL was examined. The ancillary yoke poles were utilized to solve the
problem in contact between the magnetic-yoke and the pipe surface and to achieve
higher sensitivity for estimation of slit depth on piping. Additionally, steels superposed
were prepared and a slit modeled wall thinning was formed in underlayer, then an
evaluation of the slit was performed using MFL method.
2. Utilization of ancillary yoke pole
2.1 FEM analysis
Firstly, to confirm an effect of ancillary yoke pole, two-dimensional (2D) FEM

analysis was done. Figure 1(a) shows the analysis model for the calculation. Since a
conventional magnetic-yoke has a flat plane on contact part, there is a large air gap
between the yoke and the surface of the pipe. The magnetic flux density distribution
was calculated along with the dot line shown in Figure 1(a) when the pipe has a slit
with 10 mm width and 2 mm depth and when the pipe has also no slit. The calculation
was done for both x- and z-components of magnetic flux density, Bx, By. An applied
current to the excitation coil was 1 A. Figure 2 shows the calculated results. The results
show the same behavior in both cases being independent of existence of slit. This
means detection of a slit on pipe is difficult if there is a large air gap between the yoke
and the pipe surface.
Figure 1(b) shows the FEM analysis model when ferromagnetic material
exists between the yoke and the surface of the pipe as ancillary yoke poles. The
distribution of both x- and z-components, Bx, By, of magnetic flux density was
calculated along with the dot line shown in Figure 1(b). Figure 3 shows those
calculated field distributions. One can see the notable difference in both distribution
profiles. These calculated results indicate the ancillary yoke pole is very useful to
achieve higher sensitivity.
2.2 Experimental procedure
Figure 4(a) shows the dimension of the magnetic-yoke used for experimental
investigating the utilization of ancillary yoke poles. The geometry and the size of the
specimen are shown in Figure 5. The diameter is 60.5 mm and thickness is 5.2 mm, and
carbon steel STPT is used for their material. A slit with 10 mm width is fabricated at
Air gap Conventional yoke Ferromagnetic Conventional yoke

Coil: 1000 T material Coil: 1000 T
Silicon Iron Silicon Iron

50 50
Coil Coil
60 60
13 Bz 13 Bz
Unit: mm Bx Unit: mm Bx
x x
0 0
9 S15C Pipe 9 S15C Pipe
Slit Slit
(a) with air gap (b) using ancillary yokes
Figure 1. 2D FEM analysis model.
H. Kikuchi et al. / Applicability of Magnetic Flux Leakage Method for Wall Thinning Monitoring 277
0 800
without slit
Leakage flux density Bx (Gauss)
Leakage flux density Bz (Gauss)

-200 600
with slit
-400 400
-600 200
-800 0
-1000 -200
-1200 -400
without slit
-1400 with slit -600
-1600 -800
-16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16
Position x (mm) Position x (mm)
(a) x component, Bx (b) z component, Bz
Figure 2. Leakage magnetic flux density distribution with air gap between yoke and pipe.
0 100
without slit without slit
Leakage flux density Bx (Gauss)
Leakage flux density Bz (Gauss)

-20
with slit with slit
-40 50
-60
-80 0
-100
-120 -50
-140
-160 -100
-16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16
Figure 3. Leakage magnetic flux density distribution with ancillary yokes between yoke and pipe.
the center part of the pipes, and its depths are 0.5, 1, 4, 4.5 mm, respectively. The
coordinate for measurement system is defined as shown in Figure 4(a). The center part
of slit is the origin of x-direction (horizontal), and the vertical direction to horizontal is
z-direction (the surface of specimen is z = 0).
Figure 4 (b) shows the geometry and the size of ancillary yoke pole adjusted
for the pipe shown in Figure 5. The material for this pole is pure iron. To obtain soft
magnetic properties, the pole was annealed at 700 C for 1 hour in the atmosphere after
its machining. After annealing, the poles were polished to remove oxide layer.
2.3 Results
Figure 6 plots x- and z- component of magnetic flux density, Bx, Bz against position x
(Here, center of the slit is x = 0). On the measurement, the applied current to the
excitation coil was 3 A, and the magnetic-yoke was fixed as the center of the yoke
corresponding with the center of the slit, and a gauss meter (Lakeshore 460) scanned
the pipe surface in x-direction at z = 0.5 mm. The pipes with slit depth of 4 and 4.5 mm
were used here. The results obtained with ancillary yoke poles are shown as compared
with measurement without ancillary yoke poles. It is clarified that the higher sensitivity
was obtained when the ancillary yoke poles were used. As for the pipe with slit depth
of 4 mm, the intensity of Bx has no change and Bz has no peak at the edge of slit in the
case without ancillary yoke poles, while the profile using ancillary yoke poles shows
large increment in Bx profile and has a peak in Bz at the edge of slit (x = 5 mm). For the
Figure 4. Measuring system for MFL and dimensions of magnetic yoke and ancillary yoke pole.
Wall thinning Wall thinning

d
# 2345mm
w 10 mm
60.5mm
t = 5.2mm 60mm
Figure 5. Dimension of pipe with slit.
-20 200
Magnetic flux density Bx (Gauss)
Magnetic flux density Bz (Gauss)
-40
100
-60
-80 0
-100 -100
-120 4mm NAY 4mm NAY
4 5mm NAY -200 4 5mm NAY
-140 4mm AY 4mm AY
4 5mm AY 4 5mm AY
-160 -300
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Figure 6. Experimental leakage magnetic flux density distribution with and without ancillary yoke poles
between yoke and pipe (AY: with ancillary yoke, NAY: without ancillary yoke).
pipe with slit depth of 4.5 mm, the changes in Bx and the peak intensity in Bz at x = 5
mm were enhanced using ancillary yoke poles.
Figure 7 plots x- and z- component of magnetic flux density, Bx, Bz against
position x, when the probe includes the magnetic-yoke, ancillary yoke poles and the
gauss meter scanned the pipe surface in x-direction (In this case, gauss meter and
magnetic-yoke scanned together). The depth of slit changes from 0.5 to 4.5 mm. The x-
component Bx of flux has rapid increase at x = 5 mm, and its rate of change increases
with increasing slit depth. On the other hand, the z-component Bz of flux has a peak at x
= 5 mm, and its intensity increases with increasing depth of slit. The position x = 5 mm
is consistent with the edge of slit.
3. Evaluation of wall thinning on pipe
Pipe specimens with modeled wall thinning being similar to the practical cases were
-20 300

d = 0.5 mm
-40 250 d = 1 mm
d = 4 mm
-60
200 d = 4.5 mm
-80
150
-100
100
-120
d = 0.5 mm 50
-140 d = 1 mm
d = 4 mm 0
-160 d = 4.5 mm
-180 -50
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 7. Experimental leakage magnetic flux density distribution with ancillary yoke poles, when slit
depth d changes.
60
14 20
57
63.4 Unit: mm
Figure 8. Dimension of pipe with wall thinning. a is Figure 9. Dimension of ancillary yoke
maximum depth, b width of slit and ' central angle of wall pole.
thinning part.
prepared, and MFL method using ancillary yoke poles was examined to assess wall
thinning of those specimens, here.
The configuration and the size of pipe are shown in Figure 8. Its diameter is
114.3 mm and its thickness is 8.6 mm, respectively. The material of the pipe is carbon
steel STPG. We prepared two specimens, A and B. The value of a, b and ' shown in
Figure 8 are 4.4 mm, 100 mm, 130 deg., respectively for specimen A, and those values
for specimen B are 2.15 mm, 50 mm, 90 deg., respectively. The magnetic-yoke used
here was the same as mentioned in Figure 1 (a), while another ancillary yoke poles
adjusted for the pipe shown in Figure 8 were prepared. Figure 9 shows the geometry
and the size of ancillary yoke pole. The gauss meter was fixed at the center part of the
magnetic-yoke, and the magnetic-yoke with the ancillary yoke poles scanned the pipe
surface in x-direction. The x- component of magnetic flux density, Bx was measured
with application of 3 A current to the excitation coil. The scans were performed along
with the line passing through the deepest wall thinning point in both A and B
specimens and were also performed along with the line passing through out of wall
thinning area; this means scanning excludes wall thinning part.
Figure 10 shows the distribution of x- component of magnetic flux density Bx
against position x. For both specimen A and B, magnetic flux density is constant on the
line passing through out of wall thinning area, while the distributions on the line
passing through deepest wall thinning point reflect the depth profiles of wall thinning
in each specimen (the cases of A: a = 4.4 mm and B: b = 2.15 mm). The magnetic flux
density at deepest wall thinning point in specimen A is larger than that of specimen B.
At deeper wall thinning point, larger magnetic flux density is obtained.
40

Specimen A: Wall thinning area
35
30
Specimen B: Wall thinning area

25
A a 4 4 mm
A line out of slit
B a 2 15 mm
B line out of slit
20
-100 -50 0 50 100
Position x (mm)
Figure 10. Experimental leakage magnetic flux density distribution for pipe with modeled wall thinning.
Excitation coil
Unit: mm 150 turns
80
20 45
z
Gauss meter Scan
Bz Bx
6 0 x
Specimen 10 d 6
Figure 11. Measurement setup for investigation of dual layered specimen.
4. Evaluation of slit on dual layered specimen
Here, we investigated an applicability of MFL method to an evaluation of wall thinning

under the reinforcing plate. As a feasibility study, we tried to detect a slit fabricated at
the underlayer of superposed plates using MFL method.
Figure 11 shows the measurement system for evaluation on dual layered
specimen (superposed plates). The magnetic-yoke the same as described in section 2
was located on the superposed specimen with a slit (10 mm width) on its underlayer.
Each plate had 6 mm thick, and total thickness was 12 mm. The yoke and the gauss
meter scanned together in x-direction (See Figure 11), and measured the x- and z-
component of magnetic flux density, Bx, Bz, on the surface of specimen when the slit
depth d changed from 1 to 3 mm. Figure 12 plots the value of Bx, Bz against position x.
For all specimens, Bx has the maximum at x = 0 and a rapid change rate in Bx was
obtained at x = 5 mm. The intensity of Bx at x = 0 and change rate in Bx at x = 5 mm
increase with increasing slit depth. On the other hand, Bz has a peak at 5 mm where it is
consistent with the edge of slit and the peak intensity increases with increasing slit
depth. These results indicate MFL method is applicable to detection of slit formed in
the superposed specimen, that is, applicable to evaluation of wall thinning under
reinforcing plate.
60 40
no slit no slit

55 d 1 mm 30 d 1 mm
d 2 mm d 2 mm
50 d 3 mm 20 d 3 mm
45 10
40 0
35 -10
30 -20
25 -30
20 -40
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Figure 12. Relations between magnetic flux density and position x, when slit depth d changes.
5. Conclusion
In order to accommodate the shell structure of pipe, ancillary yoke poles are adopted,
and probing of slit and wall thinning on pipe was performed. Additionally, detection of
slit fabricated on dual layered specimen was examined as a feasibility study of
evaluation of wall thinning under reinforced plate. The following results were obtained.
(1) It was clarified the evaluation for wall thinning on pipe using MFL method is
possible.
(2) The higher sensitivity was achieved with ancillary yoke poles.
(3) The capability of evaluation of wall thinning on dual layer was performed; this
indicates MFL method can be applied for evaluation of wall thinning under
reinforcing plate.
(4) Output distributions corresponding with wall thinning depth on specimen being
similar with actual cases were obtained.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency Project on Enhance of
Ageing Management and Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants.
References
[1] C. E. Edwards, S. B. Palmer, The magnetic leakage field of surface breaking cracks, Journal of Physics
D: Applied Physics, 19, pp. 657 673 (1986).
[2] K. Sekine, Present Status and Some Problems in Defect Evaluation Using Magnetic Inspection, Tetsu- to-
Hagane, 74, pp. 2231 2238 (1988).
[3] T. Suzuki, Electromagnetic Simulation Technique for Magnetic Leakage Flux Testing, Journal of the
Japanese Society for Non-destructive Inspection, 47, pp. 92 97 (1998).
[4] Y. Zhang, G. Yan, Detection of Gas Pipe Wall Thickness Based on Electromagnetic Flux Leakage,
Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing, 43, pp. 123 132 (2007).
[5] H. Kikuchi, Y. Kurisawa, Y. Kamada and S. Kobayashi, K. Ara, International Journal of Applied
Electromagnetics and Mechanics, 33, pp. 1087 1094 (2010).
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-282
Stress Corrosion Cracks Evaluation in 316

Austenitic Stainless Steel Plate
Tomasz CHADY1, Jacek KOWALCZYK, Grzegorz PSUJ
Technology, al. Piastow 17, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. In this paper a ECT system was used to inspect stress corrosion cracks
(SCC). The system utilizes lock in amplifier, which enables observation of signals
having the amplitude lower than the noise level. The sample with three SCCs
examined during test was made of 16 mm thick 316 austenitic stainless steel.
Keywords. Eddy current testing, stress corrosion cracks
Introduction
Nowadays, evaluation of stress corrosion cracks (SCC) in real construction is one of

the most important problems. The SCC strongly affects the structural integrity of the
material. Furthermore, there are many differences between SCC and artificial notches
in their responses to nondestructive testing (NDT) methods. Therefore the notches
cannot be used as a substitute of SCC during evaluation of the NDT system
performance. This creates strong and obvious need of fabricating cracks more
equivalent to real one. On this background, the Japan Society of Maintenology has
started round-robin tests under SCC NDT database Project [1]. Some works on the
methodology of artificial SCC preparation and observation have been published [2-4].
The roundrobin test creates opportunity to evaluate quality of the measurements
achieved with various techniques. Objective of this paper is to present results obtained
by using ECT multi-frequency technique and system equipped with a lock-in amplifier.
The advantages of the lock-in amplifiers like high noise immunity, precise estimation
of real and imaginary part of the measured signals allows to detect defects with a
higher precision.
1. Experimental setup
In the experiments lock-in ECT system was used and the three stress corrosion cracks
were examined. The details of the system and the sample tested will be given below.
The utilized system is an integrated unit. It allows to monitor amplitude and phase
responses of a transducer. The system can operate using single frequency ranging from
1 kHz up to 100 kHz. It consists of excitation, pick-up and control subsystem.
1
Tomasz Chady, email: tchady@zut.uni.szczecin.pl
T. Chady et al. / Stress Corrosion Cracks Evaluation in 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel Plate 283
Figure 1. Photo and view of the transducer: a) 3D view of the transducer, c) photo of the transducers.
The excitation subsystem uses D/A converter and high speed power amplifier
(TDA 7294) for generation and gaining sinusoidal current. The main part of the system
is a lock-in amplifier based pick-up system. Voltage induced in the pickup coils are
amplified by a programmable gain amplifier in the lock-in LIA-BVD-150-H module.
The LIA-BVD-150-H is dual phase lock-in amplifier with digital phase shifter and
detection of real component, imaginary component and amplitude of input signal.
Signals from the lock-in module are then supplied to an A/D module. Both subsystems
are controlled by a PC class computer with software written in LabView environment.
The transducer was moved over the sample using a X, Y, Z scanning device.
The transducer used during the measurements consists of a ferrite core (6) with
five symmetrically placed columns [5]. The view and photo of the transducer is shown
in Figure1. Pick-up coil (5) is wounded on the central column. Four excitation coils (1,
2, 3 and 4) placed on remaining columns are divided into two sections perpendicular to
each other. Each section consists of two excitation coils connected in series and
produce in the pickup coil opposite (to another pair) directed fluxes, which induce in
the pick-up coil a signal close to zero in equilibrium state. The flaw occurring close to
one of the excitation coils distorts that state and therefore a signal different from zero
appears in the pick-up coil.
1.1. SCC samples
The sample TP01 used in the experiment belong to the round robin test organized by
the Japan Society of Maintenology. It is made of 316 austenitic stainless steel. The
dimensions of TP01 are 160 mm long, 100 mm width and 16 mm thick. The sample is
having three stress corrosion cracks: SCC01-1, SCC01-2, and SCC01-3. Detailed
description of SCC fabrication can be found in [1-4].
The distance between two neighboring cracks is about 30 mm. Surface lengths of
the cracks evaluated using penetrant testing (PT) technique are 26, 28 and 29 mm.
Detail information about the specimen can be found elsewhere [1].
2. Results of Experiments
The experiment was divided into two stages. During the first one, stress corrosion
cracks were scanned along one line. Different excitation frequencies were used for each
scan. The frequency range was between 70 kHz and 88 kHz with step of 2kHz.
Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the results of multi-frequency experiments. The transmitter
was moved perpendicular to the direction of the defects and above their centers.
284 T. Chady et al. / Stress Corrosion Cracks Evaluation in 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel Plate
a) b)
f [kHz]
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
c) d)
f [kHz]
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
e) f)
f [kHz]
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
g) h)
arctg(Im(U)/Re(U)) [rad]
U [V]
x [mm] x [mm]
Figure 2. Multi frequency results of measurements obtained for SCC01 1(a) amplitude and b) phase of the
measured signal), SCC01 2 (c) amplitude and d) phase of the measured signal) and SCC01 3 (e) amplitude
and f) phase of the measured signal); plot of amplitude (g) and phase (h) of signals obtained for all SCCs
using exciting frequency equal to 82 kHz .
a) b)
f [kHz]
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
c) d)
f [kHz]
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
e) f)
f [kHz]
f [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
g) h)
Re(U) [V]
Im(U) [V]
x [mm] x [mm]
Figure 3. Multi frequency results of measurements obtained for SCC01 1(a) real and b) imaginary
component of the measured signal), SCC01 2 (c) real and d) imaginary component of the measured signal)
and SCC01 3 (e) real and f) imaginary of the measured signal); plot of real (g) and imaginary component (h)
of signals obtained for all SCCs using exciting frequency equal to 82 kHz .
286 T. Chady et al. / Stress Corrosion Cracks Evaluation in 316 Austenitic Stainless Steel Plate
One can see that all results allow proper indication of the SCC in the
sample. There are only slight differences in measured amplitude and phase of signals
as well as in real and imaginary components of signals obtained for each frequency.
y [mm]
x [mm]
Figure 4. Amplitude of signal |Usig| measured in selected area of SCC01 1 in both scanning direction using
exciting frequency equal to 82 kHz.
a) b)
arctg(Im(U)/Re(U)) [rad]
U [kHz]
x [mm] x [mm]
c) d)
Re(U) [V]
Im(U) [V]
x [mm] x [mm]
Figure 5. Results of measurements obtained for selected line scan of SCC01 1 using exciting frequency of
82 kHz: a) amplitude of measured signal |Usig|, b) phase of measured signal arctg(Im(Usig)/Re(Usig)),
c) real part of measured signal Re(Usig), d) imaginary part of measured signal Im(Usig).
Nevertheless, the highest amplitude was observed in case of the exciting frequency
of 82 kHz. It creates the greatest possibility of proper indication of SCC. From the
Figure 2 g-h and Figure3 g-h one can observe that response of SCC01-1 is the highest
and of SCC01-3 is the smallest, which is confirmed by the results achieved by other
research teams [1].
In the second stage of experiments the measurements for SCC01-1 in both
directions x and y using exciting frequency equal to 82 kHz were carried out. The
achieved results are presented in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Figure 4 shows a two-
dimensional plot of amplitude of the measured signal and Figure 5 plots of amplitude
and phase of a signal as well as real and imaginary component of a signal for selected
line scan.
3. Conclusions
The results of the experiments show the possibility of usage of the lock-in ECT system
for evaluation of SCC in stainless steels. The highest signals parameters and signals
components were achieved for SCC01-1. The results are not yet verified by destructive
tests, however similar conclusions were presented by other institutions examining the
sample.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Noritaka Yusa for providing the specimens that
belong to the round robin test organized by the Japan Society of Maintenology
(http://jsm.or.jp/at/scc/).
This work was supported in part by Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
Education and by European Commission sponsored project QualiTi which is a
collaboration between the following organizations: I.S.O.TEST Engineering s.r.l, West
Pomeranian University of Technology (ZUT), Tecnitest Ingenieros S.L., TIMET UK
Ltd, TWI Ltd and Vermon SA. The project is co-ordinated and managed by TWI Ltd
and is partly funded by the EC under the Research for the Benefit of Specific Groups
Project (ref: FP7-SME-2007-1-GA-222476.)
References
[1] SCC NDT database Project, The Japan Society of Maintenology, online access,
http://jsm.or.jp/jsm/at/scc/index_eng.htm
[2] N. Yusa, S. Perrin, K. Miya, Eddy current data characterizing less volumetric stress corrosion cracking in
nonmagnetic materials, Matterials Letters 61 (2007), 827 829
[3] N. Yusaa, H. Hashizume, Evaluation of stress corrosion cracking as a function of its resistance to eddy
currents, Nuclear Engineering and Design 239 (2009) 2713 2718
[4] N. Yusa, K. Miya, Discussion on the equivalent conductivity and resistance of stress corrosion cracks in
eddy current simulations, NDT&E International 42 (2009) 9 15
[5] T. Chady, Evaluation of Stress Loaded Steel Samples Using Selected Electromagnetic Methods, Review
of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, vol. 23A, D.O. Thompson, D.E.Chimenti,
American Institute of Physics, 2004, pp. 1296 1302
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-288
Multi-frequency eddy current NDE of the

distance between parts in aeronautical
assemblies
Thanh Long CUNG, Pierre Yves JOUBERT and Eric VOURCH
SATIE, ENS Cachan, CNRS, UniverSud, 61 avenue du Prsident Wilson, 94235
Cachan Cedex, France
Abstract. This paper deals with the eddy current nondestructive evaluation of the distance between parts in
metallic assemblies. An experimental study of the coupling of a magnetic cup core coil sensor with a metallic
layered structure is carried out and confirmed by finite element modeling simulations. This study allows
behavioral models of the sensor/structure interactions to be built, and two estimation methods to be proposed.
The first one is based on the inversion of a polynomial forward model, and the second one on an inverse
model. Both techniques are implemented, characterized and compared. The second one is proved to be more
accurate when the signal to noise ratio of the eddy current data decreases.
Keywords. Non-destructive evaluation, eddy currents, multi-frequency approach,

air gap estimation, multilayered aeronautical structure, behavioral inverse model
Introduction
The eddy current technique (EC) is widely used for the NDE of electrically conducting
parts, such as those that may be found in the aeronautic industry. Indeed, it is easy to
implement, sensitive, robust and eco-aware. Under certain conditions, it allows defects
[1-3] or geometrical/physical features [4] of the inspected parts to be evaluated with
satisfactory accuracy. However, the quantitative evaluation of parts parameters starting
from the raw EC data is generally known as an "ill-posed" problem, among other
reasons because of the incompleteness of the available EC data [5]. This remark
particularly applies to the evaluation of multilayered structures such as aeronautical
assemblies, which is known to be particularly difficult [6]. To solve this particular
problem, several methods have been proposed, such as the inversion of a physical
model of the impedance of an air coil, using the least mean square criterion. Another
solution relies on the use of gradient techniques or neural networks [7]. Another
possibility consists in an experimental approach in which the experimental data are
directly differentiated from measurements simultaneously carried out on a series of
calibrated mock-ups [6]. In this paper, we propose to build multi-frequency behavioral
models, based on experimental analyses of the interactions between a cup-core EC
sensor and a multilayered assembly. This technique has the advantage of being
applicable to any type of EC sensor and to be easy to implement, once the model
developed. Moreover, the multi-frequency approach allows the available EC data to be
enriched so as to increase the reliability and the accuracy of the NDE [1]. In this study,
T.L. Cung et al. / Multi-Frequency Eddy Current NDE of the Distance 289
we consider the problem of evaluating the thickness of an air layer comprised between
two conductive plates, representative of a metallic coating assembled to ribs or spars in
aircraft wings. Section 1 both reports on the experimental setup and on the analysis of
the interactions between the used sensor and a layered structure. In Section 2, a
polynomial based modeling is derived from this analysis and inversion results are
presented. In Section 3, we propose and implement a behavioral inverse model
associated to a multi-frequency evaluation algorithm. Evaluations results are compared
and concluding remarks are given in section 4.
1. Experimental study of the problem
In the experimental setup, the wing coating is represented by a plate of constant

thickness tc = 1.5 mm, whereas the rib which in practice is a piece of variable thickness,
is represented by a series of plates featuring thicknesses comprised between 1.5 mm
and 25 mm. Both the coating and the rib are made of an aluminum alloy featuring an
electrical conductivity = 17 MS/m and a unitary relative magnetic permeability. To
adjust the distance between the conductive layers, calibrated isolating sheets are used.
They feature a unitary relative magnetic permeability and a unitary relative dielectric
permittivity. The resulting distance between the conductive layers, or air-gap thickness,
denoted t, is comprised in the [0 m 500 m] range. The EC NDE is performed by
means of a magnetic cup-core coil probe electromagnetically coupled to the assembly,
as shown in Figure 1. The coil features 110 turns and an outer diameter of 35 mm. Its
free impedance (obtained when the sensor is not coupled with the target) is equivalent
to a resistance R0 = 4.6 in series with an inductance L0 = 3.04 mH. EC data are
provided through the measurement of the sensor impedance via a PC controlled
impedance analyzer (HP4192A). More precisely, we consider the sensor normalized
impedance denoted Zn and defined as [4]:
Zn = Rn + j.X n = (Zt R0 ) / X 0 (1)
where Zt is the impedance of the sensor coupled with the assembly featuring a given air
gap t, and X0 is the reactance of the uncoupled sensor.
Figure 1. Eddy current cup core coil sensor coupled with the inspected multilayered assembly.
290 T.L. Cung et al. / Multi-Frequency Eddy Current NDE of the Distance
Figure 2. Universal impedance diagrams of the EC sensor: a) general view, and b) detailed view for Znt with
t ranging from 0 to 500 m.
1.2. Sensor and target interactions
The properties of the universal impedance diagram (UID), i.e. the evolution of Zn in the
complex impedance plane (Rn, Xn), have been studied [4, 8] in the case of a bulk target.
It is used here to evaluate the assembly. As an example, the UIDs obtained for two
assemblies featured by t = 0 m (close to a bulk target) and t = 500 m, are presented
in Figure 2a over an 80 Hz to 30 kHz frequency range. These UIDs show that there
exists a frequency range in which the properties of the measured EC data are likely to
allow t to be evaluated. The UIDs plotted in that frequency range are represented in
Figure 2b, for parts separated from 0 to 500 m. Indeed, the locus of the points
obtained at the same frequency but for different distances t (tc and tr being fixed) is a
linear curve. This result led us to analyze the relationship between t and a normalized
impedance distance (NID) defined as (2).
NID f i = Z nt ( f i ) Z n 0 ( f i ) (2)
where fi is the considered EC frequency, Zn0 and Znt are the normalized impedance of
the sensor for t = 0 and t 0 respectively.
Experimentally, it appears that a linear equation relates NID to t (3), provided that
the frequency f does not exceed a maximum value fmax, fmax being such that the skin
depth of the induced EC approximately equals 2/3rds of tc.
NID ( t ) = a ( f , tc , tr ) t (3)
The slopes of the linear characteristics (3) depend on the frequency, the coating
and the rib thicknesses, as shown in Figure 3 for the following configurations:
f1 = 680 Hz, f2 = 6600 Hz, tr1 = 1.5 mm, tr2 = 25 mm, and tc = 1.5 mm. As a result,
equation (4), which is established at a single frequency f1, is not sufficient to estimate t
for an unknown value of the thickness tr. Therefore, a multi-frequency approach is
required.
Figure 3. Linear relationship between NID and the air-gap thickness t
1
ti = a f i .NID f i (4)
2. Estimation method relying on a polynomial forward model
2.1. Inversion of a polynomial forward model (IPFM)
In order to build a multi-frequency forward model of NID as a function of t, tc, and tr,
we use a second order polynomial of the variables t and tr expressed in (5). Such a
small order is chosen with inversion accuracy in view [9].
NID f i (t , t r ) = t ( c0, f i + c1, f i t r + c2, f i t r2 ) (5)
where the coefficients {c0,fi , ... c2,fi} are such that for a fixed value of tr, NIDfi be a
linear function of t, according to (2), with NIDfi (0,tr) = 0. To determine the coefficients
of (5), we use the data resulting from a series of FE simulations of the sensor coupled
with a layered structure featuring tc = 1.5 mm, tr {1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5}, given in
mm, t {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}, given in m and with a set of five frequencies
fi (i{1,2,3,4,5}) given in Hz: f1 = 680, f2 = 1060, f3 = 1440, f4 = 1820, f5 = 2200.
These data constitute the learning set used to determine the polynomials of the forward
model at each considered fi frequency, by the means of a least mean square criterion.
The multi-frequency forward modeling of NID then writes:
n = Ct (6)
where n is the column vector of the NIDfi elements, C is the matrix of the {c0,fi , ... c2,fi}
coefficients, and t = [t, ttr , ttr2 ]T . Consequently the estimation of t and tr is given by (7).
t = (CT C ) CT n
1
(7)
2.2. Estimation results
The estimation based on the IPFM is implemented and evaluated using computed and
experimental data. In order to better evaluate the estimation performances, additional
white and Gaussian noise of various powers have been added to the simulated data so
as to introduce some uncertainty representative of instrumental noise and sensor
mispositioning errors [11].
Table 1. RAE and RPE of the air layer thickness estimation obtained using the IPFM and different frequency
combinations. (*) Meaningless values of RAE or RPE (> 100 %).
Assembly configurations tc = 1.5 mm ; tr = 1.5 mm ; t {0, 50, 100, 150, ...500) in m
IPFM using fi IPFM using fi IPFM using fi
Data i {2,3,4} i {2,3,4,5} i {1,2,3,4,5}
(RPE% ; RAE%) (RPE% ; RAE%) (RPE% ; RAE%)
Comput.(SNR = 60 dB) 0.77 ; (*) 13.20 ; 1.20 1.24 ; 0.42
Comput. (SNR = 33 dB) 17.25 ; (*) 75.00 ; (*) 28.02 ; -0.20
Experim.(SNR=33 dB) 40.44 ; (*) (*) ; (*) 49.16 ; -19.21
IPFM using fi IPFM using fi IPFM using fi
Data i {2,3,4} i {2,3,4,5} i {1,2,3,4,5}
(RPE%-RAE%) (RPE%-RAE%) (RPE%-RAE%)
Comput.(SNR = 60 dB) 0.65 ; -81.81 16.35 ; 2.47 1.56 ; 0.08
Comput.(SNR = 33 dB) 14.20 ; -81.81 75.16 ; (*) 34.13 ; 2.43
Figure 4. Estimation of the air-gap thickness using a 5-frequency 2nd order polynomial forward model for a
tc = 1.5 mm; tr = 1.5 mm configuration. a) simulated data (SNR = 33dB), b) experimental data (SNR = 33 dB)
The simulated test set is constituted by the configurations described in section 2.1., but
with t taking 11 values linearly arranged within the 0 to 500 m range. For each of
these configurations, 1000 random noise trials are used. Regarding the experimental
data, the test set is constituted by data relative to configurations featured by t ranging
from 0 to 500 m, and tc = 1.5 mm (which constitute the worst case for the estimation).
For each considered configuration, each measurement was repeated 12 times (with
sensor dismounting) so as to take uncertainty into account. Finally, in order to
characterize the estimation results, we consider the relative accuracy error (RAE) and
the relative precision error (RPE), defined in (8), where t is the estimate of t, and where
mean(.) and std(.) denote the mean value and the standard deviation, respectively.
t t std (t)
RAE % = mean 100. and RPE % = mean 100 . (8)
t mean (t )
The estimation of the distance between parts using 3, 4 and 5 excitation

frequencies was implemented according to (7). Estimation errors obtained using
simulated data featured by a 60 dB and a 33 dB signal to noise ratio (SNR) and
experimental data of 33 dB SNR are gathered in Table 1. The estimation errors
significantly decrease when using a 5-frequency forward modeling (down to the order
of 1 % for a 60 dB SNR). However, the estimation method exhibits a lower accuracy
when the SNR falls down to 33 dB (Table 1, Figure 4), due to the poor conditioning of
the forward matrix (6). Furthermore, the estimation errors are increased when obtained
from the experimental data, due to the imperfect agreement between experimental and
simulated data relative to the same configurations.
3. Estimation method relying on an inverse behavioral model
3.1. Inverse behavioral model (IBM)
In order to enhance the estimation performances, we propose a second estimation

technique, based on an IBM. Here, we aim at exploiting the linear characteristics (4).
We build such sets of characteristics from simulated data obtained for discrete values
of tr, considering the same assembly configuration and frequency sets as in section 2.1.
Then, using 5th-order polynomials, we extrapolate the values of the slopes a f 1 of
i
equations (4) for any tr value comprised in the considered rib thickness range:
a f i1 (tr ) = k5, f i t r5 + k 4, f i tr4 + k3, f i t r3 + k 2, f i t r2 + k1, f i tr + k0, f i (9)
Provided the coefficients {k0,fi , ... k5,fi}, it is possible to estimate the air gap as follows.
For every linear curve (4) corresponding to a given rib thickness trl, the measured NIDfi
corresponds to a til air gap abscissa which is a possible solution of the problem:
til = a f i1 (trl ). NID f i with tr1 trl trL and l {1,2,..., L} (10)
Among the solutions provided by the equations (10), only those corresponding to the
actual rib thickness, denoted tr l , will be true and also equal to each other. As a
act
consequence, tr l may be estimated as the one such that the equations (10) satisfy:
act
trl act = t rl
act
so that ( ) = min{std (t ), std (t
std til
act i1 i2 ),..., std (tiL )} (11)
Finally, the air gap is estimated at every fi according to (12):
N
1
t =
N
t
i =1
ilact
(12)
3.2. Estimation results and comparison
The simulated and experimental data which the IPFM was applied to in section 2.2 are
now used to implement the IBM. The estimation results obtained using simulated as
well as experimental data featured by tc = tr = 1.5 mm and SNR = 33 dB (that is the
worst estimation case considered) are given in Figure 5. For the simulated data, the
RPE and the RAE are about 9.45 % and -10.38 % respectively, while for the
experimental data they are 6.60 % and -10.03 % respectively. Results from simulated
and experimental data are thus in good agreement and exhibit both satisfactory
precision and accuracy. Furthermore, Table 2 compares the precision and the accuracy
of the IPFM and of the IBM based estimation methods, considering a 5-frequency
approach. The estimation relying on the IBM appears to be significantly more precise
than that relying on the IPFM, whatever the considered case. In particular, with the
IBM, in the worst cases considered the RPE does not exceed 10 % when it reaches
50 % with the IPFM. With regards to the accuracy, the two methods performances are
in the same order.
Figure 5. Estimation of the air-gap thickness using a IBM: a) simulated data with the SNR = 33 dB, b)
experimental data. Assembly configurations : tc = 1.5 mm ; tr = 1.5 mm ; t {0, 50, 100, 150, ...500) in m
Table 2. RAE and RPE of the air layer thickness estimations obtained using the IPFM and the IBM and a 5-
frequency approach.

Data IPFM using fi i {1,2,3,4,5} IBM using fi i {1,2,3,4,5}
(RPE% ; RAE%) (RPE% ; RAE%)
Comput.(SNR = 60 dB) 1.24 ; 0.42 0.93 ; 0.36
Comput. (SNR = 33 dB) 28.02 ; -0.20 9.45 ; -10.38
Experim.(SNR=33 dB) 49.16 ; -19.21 6.60 ; -10.03
Data IPFM using fi i {1,2,3,4,5} IBM using fi i {1,2,3,4,5}
(RPE% ; RAE%) (RPE% ; RAE%)
Comput.(SNR = 60 dB) 1.56 ; 0.08 0.06 ; -0.03
Comput.(SNR = 33 dB) 34.13 ; 2.43 2.84 ; 1.10
4. Conclusions
An experimental study of the coupling between a cup core coil eddy current sensor and
a layered conducting assembly (similar to some aeronautical wing assemblies) has been
reported. The analysis of the universal impedance diagram of the sensor has shown that
the normalized impedance distance could be used with a view to the eddy current NDE
of the distance between the conductive parts. These results, which have been confirmed
by finite elements simulation results, led us to propose behavioral models of the
coupling between the eddy current sensor and the layered structure. Furthermore, two
methods for the estimation of the thickness of the distance between parts have been
proposed and implemented. On the one hand, the estimation relied on the inversion of a
polynomial forward behavioral model (IPFM), and on the other hand, an inverse
behavioral model (IBM) was used. As far as the actual problem of the NDE of the
assembly of a coating on a wing rib is concerned, two unknowns are to be estimated:
the air layer thickness and the rib thickness, which may vary from one position on the
inspected structure to another. As a consequence a multi-frequency estimation
approach is necessary. The overall performances of the IBM based estimation method
have proved to be more precise and as accurate as those of the IPFM based method.
Further works will focus on the optimisation of the used EC sensor so as to increase the
SNR of the EC data, as well as considering the elaboration of more accurate learning
data set, so as to reduce the accuracy error. Also, dedicated sensor configurations will
be designed so as to be used on actual aeronautical assembly geometries.
References
[1] Y. Le Diraison, P.-Y. Joubert, D. Placko, Characterization of subsurface defects in aeronautical riveted
lap-joints using multi-frequency eddy current imaging, NDT&E international 42 (2009), 133140.
[2] M. Wrzuszczak, J. Wrzuszczak, Eddy current flaw detection with neural network applications,
Measurement 38 (2005), 132-136.
[3] L. S. Rosado, T. G. Santos, M. Piedade, P. M. Ramos, P. Vilaa, Advanced technique for non-destructive
testing of friction stir welding of metals, Measurement, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available online 13
February 2010.
[4] S.N. Vernon, The universal impedance diagram of the ferrite pot core eddy current transducer, IEEE
trans magn 25(3):263945 (1999).
[5] J. Pavo, S. Gyimothy, Adaptative inversion database for electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation, NDT
& E International 40 (2007), 192202.
[6] P. Huanga, G. Zhanga, Z. Wub, J. Caia, Z. Zhou, Inspection of defects in conductive multi-layered
structures by an eddy current scanning technique: simulation and experiments, NDT&E international
39 (2006), 578584.
[7] I.T. Renakos, T.P. Theodoulidis, S.M. Panas, T.D. Tsiboukis, Impedance inversion in eddy current
testing of layered planar structures via neural networks, NDT&E international 30 (1997), 69-74.
[8] Y. Le Bihan, Study on the Transformer Equivalent Circuit of Eddy Current Nondestructive Evaluation,
NDT&E International 36 (2003), 297302.
[9] C.V. Dood C V, W.E. Deeds, Eddy-current multiple property measurements, International Advances in
Nondestructive Testing 9 (1981), 317-333.
[10] H. L. Libby, Introduction to electromagnetic nondestructive test methods, Wiley, New York, 1971.
[11] P. Y. Joubert, Y. Le bihan, Eddy Current Data Fusion for the Enhancement of Defect Detection in
Complex Metallic Structures, International Journal of Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics 19
(2004), 647 651.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-296
Artificial Heart Valve Testing Using

Electromagnetic Method
Tatiana STRAPACOVA1, Klara CAPOVA, Ladislav JANOUSEK, Milan SMETANA
Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical

Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovak Republic
Abstract. The paper focuses on non-destructive inspection of Bjrk-Shiley

Convexo Concave artificial mechanical heart valves. A new approach for the
inspection based on sweep frequency eddy current testing is proposed. The
standard self inductance pancake probe positioned in proximity of the valve drives
the eddy currents and pick-ups the response signal. The frequency of exciting
current is changed in a wide range. Numerical simulations are carried out to verify
the usefulness of the proposed technique. The gained results presented in the paper
show that there is a clear difference in the amplitude frequency spectrum of the
response signal between the intact valve and the other with a single leg fracture of
the outlet strut.
Keywords. non-destructive inspection, eddy currents, sweep frequency, outlet

strut fractures, Bjrk- Shiley Convexo Concave prosthetic heart valve
Introduction
A dysfunction of the heart valve is a common complication after a heart valve disease.
When the symptoms became intolerable with normal human lifestyle, the malfunction
heart valve is replaced by an artificial one. Artificial heart valves are engineered
mechanical metallic devices or they are made from a biological tissue.
Figure 1. Typical design of the BSCC heart valve and the fracture of the outlet strut.
1
Corresponding Author: Tatiana Strapacova, Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical
Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovak
Republic; E-mail: strapacova@fel.uniza.sk
T. Strapacova et al. / Articial Heart Valve Testing Using Electromagnetic Method 297
One of the artificial mechanical heart valves is the Bjrk-Shiley Convexo

Concave (BSCC) valve, shown in Fig. 1, which was developed in order to improve the
hemodynamic and to reduce the risk of thromboembolism. BSCC was used to replace
the aortic valves or the mitral ones. The BSCC valves have a carbon occluder disc held
in the place by two metallic struts. One of the two struts, the inlet one is integrated into
the valve suture ring, while the outlet one is welded into the suture ring. The suture ring
made of Teflon is sewn to the cardiac tissue to hold the valve in the place.
Approximately 120 thousand patients have received the BSCC [1]; however,
in number of cases (619 patients, [1]) a malfunction of the valve has occurred because
of the outlet strut fractures. The main reason of the outlet strut fractures has not been
determined yet. The process of cyclic slamming open and shut of the occluder disc
during heart function subjects the valve to percussive impact stress, which can cause a
fatigue failure. These failures have been observed at the outlet strut flange junction near
or at the weld. The failure of both struts results in dislodgement of the occluder disc
and embolization of the disc. A dual strut failure results in abrupt onset of dyspnea, loss
of consciousness, or cardiovascular collapse due to embolization of the disc and acute
severe valvular regurgitation. A patient with the dual strut fracture of aortic prosthesis
dies in minutes, but those with strut fracture of mitral prosthesis may survive long
enough to undergo the valve replacement. Several types of mechanical BSCC heart
valve failures have been reported in literature [1]:
1. an outlet strut fracture (OSF), fracture of both legs of the outlet strut, the strut
is completely separated from the flange,
2. a single leg fracture (SLF), fracture of one leg of the outlet strut, both ends
grate against each other,
3. a single leg separation (SLS), fracture of one leg of the outlet strut, both ends
of the fractured strut are separated as displayed in Fig. 1.
Although the function of the valve in the cases 2, 3 can continue under these
conditions, the stress concentration on the intact end of the welded strut is increased
and it is not clear how long the other end of the strut can remain intact. The period of
time between the first and the second fractures is highly variable [1]. Due to this fact
there is a considerable interest, therefore, to develop methods for assessing the state of
the valve in general condition of the outlet strut weld by minimally invasive non-
destructive inspection method. Electromagnetic methods represent a good candidate
[2], [3] for the inspection.
Eddy current non-destructive testing is widely utilized in a variety of
industrial applications. An eddy current probe scans over an inspected surface and the
response signals are evaluated accordingly. However, the conditions of considered
application do not allow such scanning.
A new approach for the non-destructive inspection of BSCC using eddy
current technique is therefore proposed in the paper. It is based on sweep frequency
technique. Numerical simulations are carried out to evaluate the proposal and the
gained results are presented and discussed in the study.
1. Numerical model
Possibilities of the sweep frequency eddy current inspection of BSCC are investigated
in the paper using numerical means. The commercially available software OPERA-3D
based on finite element method is utilized for the purpose.
298 T. Strapacova et al. / Articial Heart Valve Testing Using Electromagnetic Method
Standard self-inductance pancake probe, shown in Fig. 2, is used for the

inspection. Dimensions of the probe are set up according to the dimensions of heart
valve. Dimensions of the catheter which would be used for encapsulations of the coil
are considered as well. The probe is positioned 1 mm above the weld of the outer strut
where a crack is considered to appear. Current density of the exciting signal is kept
constant during the inspection at a value of J = 1 A/mm2, while its frequency is
changed in a wide range starting from 10 kHz up to 500 kHz.
Figure 2. Dimensions of the pancake probe.
A complex model of the BSCC shown in Fig. 3 is developed. The dimensions

and the electromagnetic properties of model are adjusted according to the dimensions
and the material properties of real BSCC heart valve. The materials commonly used for
the BSCC heart valve replacement are Stainless steels, Titanium alloys and Co-Cr
alloys. The developed model considers the electromagnetic parameters of a Co-Cr alloy
Hayness 25; the conductivity is adjusted to = 1.14106 S/m and the relative
permeability to r = 1.
Figure 3. Dimensions of the BSCC heart valve model.

A considered defect is localized at one end of the outlet strut, Fig.3. The
defect is non-conductive, i.e. fatigue crack, and it represents the single leg fracture
(SLF) of the BSCC. Dimensions, an orientation and a depth of the defect are adjusted
according to real conditions that may appear in the outlet strut of BSCC heart valve. A
width of the modelled defect is set to w = 0.1 mm and its depth d is varied from 0.1 up
to 1.9 mm with a step of 0.2 mm in a direction of the leg diameter. The single leg
separation (SLS) is not considered in this study as the attempt of inspection should be
early alarm of fatigue crack development. The numerical calculations were run for the
intact outlet strut (IOS) for comparison as well.
The modelled system considers also real environmental conditions, i.e. the
blood and the tissue of myocardium as it is shown in Fig. 4. Electromagnetic properties
of the blood and the myocardium are adjusted according to their real values presented
in Tab. 1. The myocardium tissue is positioned around suture ring and the blood is
inside the BSCC heart valve.
Table. 1. Properties of the myocardium tissue and the blood for different frequencies.
Figure 4. Model configuration of the cardiovascular system
Numerical simulations of the developed model are carried out to calculate the
probe response signal. The finite element mesh of the simulated problem has
approximately 3 million elements of two types, linear and quadratic ones. The
following section presents the results.
300 T. Strapacova et al. / Articial Heart Valve Testing Using Electromagnetic Method
2. Numerical results
The results of numerical simulations of the model introduced in the previous section
are presented here. Figure 5 shows amplitude frequency spectrum of the probe response
signal in absolute values for four cases. The curve denoted as IOS represents the sweep
frequency response signal for the intact outlet strut. The other three dependences are
the response signals for the single leg fracture (SLF) with different depth of the defect,
i.e. 0.1 mm, 0.5 mm and 1.9 mm. Similar results for the IOS and the SLF with the
defect depth of 1.9 mm but in relative values are shown in Fig. 6. The inductive
component of the probe response signal is dominant and thus the phase frequency
spectrum does not show almost any difference between the IOS and the SLF.
Figure 5. Amplitude frequency spectrum of the probe response signal in absolute values
Figure 6. Amplitude frequency spectrum of the probe response signal in relative values
It is evident from the presented results that there is a clear difference in the
amplitude frequency spectrum between the IOS and the SLF. It should be noted that the
difference is more notable when the depth of defect is increasing. Difference in the
dependences between the IOS and the SLF is largest in a frequency range from 70 kHz
up to 150 kHz.
It can be concluded that the sweep frequency technique is very promising for
the eddy current inspection of the BSCC outer strut. The technique helps to overcome
one problem connected with the eddy current inspection concerning the given
conditions. The scanning over an inspected surface is not needed.
Conclusion
The paper proposed a new approach for a defect detection in Bjrk-Shiley Convexo
Concave artificial heart valve using sweep frequency eddy current technique. This
method detects perturbations in eddy current flow due to a defect in the outlet strut in a
wide frequency range. A model of the valve was developed and the proposed technique
was verified using numerical simulations. Presented results clearly showed that there is
a clear difference in the amplitude frequency spectrum between the intact outlet strut
and the strut with a defect. Experimental measurements are going to be carried out to
confirm the numerical results.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the
contract No. APVV-0194-07.
This work was also supported by grant of the Slovak Grant Agency VEGA, project No.
1/0308/08.
The authors express their thanks to Prof. R. Grimberg for lending the valve prototypes.
References
[1] Paul Van Neer: The Bjrk- Shiley valve: Detecting broken struts using standards diagnostic ultrasound
instruments, MSc Thesis, 2005
[2] Chan Shiu C., Yue Li, Udpa Lalita, Udpa Satish S.: Electromagnetic techniques for detecting strut
failures in artificial heart valve, Studies in Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics Electromagnetic,
Vol. 26, Nondestructive Evaluation, Ed. G. Dobmann, ISBN 1- 58603-594-0
[3] Grimberg R, Lalita Udpa, Adriana Savin, Schiu C. Chan, Rozina Steigmann, Satish S. Udpa :
Noninvasive evaluation of Bjork-Shiley convexo concave prosthetic heart valves, NDT&E, Int.(2009),
doi: 10.1016/j.ndtteint.2009.01.013
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-302
Conceptual Design of an Industrial System

for Automatic Radiogram Analysis
Ryszard SIKORA, Tomasz CHADY, Piotr BANIUKIEWICZ, Marcin CARYK,
Przemysaw OPATO, Lech NAPIERAA, Tomasz PIETRUSEWICZ
and Grzegorz PSUJ
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology,
al. Piastw 17, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. In this work a conceptual design of an Intelligent System for Radiogram

Analysis (ISAR) is presented. ISAR is a complete system, containing both
hardware and software solutions, that aims to support radiologists in their work.
On the hardware side, we have a PC station with digital radiography scanner. The
software side consists of application, that supports variety of scanner standards and
implements number of functions designed to augment human-based defect
recognition. ISAR also evaluates welds quality and returns information about
welding defects to the database. Classification of defects is based on fuzzy logic
standards. In this paper, hardware integration and implemented functions are
described.
Keywords. Radiogram, Non-Destructive Inspection, IQI, image processing
Introduction
Non-destructive techniques of radiography inspection are widely used for damage

detection in ship, car and aircraft metal structures. Among many kinds of defects and
damages, it is also possible to detect weld defects using of industrial radiography
technique [1]. The process of welded joints quality assessment must be very fast and
accurate. Furthermore, type, size and acceptance level must be also determined for any
heterogeneity in weld. The aim of ISAR project (Intelligent System for Radiogram
Analysis, in Polish: Inteligentny System Analizy Radiogramw) is a creation of an
intelligent expert system of recognition and rating of welds defects.
There are various systems for radiography inspection of welding joints, including
automatic analysis [2 5]. The ISAR is dedicated for shipbuilding industry in Poland.
Integration between software and hardware is an important part of a concept of ISAR.
Our system is composed of many different elements, all of which have to interoperate
with designed software. It contains many image processing, analysis and recognition
modules, full list of which can be seen in Section 2.2.
All components of our system, both hardware and software, are integrated via
single computer program, being core of our system. Software modules are easily
integrated due to certain programmistic regime: all functions are in separate C++ files
and written with use of an uniform template. This ensures easy integrability, as those
R. Sikora et al. / Conceptual Design of an Industrial System for Automatic Radiogram Analysis 303
can be both copied line by line to source code of core application, or compiled and
included as libraries.
1. Hardware
The ISAR system requires hardware and software of highest quality, which allows one
to obtain high-quality results. On the hardware side we have: a PC computer with 6-
core 2.8GHz processor, 24 GB DDR3 RAM and graphical card with CUDA support;
iCR 3600 image plate scanner [6]; Rad-Icon Shad-o-Box 1024 x-ray image sensor;
Eltec P3I3 frame grabber; any TWAIN-interface scanner. Each of these components
needed a different approach when it came to integration with designed software. The
image plate scanner iCR 3600 was integrated using dedicated iCR software. Our
program calls certain iCR program to handle all technical issues and leave the result in
a tiff file. This is then read from hard drive by our software, which is transparent from
the users point of view.
The Rad-Icon Shad-o-Box 1024 was integrated via software development kit
provided by Eltec P3I3 frame grabbers manufacturer. The TWAIN interface was
implemented with use of a TWAIN Groups documentation and include files [7].
Figure 1 presents hardware used by ISAR.
2. Software
2.1. Requirements of ISAR-software
ISAR application is build of many self-contained functions written in C++ environment

and integrated in one software solution to create complete intelligent system. All
algorithms implemented in our software take advantage of parallel computing
whenever its applicable. The application was build for Windows x64 platform.
The independence of functions gives the possibility of applications of different
image processing procedure for each radiogram separately. We can also test all
functions in Matlab software before using them in ISAR complete system. In Section
2.2 a select set of ISAR-functions are presented.
2.2. Implemented functions
The Software side consists of application, that supports variety of scanner standards
and implements a number of functions designed to augment human-based defect
recognition. Those can be separated into few groups, namely: linear and nonlinear
filtering algorithms (preliminary image processing), thresholding algorithms, quality of
Figure 1. The view of the hardware used by ISAR.

304 R. Sikora et al. / Conceptual Design of an Industrial System for Automatic Radiogram Analysis
image evaluation, as well as some specialized functions, such as IQI search function
(that automatically detects and removes image quality indicators according to the
standard). After the preliminary processing the image is shown and ISAR decides on
welds quality and returns information about welding defects to the data base.
2.2.1. Preliminary image processing

Image processing plays an important role in detecting weld flaws in radiograms. The
quality of the images are enhanced by linear and nonlinear filters. The ISAR software
implements high pass and low pass convolution filters (in spatial and frequency domain,
with changeable mask size), Gauss, Laplace, LoG, Kirsch, Sobel, Prewitt filters. Figure
5b in Section 2.2.2 shows the effect of high pass filtering. Our system is also able to
perform morphological operations.
In our system, a weighted median filters with definable mask shape are
implemented. This type of filters may be used for noise removal (smaller mask size) or
background image calculation (bigger mask size). In order to obtain background image
or determine center and other regions of the weld - an approximation procedure was
carried out. Each line of the weld profile is approximated using the following or similar
formula (Figure 2):
( x b) 2
f ( x) = a exp + dx + e
c
(1)

where:
a, , e approximation coefficients,
x normalized position,
f(x) approximated intensity of image.
For minimalization of Root Mean Square Error MSE between signal and intensity
approximation, multidimensional Rosenbrock optimization algorithm was used with
equation (1). Exemplary results are shown in Figure 3. The image obtained by
subtracting the approximated image from the original one is also presented. Higher
Figure 2. Approximation of weld profile.

Figure 3. Results of X-ray weld image approximation.
contrast and visibility of defects can be observed.

To normalize radiographic images of welded parts the authors propose the use of
image normalization function according to histogram point Ibase. The gray level value
Ibase is equal to a point for which histogram has maximum value or is calculated as a
mean value on determined image area. The value Inew base corresponds to gray level
value of welding part (background). The procedure of image normalization is shown on
Figure 4.
An important parameter describing the radiogram taken into analysis is the signal-
to-noise ratio. This parameter is also defined by the norm - EN-14784-1. According to
this norm SNR is evaluated between background of radiographic image and useful
signal which is, in most cases, the signal from the specimen. There are some
restrictions on choosing those regions. Firstly, the size of ROI should be at least 20x55
pixels, which gives 1100 values. Moreover, selected ROIs have to be the best
representatives of background and specimen for example the most important part of
the specimen should be used for calculating the SNR. Selected ROI is assumed to be
series of 55 datasets (groups) containing 20 values each. For every group i, the mean
Figure 4. Image normalization procedure: a) histogram after moving Ibase to Inew base, b) algorithm.
value Imean i is evaluated as well as standard deviation i. Values of i have to be

corrected by coefficient following from statistical analysis of filtration obtained as a
result of data grouping (2).
corr = 1.0179 i
i
(2)
Then, the final value of Imean is calculated as median value of all Imean i. In the same
way, the final value of is evaluated. This value should be related to spatial resolution
of digital radiogram. Thus, yields to:
SR = ( SRmax / 88.6 ) (3)
Where SRmax stands for spatial resolution (in m) measured perpendicularly and
horizontally to scanning direction. Finally, the normalized SNR is evaluated as:
I mean
SNR = (4)
SR
2.2.2. Thresholding
Thresholding is an important step in almost every algorithm designed for image
analysis, radiogram defect detection being no exception. In our software a variety of
thresholding algorithms, both local and global, have been implemented. Among those:
- Iterative thresholding computes global threshold in iterative way. Its starting
threshold is located in the middle of images dynamic range. In each iteration new
threshold is computed using the average of mean values of background and foreground
found with previous threshold. Algorithm stops when difference between nth and n+1st
threshold is sufficiently small [8].
- Otsu thresholding computes global threshold by minimizing weighted sum of
within-class variance of background and foreground [8].
- Niblack thresholding computes local threshold according to local mean and
local standard deviation over a specific window with use of following formula [9]:
T (i, j ) = m (i, j ) + k (i, j ) (5)
- Sauvola thresholding is an expansion of Niblacks thresholding, uses modified

formula [10]:
(i, j )
T (i, j ) = m(i, j ) + 1 + k 1 (6)
R
Figure 5c shows the result of Sauvola thresholding.

2.2.3. IQI detection

IQIsn function detects how many wires from single IQI are visible on radiographic
image according to CNR (Contrast to Noise Ratio) [11, 12]. First the background of
part radiographic image containing IQI is generated. This is done by using a median
filter with the longitudinal mask. Then the background is subtracted from input image,
and the CNR is calculated for each wire. The number of visible wires depends on the
minimum calculated value of CNR. Figure 6 shows an example of an image before and
after the operation. Table 1 shows results for example image where function detected 5
wires.
Figure 5. Example of implemented functions work: a) original image, b) results of high pass filtering,
c) results of Sauvola thresholding.
Figure 6. IQI detection example: a) original image, b) after IQI detection preprocessing.
Table 1. Results of IQI detection on image from Figure 6.

Wire 1 2 3 4 5
MidPos 76 195 310 421 531
Thicknes[mm] 0,4 0,32 0,25 0,2 0,16
CNR 12,2 10,52 7,17 6,79 1,99
3. Conclusions
The conception of ISAR system is prepared to apply in industrial non-destructive

testing. Presented functions do not encompass entire functionality of presented system,
as it is freely expandable due to described programmistic approach. Final effect of
ISAR project will be a complete intelligent system.
Functions described in this text can effectively improve the quality of X-ray
radiograms and assist in the extraction of information concerning defects in the weld.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education and Science, Poland, under
grant N R01 0037 06 (20092012).
References
[1] Alaknanda, R.S. Anand, Pradeep Kumar, Flaw detection in radiographic weld images using
morphological approach, NDT&E International 39 (2006), 2933.
[2] Dong Du, Guo-rui Cai, Yuan Tian, Run-shi Hou, Li Wang, Automatic Inspection of Weld Defects with
X-Ray Real-Time Imaging, Lecture Notes in Control and Information Sciences, Vol. 362/2007, 359-
366 (2007)
[3] R. D. Bowman, B. A. Bennett, M. E. Stevenson, Radiographic inspection in failure investigations,
Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention. Vol. 3, Number 3, 73-77
[4] GE Sensing & Inspection Technologies. Inspection Technologies Productivity through inspection
solutions. Advanced nondestructive imaging, http://www.ge-mcs.com/download/it-common/GEIT-
10012EN ndt-brochure.pdf
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Flaw detection,.NDT&E International, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 183-192 (1998).
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evaluation, Journal of Electronic Imaging 13(1), 146165 (January 2004).
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comparative study, IV Conferencia Panamericana de END Buenos Aires Octubre 2007.
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Dependent Contrast Reduction and Additional Unsharpness by Scattered Radiation in Radiography -
Film and Digital Detectors in Comparison, 17th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, 25-28
Oct 2008, Shanghai, China.
Material Characterization
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-311
Quantification of Sigma Phase

Precipitation by Magnetic Non
Destructive Testing
Joo M. A. REBELLOa,1, Rodrigo SACRAMENTOa, Maria C. L. AREIZAa, K.
SANTOS DE ASSISa
a
Non-destructive Testing, Corrosion and Welding Laboratory Department of
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering COPPE/UFRJ Federal University of Rio
de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro/RJ - Brazil
Abstract. Duplex stainless steels (DSS) are two-phase materials the

microstructure of which consists of grains of ferrite () and austenite (). DSS
exhibit a combination of attractive properties: strength, toughness and ductility,
stress corrosion cracking resistance and low cost, when compared to the
conventional stainless steel. DSS are increasingly used in the oil refinery industry,
mainly due to their economical combination of strength and corrosion resistance
even in H2S containing environments. However, DSS attain these attractive
properties after a controlled solution heat treatment carried out during
manufacture, leading to an equal and balanced proportion of the volume fractions
of and phases. Regarding the DSS magnetic properties, it is known that is
ferromagnetic and is paramagnetic. Any further heat treatment carried out after
manufacture, welding operation for example, will change the original 50% and
base metal phase proportion. So the weld heat affected zone microstructure, where
temperatures reach values between 300C and 1000C give origin to non-balanced
and phases. Besides, exposition to these high temperatures may lead to
precipitation of a deleterious phase, named sigma (), and when this occurs the
material becomes brittle and its corrosion resistance to H2S is severely impaired. In
the present work, the degradation of the material was intentionally obtained by
thermally treating DSS specimens, at temperatures ranging from 750C up to
800C, after solution heat treatment at 1200C giving rise to different phase
contents. These specimens were analyzed by optical microscopic techniques to
determine the volumetric fraction of the phase. The results showed that samples
heat treated in this way, exhibited volumetric fraction of phase ranging from
zero to 15.63%. In parallel, eddy currents (EC) testing and swept frequency
analyses were employed to detect phase. A probe consisting of one coil, with
cylindrical geometry, 1000 wire turns and a ferrite core of 10mm diameter was
designed for the implementation of this technique. The probe exhibited its higher
sensitivity at low frequencies around 4 kHz and its inductance was 22.42 mH. The
results showed that magnetic testing is a reliable technique to detect and quantify
the phase in DSS.
Keywords. Eddy Current, duplex stainless steel, sigma phase
Introduction
DSS present a good combination of mechanical properties and high corrosion
resistance due to the presence of two phases ( and ) in their microstructure [1], and
1
Metallurgy and Materials Dept.Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. COPPE/EE/UFRJ. PO BOX 68505
CEP 21941-972. Rio de Janeiro, RJ BRAZIL E-mail: jmarcos@metalmat.ufrj.br
312 J.M.A. Rebello et al. / Quantication of Sigma Phase Precipitation
are widely used in the marine and petrochemical industries. Such microstructure
consisting of two different phases, and , with very different physical properties
(austenite presents high electric conductivity and low magnetic permeability and ferrite
presents low electric conductivity and high magnetic permeability) renders the
inspection through non-destructive testing techniques, difficult.
DSS best properties are obtained in solution with approximately equal
proportions of phases and [2,3]. Welding operation may lead to microstructural
changes of the base metal and heat affected zone (HAZ), changing the balance of and
phases and/or causing the precipitation of deleterious phases due to steel exposition to
temperatures ranging from 300 C to 1000 C. The most harmful of the deleterious
phases that can be originated in the material microstructure is phase, because it
presents higher volumetric fraction than others and its precipitation causes chromium
depletion in the adjacent regions, impairing mechanical and corrosion properties of the
material.
The presence of phase causes a change of the electromagnetic properties of
DSS. Ferrite is ferromagnetic while austenite and phase are paramagnetic. Thus an
increase in phase percent and the resulting decrease in phase volumetric fraction
render the material behavior more paramagnetic. This characteristic makes the EC
technique an interesting non destructive tool for the detection of material degradation
caused by an increase in phase percent.
1. Theoretical review
1.1. Duplex Stainless Steels
Commercial DSS present chromium content, which is an element that favors the
formation of phase, varying from 17% to 30%, nickel content, which is an element
that favors the formation of phase, varying from 3% to 13% and molybdenum
content, which is also a ferrite former element, varying from 2% to 4%, while
manganese and silicon are used for alloy deoxidation [4].
Due to their good combination of properties, DSS have been increasingly used
in the chemical, power generation and on off-shore industries [1]. In the off-shore
industry, DSS are used both, in oil and gas production and processing and
transportation, in the production of water and water systems at the sea, in the
manufacture of subsea umbilical and submerged components without cathodic
protection, among others [5]. These steels have also been used successfully in the
petroleum refining industry in pipes, plates, pressure vessels and heat exchangers in
corrosive environments containing H2S and water with chloride [6,7].
Maehara [9] reported the relationship between the toughness at room
temperature and the volumetric fraction of phase. A decrease in the impact energy
absorbed by the material even for a small increase in the phase volume fraction was
observed. These measurements were made at room temperature.
J.M.A. Rebello et al. / Quantication of Sigma Phase Precipitation 313
1.2. Magnetic properties
As already said, the two phases present in DSS microstructure show very different
magnetic properties. Austenite, phase presents high electric conductivity and low
magnetic permeability and phase presents low electric conductivity and high
magnetic permeability [3]. Besides, phase shows a ferromagnetic behavior while
phase shows a paramagnetic behavior [10, 11].
When both phases are in equal proportion or with a higher phase percent
DSS show a ferromagnetic behavior. The presence of phase causes a change in the
balance between and , and consequently the magnetic properties of the steel also
change. Some authors mention phase as non-magnetic [8, 10, 11, 12], so an increase
in its volumetric fraction causes a decrease in the ferromagnetic behavior of the
material. Some papers [12,13] show that magnetic saturation of DSS is proportional to
volumetric fraction, and thus its decrease due to an increase in phase causes a
change of the magnetic properties of the material. Mszros [12] obtained
magnetization curves for DSS with different phase percents using the vibrating
sampler magnometer (VSM) technique. From those magnetization curves, a
quantitative correlation between the values of magnetization in the saturation region of
the curves and phase percent in different samples was obtained. It was observed a
good correlation between saturation induction and ferrite content obtained with VSM
and phase content [12].
The magnetic properties of phases and are well described in literature,

however the magnetic properties of phase, and its influence on the properties of DSS
need to be further studied. The only mention founded in the literature about this matter
was from Todorov [11], who showed that a qualitatively correlation exists between
phase percent and conventional EC parameters.
2. Materials and methodology
2.1. Materials
- Eight DSS samples, specification UNS 31803, with length 50 mm, width 32 mm and
thickness 4 mm were used. Table 1 shows the correspondingly chemical composition.
Table 1. Chemical Composition of DSS (UNS S31803)

Element C Si Mn Ni Mo Cr
UNS S 31803
0.034 0.283 1.78 5.58 2.87 22.02
(%wt)
- Heat treatment furnace with maximum temperature of 1300C;
- Optical microscope (OM), ZEISS Axio Imager, with working station and software for
image acquisition, processing and analysis (Axio Vision and Image Pro);
- Scanning electron microscope (SEM) of 30 kV with low vacuum capacity, ZEISS

EMA-25, equipped with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy detection system (EDS),
Oxford Inca Synergy 350 integrated system;
- EC equipment, Olympus Omniscan MX;
- Impedance analyzer HP 4295A;
- EC probe customized for material characterization;
2.2. Methodology
Heat treatments
Initially the eight samples were submitted to a preliminary solution heat treatment
aiming at obtaining a percent balance of approximately 50% of both and phases.
The solution heat treatment was conducted at 1120 C during one hour, followed by
water quenching. Six samples received additional aging heat treatments which
introduced different amounts of phase volumetric fractions.
Table 2 shows the correlation between the different heat treatments and the
percentage of each phase obtained in all the samples used in this study.
Table 2. Correlation between samples, heat treatments and phase content.

Sample Temperature Time of Austenite Ferrite Sigma phase
of heat heat
treatment treatment
1 1120 C 1h 44.56% 55.44% 0%
2 1120 C 1h 44.51% 55.49% 0%
3 800 C h 43.38% 55.92% 0.70%
4 800 C h 43.56% 55.69% 0.75%
5 800 C 1h 49.10% 42.46% 8.44%
6 800 C 1h 45.76% 45.88% 8.36%
7 750 C 2h 47.25% 37.12% 15.63%
8 750 C 2h 47.28% 37.64% 15.08%
Metallographic analysis
A small portion (15 mm long, 5 mm wide and 4 mm thick) was removed from each
sample so that they could be examined through SEM, EDS and OM. For this purpose
the conventional method of mechanical polishing were used followed by an electrolytic
chemical attack in 30% solution of NaOH 3V over a time varying from 5 to 60
seconds in order to reveal their microstructures. ASTM A 923 standard was followed in
these procedures [14].
After preparation the samples were examined by OM and 30 images were
randomly captured in different regions of the transversal section of each sample. Those
images were used for counting the phases volumetric fraction in the microstructure as
specified by ASTM E1245-03 [15]. Besides OM, SEM images were obtained and EDS
analysis were made.
Probe simulation
In this study the simplest geometrical shape for probe design, e.g, a cylindrical metallic
bobbin core was used, and the mathematical model adopted was an azimuthal
approximation. Figure 1 shows the principal regions of the model: (A) a ferritic core,
(B) a bobbin with N turns, and (C) the air.
The vertical axis corresponds to the symmetrical axis, and the horizontal axis
is the parameter r, so, all of the components are in the rz plane. An alternated induced
current is applied on B region in the normal direction to the rz plane. The
corresponding generated magnetic field is more intense in the core region. (Fig. 1,
right).
The mathematical calculation of the induced current follows equation 1, which
is the time-harmonic formulation (Vloop) in a quasi-static operational condition. It
contains the Curl of the magnetic vector potential. In this equation is the angular
frequency, the conductivity, the permeability, the permittivity, and Vloop the
voltage applied to the coil. Outside the coil and core, is set to zero.
& & & .Vloop

( j 2 ) A + ( 1 A ) = Je = (1)
2r
r(mm)
Core
Coil
Figure 1. Azimutal model for EC simulations.
The current induced, I, is calculated from the current density, J e (Eq. 2)

&e &
J
S
.ds = I (2)
The model has to define the boundary condition for the outer border, called
magnetic insulation. This implies that the magnetic vector potential is zero at the
boundary, corresponding to a zero magnetic flux (Eq. 3). Other boundary condition is
the symmetry of the magnetic potential vector with respect to the z axis. Finally, the
magnetic potential must be continuous (Eq. 4) inside A, B and C regions, e.g., the core,
the copper wires, and surrounding air.
(3)
n H = 0
n ( H1 H 2 ) = 0 (4)
Probe construction
A probe consisting of one coil, with cylindrical geometry, 1000 wire turns and a
metallic core of 10 mm diameter was designed for the implementation of this
technique. The internal radius was 5 mm and the external radius 5 mm. The material of
the core was ANSI 1045 type. Swept frequency measurement was made to detect the
region of frequencies with high sensitivity. The probe exhibited its higher sensitivity at
low frequencies, around 4 kHz and its inductance was 22.42 mH, figure 2. But,
regarding the second derivative curve, there is also a point at 2kHz where a good
option for high sensitivity measurements is possible, as another alternative to be used.
Figure 2. Swept frequency measurement, probe at air.

Measurement of magnetic field attenuation
The magnetic field generated by the coil is attenuated when it spreads through
the ferrous material. This magnetic field attenuation was measured in samples of DSS
with 4 mm of thickness and (4x4) mm of area. BRelative was the parameter used for the
quantitative evaluation of the interaction of the magnetic field with the material, it is
defined by equation 5, where BAir is the magnetic flux density measured at air and
BMaterial is the magnetic flux density measured in contact with the material. The
schematic representation of the setup is shown in figure 3. The measurements of
magnetic flux density were made with a FW Bell Gaussmeter (Model 6010) and the
current source was the Agilent 33250A. The current of the probe was setup at 10 Vpp
and 40 Hz.
BRe lative( Air ) =

(BAir BMaterial )
B Air (5)
Figure 3. Schematic setup for the measurements of magnetic attenuation. (A) Direct measurement of the
magnetic field generated by the bobbin; (B) Magnetic measurements at the backside of the sample.
Measurement of conventional EC
In this test, the EC signal produced at a point distant from the conductive samples
(signal in air, Fig. 3A) was taken as reference and then, the probe was brought in
contact to each of the eight samples surface (Fig. 3B). The amplitude and phase angle
of those signals were measured. In order to statistically improve the results 30
measurements were taken for each sample and at the end, the average was calculated
obtaining the final value for amplitude and phase of each sample.
Then, the values obtained during the EC tests were correlated with the
percentage of phase in each sample.
Measurement of swept-frequency
Swept frequency measurements were made in a range of 40Hz until 30kHz. Two
different electrical parameters were analyzed: impedance and inductance, using the
same setup described for EC.
In equation 6, a parameter LRelative was defined, in order to compare the value
of the inductance at one specific frequency (2 and 4 kHz). Similar parameter was
defined for the electrical impedance (ZRelative).
LRe lative ( Air ) =

(LAir LMaterial ) Z Re lative ( Air ) =
(Z Air Z Material )
(6)
LAir Z Air
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Metallographic analysis
Figure 4 shows the SEM image of sample 1, where phases and in approximately the
same proportion can be observed in the DSS microstructure.
Figure 4. SEM image of sample 1.
Figure 5 shows a SEM micrograph of Sample 6 (S6) and its respective EDS
spectra. In this figure, quantitative EDS analyses were performed in three points, each
one representing one of the three focused phases. Point 1 represents phase,
demonstrated in the spectrum by the presence of chromium, smaller presence of nickel
and presence of molybdenum. Point 2 represents phase, demonstrated by higher
nickel and smaller chromium presence when compared to point 1. Point 3 represents
phase, demonstrated by chromium presence similar to point, higher presence of
molybdenum and smaller nickel presence.
Figure 5. SEM image indicating the Sample 6 points where EDS analyses were conducted and their
respective spectra.
3.2. Conventional EC
Figure 6A shows the lift-off signals obtained in the EC test for samples 2, 4, 6 and 8. In
this figure the signals are shown in the impedance plane, characteristic of EC
technique. The same signals of the impedance plane are presented through the
components of the plane (resistive or inductive) as shown in figure 6B. A frequency of

4 kHz with a gain of 32dB and a 4V drive were used to obtain those results.
Figure 6 shows that EC technique was able to differentiate the four samples
tested in this study, which received different heat treatments and thus exhibited
different volumetric fraction of phase. It is worth mentioning that the inductive
component (XL , Fig. 7B) of the EC test was the most sensitive to detect small
variations in phase contents, compared to the resistive component.
Figure 6. Lift-off signals obtained for the four samples through the EC technique with frequency
of 4 kHz. (A) Impedance plane; (B) Resistive and inductive components.
3.2. Swept-Frequency
Swept frequency measurements were made in a range from up to 30 kHz. Two

different electrical parameters were analyzed: impedance and inductance. Figure 7
shows the good differentiation of the samples with different volumetric fraction of
phase, for frequencies up to 9kHz.
Figure 7. Sweep frequency measurements of inductance.

Figure 8 shows the values of the relative parameters, LRelative and ZRelative (Eq.
6) for the two best operation frequencies, as indicated in figure 2. At 2 kHz, 28% of
signal difference was obtained between a sample without phase and the samples 7
and 8, 15.63% and 15.08% of phase, respectively. A higher sensitivity was observed
in the measurement with small phase content. For this case, we observed a change of
almost 6% in the electrical parameters reported.
Figure 8. Attenuation of electrical parameters with the influence of phase (Equation 6)
Small contents of phase are enough to change the electrical impedance and
inductance. This behavior is not caused by an increase in phase of the material, but by
the presence of the deleterious phase. Figure 9 shows the attenuation produced by
phase (Eq. 5), and this result was obtained after 10 measurements for each sample and
the standard deviation was less than 2%. The attenuation of magnetic field is strongly
dependant on volumetric fraction of phase. This is in agreement with the previous
results of conventional EC and swept frequency. The absolute value of magnetic field
attenuation, observed in figure 9, could be a function of the thickness sample, and this
implies that for 4 mm we observe 10 % of difference of attenuation. But for a thicker
sample a greater absorption of magnetic field by the material could be observed
Figure 9. Measurements of BRelative (Equation 5) as function of phase content.

4. Conclusions
- Sigma phase is responsible for the differences in the magnetic attenuation

within DSS;
- Swept frequency measurements have shown to be an efficient tool for the
characterization of DSS in the range of 0.70% to 15.63% of volume fraction
of sigma phase;
- The eddy current technique has proved to be equally able to detect and
quantify sigma phase in DSS samples;
- Low frequencies are more suitable for reliable material characterizations when
using 2kHz and 4kHz probe frequency;
- Differences of 28.9% and 33.7% in the signal for the inductance (L) and
impedance (Z) parameters respectively were observed for the samples
containing sigma phase in relation to air.
References
[1] V. CHIAVERINI, Aos e Ferros Fundidos, So Paulo, 2005.

[2] H. Sieurin, Sigma phase precipitation in duplex stainless steel 2205, Materials Science and Engineering
A444 (2006), 271-276.
[3] K.S. de Assis, Caracterizao por Correntes Parasitas da Degradao Microestrutural de Aos Duplex,
10 COTEQ (2009).
[4] C.H. Shek, Review of Temperature Indicators and the Use of Duplex Stainless Steels for Life Assessment,
Materials Science & Engineering 19 (1996), 153 200.
[5] M. Tystad, Application of Duplex Stainless Steel in the Off-Shore Industry, Stainless Steel World KCI
Publishing (1997).
[6] API American Petroleum Institute, Use of Duplex Stainless Steels in the Oil Refining Industry, API
Technical Report 938-C (2005).
[7] T.H. Chen, The effect of High Temperature Exposure on the Microstructural Stability and Toughness
Property in a 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel, Materials Science & Engineering A338 (2002), 259 270.
[8] C.M. Souza Jr., The Phase Formation in Annealed UNS S31803 Duplex Stainless Steel: Texture
Aspects, Materials Characterization 59 (2007), pp. 1301 1306.
[9] Y. Maehara, Precipitation of Phase in a 25Cr-7Ni-3Mo Duplex Phase Stainless Steel, Tetsu-to-Hagan
67 (1981).
[10] N. Sathirachinda, Depletion effects at phase boundaries in 2205 duplex stainless steel characterized with
SKPFM and TEM/EDS, Corrosion Science 51 (2009), 1850 1860.
[11] E.I. Todorov, Correlation between NDT Measurements and Sigma Phase Contents in Duplex Stainless
Steels, Review of Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation 28 (2009), 1259 1266.
[12] I. Mszros, Magnetic Characterization of Duplex Stainless Steel, Physica B 372 (2006), 181 184.
[13] I. Mszros, Complex Magnetic and Microstructural Investigation of Duplex Stainless Steel, NDT & E
International 38 (2005), 517 521.
[14] ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Test Methods for Detecting Detrimental
Intermetallic Phase in Duplex Austenitic/Ferritic Stainless Steels, ASTM A 923 03 (2003).
[15] ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Practice for Determining the Inclusion
or Second Phase Constituent Content of Metals by Automatic Image Analysis, ASTM E 1245 03
(2006).
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-322
Nondestructive Characterization of Neutron

Induced Embrittlement in Nuclear Pressure
Vessel Steel Microstructure by using
Electromagnetic Testing
I. ALTPETER1, G. DOBMANN, G. HBSCHEN, M. KOPP and R. TSCHUNCKY
Fraunhofer-Institut fr Zerstrungsfreie Prfverfahren, Saarbrcken, Germany
Abstract. Using nuclear power for energy generation, pressure vessel walls are
exposed to neutron fluences of different levels depending on the distance to the
core. Hence materials undergo a change of microstructure in terms of
embrittlement, to be measured as toughness reduction and shift of the Ductileto-
Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) to higher temperatures. Normally plant
safety concerning this change in microstructure is ensured by destructive testing of
surveillance samples. These are standard tensile and Charpy specimens which
consist of exactly the same material as the pressure vessel and its weldments,
being exposed to accelerated irradiation rates within special irradiation channels
allowing a pronounced ageing. During revision downtime of the plant these
samples are tested destructively in standard tensile tests at 423 K and 548 K
respectively or by measuring the impact energy as a function of temperature in
Charpy tests to determine the shift of DBTT. It is demonstrated that
electromagnetic parameters allow characterizing the changes in the microstructure
generated through neutron irradiation. After a defined calibration process a
quantitative characterization of the embrittlement especially in terms of DBTT is
possible. This has been demonstrated for reactor pressure vessel steels according
to western design as well as to eastern specifications. As testing methods 3MA
(Micromagnetic, Multiparameter, Microstructure and stress Analysis) and
dynamic magnetostriction using EMATs (ElectroMagnetic Acoustic Transducers)
have been applied.
Keywords. EMAT, 3MA, neutron embrittlement, pressure vessel
Introduction
Nondestructive material characterization techniques have traditionally been employed

to detect, classify and size defects in materials. However in the last two decades a
significant amount of effort has been invested to develop NDT techniques which can
reliably characterize materials in terms of properties describing the fitness for use. In
the case of power plant components, such as pressure vessels and pipes, the fitness for
use under mechanical loads is characterized in terms of the determination of
mechanical properties such as mechanical hardness, yield and tensile strength,
toughness, shift of Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT), fatigue strength.
1
Corresponding Author.
I. Altpeter et al. / Nondestructive Characterization of Neutron Induced Embrittlement 323
With the exception of hardness tests which are weakly invasive, all of these parameters
can be determined within surveillance programs by using destructive tests on special
standardized samples (Charpy specimens). The specimens are exposed in special
radiation chambers near the core of the nuclear power plant (NPP) to a higher neutron
flow than at the surface of the pressure vessel wall. From time to time these specimens
are removed from the chambers and used for destructive tests. The number of the
Charpy specimens is limited and in the future it will be very important that
nondestructive methods are available to determine the mechanical material parameters
on these Charpy specimens. Furthermore in situ characterization of the reactor pressure
vessel inner wall through the cladding is of interest additionally to the measurements
on Charpy specimens.
To solve this task a combination testing method based on 3MA (Micromagnetic,
Multiparameter, Microstructure and stress Analysis) [1] and dynamic magnetostriction
by using an EMAT (ElectroMagnetic Acoustic Transducer) [2] was developed.
Electromagnetic methods have a high potential to characterize neutron induced
microstructure states.
1. Assessment of the Embrittlement
In addition to the mechanical properties, the embrittlement phenomenon also influences

the magnetic properties. Even the smallest changes in the materials state can affect the
magnetic domain structure. Micromagnetic test methods have a high potential to detect
the change of microstructure defects e.g. precipitations since they sensitively react to
changes of the domain wall (which separate the magnetic domains) configuration.
Therefore electromagnetic procedures could potentially be used to assess the material
embrittlement. The neutron induced embrittlement results in microstructure changes.
These microstructure changes lead to the generation of vacancies and precipitations of
Cu-rich coherent particles (radius: 1-1.5 nm). This results in an increase of yield
strength and tensile strength, a decrease of Charpy energy upper shelf value and an
increase of the shift of DBTT by 41 joule (T41). The potential of electromagnetic
testing methods for detection of microstructure states is based on the analogy between
the interaction of dislocation with microstructure states and of Bloch-walls with
microstructure states. Similar to the movements of dislocations under mechanical load
Bloch-walls move under magnetization. Therefore an analogy exists between
mechanical technological values (e.g. hardness values) and magnetic values. So the
interaction between dislocations and copper particles leads to an increase of mechanical
hardness and the interaction of the copper particles and Bloch-walls leads to an
increase of magnetic hardness. The potential of electromagnetic testing methods for the
detection of copper precipitations was demonstrated on the Cu-rich pressure vessel and
piping steel 15 NiCuMoNb 5 (1.65 weight % Cu) [3]. The analogy between mechanical
and magnetic hardness is shown in the behavior of both hardness values as function of
simulated service time at 673 K (see Figure 1). The hardness maximum is in the order
of a service time of 1000 h.
324 I. Altpeter et al. / Nondestructive Characterization of Neutron Induced Embrittlement
Simulated service time at 673 K [h]

Figure 1. Magnetic coercivity compared with the mechanical hardness for the detection of copper
precipitations in Cu-rich pressure vessel and piping steel 15 NiCuMoNb 5 (1.65 weight % Cu).
Mechanical hardness: circles, magnetic hardness: squares.
Since the dynamic magnetostriction using an EMAT is sensitive for lattice defects
it was assumed that a magnetostrictively excited standing wave in the pressure vessel
wall also reflects the neutron embrittlement and first experiments were performed with
a special designed magnetostrictive transducer at Charpy specimens in the hot cell in
order to principally demonstrate the potential.
Using several electromagnetic measurements at the same time, a variety of
measuring quantities is derived for each measurement cycle. When combined, they
achieve the desired result (e.g. material property) more efficiently compared to
individual measurement. By using a calibration function or pattern recognition the
desired quantity of an unknown set of samples investigated by that method can be
detected nondestructively.
2. NDT Characterization of the Neutron Irradiation Induced Embrittlement
Depending on the specific design of a pressure vessel which varies in different

countries the pressure vessel material in nuclear power plants is exposed to neutron
fluences in the range between 5.61018 n/cm2 and 86.01018 n/cm2. In order to
characterize the neutron irradiation-induced embrittlement, Charpy specimens exposed
to neutron fluence in the above mentioned range have been investigated in a hot cell at
AREVA NP GmbH whereby only the 3MA and EMAT sensors were arranged within
the hot cell and the electronic equipments (3MA and EMAT device) was outside (see
Figure 2). These Charpy specimens (base material and weldments) of eastern and
western design have been provided by AREVA NP GmbH and Research Centre
Dresden-Rossendorf e.V. (see Table 1)[4].
3MA testing device
EMAT testing device
Neutron irradiated Charpy-specimens of

reactor pressure vessel materials of
western and eastern design
Base material and weldments
Figure 2. Used equipment for electromagnetic measurements in the hot cell
Sample set of neutron irradiated base material

Material Short term Neutron- Range
fluence [n/cm] T41 [K]
22 NiMoCr 3 7 P7 0 40.3 x 1018 0 - 32
20 MnMoNi 5 5 P141 0 10.7 x 1018 0-9
22 NiMoCr 3 7 P147 0 43.8 x 1018 0 - 23
ASTM A508 C1.3 JFL 0 86.0 x 1018 0 - 78

(22 NiMoCr 3 7)
ASTM A533B C1.1 JRQ 0 98.0 x 1018 0 - 221
(20 MnMoNi 5 5 )
Sample set of neutron irradiated weldments

Material Short term Neutron- Range
fluence [n/cm] T41 [K]
S3NiMo3-UP P16 0 11.7 x 1018 0 - 67
S3NiMo1-UP P141 0 49.7 x 1018 0 - 38
S3NiMo1 P140 0 10.4 x 1018 0 - 21
Table 1. Overview of the set of neutron induced Charpy specimens (base material and weldments)
Furthermore Charpy tests were carried out for determination of the shift of DBTT
(reference values).
Based on the data base consisting of EMAT and 3MA measuring quantities and the
reference values pattern recognition and regression functions for calibration were
developed. One part of each Charpy specimen set was used to calibrate and the other
part independently selected was taken to test the model. The pattern recognition
algorithm, mentioned above, was used to obtain approximation values of the shift of
DBTT, which is a measure of the embrittlement (see Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Figure 3. Predicted shift of the DBTT for RPV-base material versus shift of DBTT determined by the
Charpy test
Figure 4. Predicted shift of the DBTT for RPV-weldments versus shift of DBTT determined by the Charpy
test
It was demonstrated that the prediction of the shift of the DBTT can be performed
due to the micro-magnetic procedure. For the validation samples (base material) a
correlation coefficient of R=0.98 and a RMSE (root mean square error) of 10.13 K
was obtained. In the case of the weldments the correlation coefficient was R=0.99 and
the RMSE value was 3.18 K.
With regard to in situ measurements on the reactor pressure vessel inner wall
through the austenitic cladding test measurements with 3MA and the dynamic
magnetostriction-technique using an EMAT were carried out at a ferritic test piece with
8 mm thick austenitic cladding.
In order to ensure deep penetration of the electromagnetic fields, low-frequency
EMATs ( 40 kHz) were applied, and hence it was possible to characterize the material
condition in the ferritic base material directly below the austenitic cladding from the
clad side.
Figure 5 shows the principle of such an inspection method [5] which up to now is
not yet realized for inservice inspection.
Figure 5. Principle of the magnetostrictive excitation of a standing wave in thickness direction of the
pressure vessel wall by using an EMAT
The possibility of exciting and receiving ultrasonic waves in the ferritic base
material through the cladding was documented by using HF-coil-configurations on clad
test pieces by superimposing magnetic fields excited by u-shaped electromagnets.
Values of signal-to-noise ratio of 23 dB were obtained on a ferritic test object with a
wall thickness of 30 mm and with an austenitic cladding thickness of 8 mm. The
magnetizing field strength was 260 A/cm and the selected frequency of the EMAT was
40 kHz.
8 mm 8 mm
cladding lift-off
Figure 6. Ultrasound signals by an excitation on the austenitic clad side (left); Ultrasound signals by an
excitation on the side without cladding with 8 mm lift-off (right)
In a second experiment it was demonstrated that ultrasonic signals can still be

produced even with a coil lift-off of 8 mm which was achieved by using an 8 mm thick
PVC plate. The obtained EMAT-ultrasound echo signals are presented in Figure 6.
Comparing the two acoustic signals it is obvious that the cladding is influencing the
excitation of the magnetostrictively generated ultrasonic wave mainly by lift-off and
not by eddy-current damping.
Furthermore it also was shown that magnetic Barkhausen noise signals can also be
received through the austenitic cladding with a good signal to noise ratio (Figure 7).
It was demonstrated that the -ferrite changes in the cladding as well as a butt weld
beneath the cladding do not disturb the ultrasonic amplitude very much (Figure 8).
Figure 7. Barkhausen noise profile curve measured on a ferritic testing sample through the 8 mm austenitic
cladding
Figure 8. Variation of the ultrasonic signal amplitude along a butt weld beneath the cladding
Therefore the non-destructive detection of the neutron irradiation by using 3MA

techniques and the dynamic magnetostriction using an EMAT in a combination should
be realized by developing an optimized transducer in the near future. The presence of
the austenitic cladding is not a strong disturbance effect.
3. Conclusion
By combining 3MA quantities with quantities derived from dynamic magnetostriction

measurements using an EMAT the shift of DBTT on irradiated Charpy samples of base
material and weldments of reactor pressure vessels of western and eastern design can
be determined non-destructively.
3MA and EMAT-ultrasound signals can be measured through an austenitic
cladding independent on microstructure changes in the cladding and the material
beneath the cladding (base material/weldments). On the basis of these results the
development of an inservice inspection technique is possible which allows determining
the shift of the DBTT non-destructively directly on the inner diameter surface of the
reactor pressure vessel.
Acknowledgement
The funding of the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology of Germany,

reference number 1501352, is very much acknowledged.
Thanks to AREVA NP GmbH and Research Center Dresden-Rossendorf e.V. for the
supply of the Charpy specimens, the destructive tests and assistance at the
investigations in the hot cell.
References
[1] Altpeter, I., Becker, R., Dobmann, G., Kern, R., Theiner, W.A., Yashan, A.: Robust solutions of inverse
problems in electromagnetic non-destructive evaluation, Inverse Problems 18, 2002, 1907-1921
[2] Wolter, B., Dobmann, G.: Micromagnetic testing for rolled steel, ECNDT 2006 Proceedings, Berlin, Sept.
25 - 29, 2006, Th.3.7.1
[3] Altpeter, I, Dobmann, G., Szielasko, K.: Nachweis von Cu-Ausscheidungen mittels mikromagnetischer
Prfverfahren. Abschlussbericht, BMWi Reaktorsicherheitsforschung, FKZ 1501219, GRS
Forschungsbetreuung, Kln, IZFP-Bericht Nr. 020120-TW, 2002
[4] Hein, H., Keim, E., Schnabel, H., Seibert, T., Gundermann, A.: Final Results from the Crack Initiation
and Arrest of Irradiated Steel Materials Project on Fracture Mechanical Assessments of Pre-Irradiated
RPV Steels Used in German PWR, J. ASTM Int. 6, Paper ID JAI101962, 2009
[5] Altpeter I., Dobmann, G., Hbschen, G., Krning, M., Verfahren zur Messung der Neutronen-
versprdung unterhalb der Plattierung von Druckbehltern, Patent Nr. WO 2008/135054
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-330
In-Line Thin Film Characterization Using

Eddy Current Techniques
Susanne HILLMANN, Marcus KLEIN, and Henning HEUER
Fraunhofer Institute for Nondestructive Testing Dresden, Germany
Abstract. Thin films are successfully used in many different ways as functional
layers in various areas of science, technology, and medicine. The coatings are
produced using different methods, such as evaporating, sputtering, or chemical
vapor deposition and have different properties, such as adhesion, specific electric
resistance, and diffusion coefficient. For all applications, the analysis of coating
thicknesses plays an important role, because most of the operating and
performance characteristics are a function of the coating thickness. Here, in
particular, are recognized in-line-methods, working contact-less, very fast, and in a
vacuum. For coatings with thicknesses in the nanometer range and lower
micrometer range, Eddy Current systems are especially well adapted. By using a
special transmission mode sensor application, the method is very well suited for
in-line inspections. Through optimization of the measuring system, sensors, and
algorithms it is possible to largely widen the limits of the measurement system and
to achieve very high accuracy. The following report presents results obtained with
an Eddy Current measurement system working in transmission mode on samples
with different single-layer and multi-layer coatings in the nanometer range.
Keywords: Eddy Current transmission mode, thin film technology, film thickness
Introduction
The studies reported here are motivated primarily by questions coming from the solar
industry. In modern coating facilities various thin film layers with high and low
conductivity and thickness ranges in the nanometer to micrometer scale are coated on
substrates of glass, silicon, or foils. Process-related thicknesses cannot always remain
constant, and therefore the coating thickness must be monitored in-line. For the in-line
monitoring of the coating thickness the non-contact Eddy Current method is suitable
because of its excellent potential for automation and high sensitivity to conductivity
changes. This paper presents test results of the performance and efficiency of this
method.
1. Measurement Method
1.1. Sensor Arrangement and Measurement Equipment
The Eddy Current method can be applied with different sensor arrangements. For in-
line monitoring of thin, conductive layers, the transmission mode arrangement is very
appropriate. In contrast to a surface probe, which locates the transmitting and receiving
coil in one sensor body and is applied from one side of the samples surface, the coils in
S. Hillmann et al. / In-Line Thin Film Characterization Using Eddy Current Techniques 331
the transmission mode are separately arranged at a fixed distance from each other. The
sample must be thin and flat and must be aligned between the sensors. Figure 1.a)
illustrates a schematic of this application. It utilizes for both sensors identical single-
coils with a special core and 30 windings each. The coils have a width of 25 mm and
excite a relatively large electromagnetic field. The advantage of this setup is the low
influence of misalignment of the sample between the sensors on the test result, making
this very practical for in-line inspections. Additionally, it is possible to achieve a larger
distance between sensor and sample using the transmission mode [1,2]. In the solar
industry, a large distance between sensor and sample is often required, especially when
the solar cells in quite massive and prone to bending carriers are passed through the
coating line. Therefore, the challenge is to develop a transmission arrangement with the
greatest possible measuring gap of several centimeters in thickness at very high
resolution (in the nanometer range).
a) b)
Figure 1.a) Schematic illustration of the Eddy Current method at flat samples by use of transmission mode;
1.b) EddyCus TF Eddy Current desktop system applying the transmission mode.
Using the EddyCus TF system developed at Fraunhofer IZFP Dresden, the

sensor-sensor distance can be increased up to 60mm, still maintaining a high thickness
resolution. Figure 1.b) illustrates this device. All of the following presented
measurements were performed with this device.
1.2. Optimum Measurement Frequency
Especially for very small thicknesses, it is important to choose the optimal

measurement frequency to establish a good separation between data from sample
thickness variations and from conductivity variations. This is particularly important
when process-related temperature changes may alter the conductivity of the sample.
Depending on the measuring frequency, both material properties can be separated from
each other in varying degrees; Figure 2 illustrates this coherence. The left diagram in
figure 2.a) illustrates a common impedance plane diagram. Here, the measurement
results on samples with different wall thickness and different conductivity can be very
clearly separated in case of high wall thickness (lower area of the diagram). In case of
very low wall thickness (higher area of the diagram) the curves run nearly congruent
[3].
The diagrams in figure 2.b) illustrate the determination of angle as an instrument
for describing the separation between conductivity and wall thickness. The schematic
332 S. Hillmann et al. / In-Line Thin Film Characterization Using Eddy Current Techniques
illustrates the points in the complex impedance plane for measurements at thin metal
sheets of different thickness and conductivity. Point M1 is obtained by the
measurement on a thin sheet with conductivity 1 (e.g. aluminum) and the thickness d1.
Measuring point M2 is generated by a measurement on a same material sheet
(conductivity 2=1), but higher layer thickness d2>d1. In contrast, the point M3 results
from the measurement on a sheet of the primary thickness of d3=d1, but with a material
of higher conductivity 3>1 (e.g. copper).
The left image shows this correlation at an unfavorable measurement frequency.
Based on natural variations, the measurement points M2 and M3 are difficult to
separate from each other. They are located very close to each other, because the
impedance locus of conductivity and thickness are almost superimposed. The image on
the right illustrates the complex impedance plane for the same samples at a suitable
measurement frequency. In this case, points M2 and M3 are well separated from each
other.
Figure 2.a) common impedance plane for different conductivity and wall thicknesses. 2.b) Schematic
illustration of the complex impedance plane with an adverse measurement frequency f1, which produces poor
separation of conductivity and thickness, and results in a small angle (left); a favorable measurement
frequency f2 with a large opening angle is shown on the right.
A dimension for separability of both properties is the opening angle , located

within the starting point M1 and points M2 and M3. The larger the angle , the better
conductivity and coating thickness can be separated in the measurement signal, and
small film thicknesses in the nanometer range can be obtained with high resolutions
even at higher conductivity variations. Depending on the conductivity of the material,
the opening angle generates its maximum at different measurement frequencies,
whereas the frequency with the maximum angle increases with decreasing conductivity
[3,4].
To determine the optimal measurement frequency for higher conductivity of
around 50 MS/m, a series of experiments using thin metal sheets of aluminum (30
MS/m) and copper (56 MS/m) with different wall thicknesses of 10, 20 and 30 m
were performed. All samples were cut in a circle form from thin foils with a diameter
of 100 mm. All samples were measured in transmission mode using several
measurement frequencies ranging from 10 kHz to 1 MHz. The opening angle was
calculated for each data set of different measurement frequencies. The results are
illustrated in Figure 3. The maximum opening angle for the tested materials was
established at a frequency at about 400 kHz, which can be used as the optimal
measurement frequency for this conductivity range. This obtained optimum frequency
is determined for the described measurement system in transmission mode for the used
kinds of sensors. Each sensor- and measurement system and each conductivity range
has its own optimum measuring frequency, whereas the optimum measuring frequency
increases with decreasing film conductivity. [4]
angle between thickness and conductivity

25
20
Alu, d
angle []
15
Cu 10
,d

5
0
0,01 0,1 1
frequency [MHz]
Figure 3. Determination of optimal measurement frequency for high conductivity by calculating the opening
angle from measured data using thin aluminum and copper sheets with different thicknesses
2. Single Layer Systems in the Nanometer Range
2.1. Description of the Samples
For the validation of the measurement system, two sample sets with different
conductive layers were prepared. Conductive layers with thicknesses between 5 nm and
205 nm were applied by sputtering on silicon wafers with a diameter of 100 mm and a
thickness of 500 m. For sample set 1 copper layers were used to evaluate the
performance of high conducting layers. In contrast, sample set 2 was coated with
Tantalum silicon nitride (TaSiN), which has a much lower conductivity then copper.
The Table 1 lists all used samples, the intended film thickness d and the sheet
resistance Rs obtained via the touching four-point method.
Table 1. List of samples from sample set 1 and 2 including intended thickness d and sheet resistance Rs
Sample set 1 (copper layer) Sample set 2 (TaSiN-layer)
Nr. d [nm] Rs [/] Nr. d [nm] Rs [/]
Cu-1 5 57,5 Ta-1 10 455
Cu-2 10 11,3 Ta-2 15 307
Cu-3 15 5,52 Ta-3 50 98,6
Cu-4 20 2,95 Ta-4 55 93,8
Cu-5 25 2,04 Ta-5 200 27,9
Cu-6 50 0,77 Ta-6 205 26,8
Cu-7 55 0,68
Cu-8 100 0,30
Cu-9 105 0,28
Eddy Current measurements were performed on each sample with the EddyCus TF
desktop system using an optimal measurement frequency. The measuring gap was
varied between 20 mm and 60 mm, and the measurement was repeated eight times for
each adjustment. In a first step, calibration curves were recorded to determine the Eddy
Current parameter as a function of film thickness. Since there was an almost linear
relationship between these two parameters, the calibration function was calculated
using the measured values from samples with the lowest, middle and highest layer
thicknesses. Using this calibration function, the film thicknesses of the remaining
samples were obtained and the accuracy of the system was verified.
2.2. Results Obtained at Sample Set 1 Copper Layer
The calibration functions for sample set 1 (samples with copper layer) were obtained
on samples Cu-1, Cu-5 and Cu-9. The film thickness measurement of the remaining
samples using a measuring gap of 20 mm resulted in an average thickness accuracy of
1 nm. On samples with very thin copper layers of a maximum of 25nm, this high
accuracy remains when the measuring gap is increased up to 60 mm. In contrast, the
measurement accuracy decreases on samples with higher film thickness (starting at 50
nm) when increasing the measurement gap of up to 4 nm around the set point of the
film thickness. Results from sample set 1 are shown in Figure 4. The diagram on the
left shows the analyzed thickness values from all 8 repetitions obtained by the Eddy
Current measurements as a function of the set point of the film thickness for a sensor-
to-sensor distance of 20 mm. The diagram on the right demonstrates the deviation from
the set point of the film thickness for 3 sensor-to-sensor distances of 20 mm, 40 mm,
and 60 mm.
copper layer on substrate of silicon deviation from set point
sensor-sensor distance 20 mm (copper layer)
105 4,5
2 cm
4,0
deviation from set point
4 cm
85 3,5 6 cm
thickness (EC) [nm]
3,0
65 2,5
[nm]
2,0
45 1,5
1,0
25 0,5
0,0
5 10 15 20 50 55 100
5 25 45 65 85 105
thickness [nm]
thickness (set point) [nm]
Figure 4. Results of thickness measurements on sample set 1 (copper layer). Left diagram: Coating thickness
as a function of the set point of the film thickness established by Eddy Current. Right diagram: Deviation of
the film thickness set points for different sensor-to-sensor distances.
In a further experiment, the effects of position variations of the sample within the
measuring gap on the established film thickness were investigated. Some of the copper
samples were examined in a transmission mode system with a sensor-to-sensor distance
of 40 mm. All samples were positioned in the center of the measuring gap, moved 5
mm up and tilted by 10, whereas each measurement was repeated five times. The
measurement positions are shown schematically in Figure 5.a); Figure 5.b) illustrates
corresponding results and determined respective film thicknesses as a function of the
film thickness set point. The measurement accuracy does not change when the sample
is moved or tilted. There is a constant deviation from the desired set point of 3 nm for
all three sample positions.
copper layer on substrate of silicon

at different sample positions
Send
110
thickness (EC) [nm]

90
moved of 5 mm
70
centre
50
tilted by 10
30
Receive
10
a) 10 30 50 70 90 110
b) thickness (set point) [nm]
Figure 5.a) Schematic illustration of the sample positions tested in the measuring gap; 5.b) results of
thickness measurement at different sample positions
2.3. Results Obtained at Sample Set 2 TaSiN-Layer
For sample set 2 (TaSiN layer), measurements similar to sample set 1 were taken. At
these samples the optimal measurement frequency was higher, due to a significantly
lower conductivity than the conductivity of the copper layered samples. The
measurement accuracy was not as good as the accuracy obtained from the copper
layered samples, which was expected due to lower conductivity. Figure 6 illustrates the
calibration points obtained from sample set 2. It shows the phase of the complex Eddy
Current signal as a function of the film thickness set points for a sensor-to-sensor
distance of 20mm. The measurements for each sample were repeated five times.
TaSiN-layer on substrate of silicon

-1,1605
Eddy Current phase [rad]
-1,1610
-1,1615
-1,1620
-1,1625
-1,1630
-1,1635
-1,1640
-1,1645
-1,1650
-1,1655
0 50 100 150 200 250
thickness (set point) [nm]
Figure 6. Calibration points for Eddy Current film thickness measurements of sample set 2, demonstration of
the phase of the complex Eddy Current signal as a function of the film thickness set point.
It is clearly visible that measurement values with film thickness variation of 5 nm
cannot be separated. However, the measurement values have a high reproducibility and
the values around 10 nm, 50 nm, and 200 nm are very well separated. Using a
calibration function, the coating thickness can be established in the same way as for
sample set 1. Using a sensor-to-sensor distance of 20mm could achieve a measurement
accuracy of 20 nm. With increasing sensor-to-sensor distance, the measurement
accuracy decreases cumulatively. Here we can see the limit of the measurement system.
Coatings with very low conductivity can only be measured adequately if a very small
measuring gap is used or higher film thicknesses are investigated.
3. Multi- Layer Systems in the Nanometer Range
For the investigation of multi-layer coatings, we initially studied a system with two
conductive layers. These samples consisted of a substrate of glass to which successive
layers of zinc oxide (non-conductive), silver and aluminum were applied. The
thicknesses of the conductive layers of silver and aluminum vary between 100 nm and
600 nm. Table 2 lists the samples and the appropriate coating thicknesses.
Table 2. List of the samples of sample set 3 (multi layer) and their coating thicknesses
Nr. Thickness Silver [nm] Thickness Aluminum [nm] Total Thickness [nm]
multi-1 103 105 208
multi-2 205 105 310
multi-3 400 95 495
multi-4 590 95 685
multi-5 200 200 400
multi-6 205 385 590
multi-7 205 590 795
When performing measurements in the transmission mode, the field always

penetrates all layers as well as when using a surface probe; the entire layer will always
be penetrated due to the very thin layers. This fact provided two measurement
approaches: thickness measurements of the total thickness of both conducting layers,
and second, thickness measurements of single layers. The results of both measurements
are demonstrated in Figure 7.
multi layer on substrate of glass multi layer on substrate of glass

total thickness single layer
800 500
thickness (EC) [nm]
thickness (EC) [nm]
450
700
400
600 350
500 300
400 250
200
300 silver
150
aluminum
200 100
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 100 200 300 400 500
thickness (set point) [nm] thickness (set point) [nm]
Figure 7. Coating thicknesses obtained by Eddy Current techniques as a function of the film thickness set
point, measured on sample set 3 (multiple layers). Left: Measurements of total thickness (all layers). Right:
Measurements of single layers
To determine the total thickness of the aluminum and silver layers, the calibration
function was obtained using the measured values of the sample multi-1 (smallest total
thickness) and multi-7 (maximum overall thickness). Using this almost linear function,
the thickness values of the remaining samples were determined. A sensor-to-sensor
distance of 40 mm was applied. A maximum deviation from the film thickness set point
of 55 nm was achieved in this investigation. Since the amounts of aluminum and silver
contents in the layers always vary, the total conductivity of the layer varies too, which
explains the relatively high measurement error.
In each case, measurements of single layer samples were performed with a

constant sample set; one thickness of both layers. The analysis of the silver layer was
attained with the multi-1 to multi-4 samples, whereas the calibration function was
acquired with samples multi-1 and multi-4. Analysis of the aluminum layer was
performed with samples multi-2 and multi-5 to multi-7, while the calibration function
was attained with multi-2 and multi-7 samples. On the silver layer, a maximum
deviation of the film thickness set point of 17 nm was be detected, and a maximum
deviation of 38 nm was observed on the aluminum layer samples. The concept
outlined in the section 3, shows again that the measurement accuracy is increasing with
increasing layer conductivity. Under the assumption that only the thickness layer of one
multi-layer film system varies while the other remains constant, the varying thickness
of this layer can be accurately determined.
4. Summary and Outlook
It was demonstrated that a large number of conductive layers of thin film technology
can be characterized by Eddy Current testing. Table 3 summarizes the accuracy of all
presented results.
Table 3. Accuracy of the tested samples at different sensor-to-sensor distances, obtained in the Eddy Current
transmission mode (EddyCus TF)
Single Layer
Coating Coating thickness Sensor-to-Sensor Sensor-to-Sensor Sensor-to-Sensor
material range distance 20mm distance 40mm distance 60mm
copper 5nm 100nm 1nm 1.5nm 2nm
TaSiN 10nm 200nm 20nm 50nm 100nm
Multi Layer
Coating Coating thickness Sensor-to-Sensor Sensor-to-Sensor Sensor-to-Sensor
material range distance 20mm distance 40mm distance 60mm
silver 100nm 600nm 10nm 15nm 17nm
aluminum 100nm 600nm 21nm 36nm 35nm
total 100nm 600nm 54nm 55nm 104nm
It was also revealed that the transmission mode is quite insensitive to sample
position variations and thus presents a solid in-line testing method for thin film
technology. The EddyCus TF measurement system allows thickness measurement by
using a sensor-to-sensor distance of up to 60 mm for highly accurate thickness
measurement of conductive layers in the nanometer range. Measurement accuracy of 1
nm in the thickness range of 5 nm to 100 nm can be achieved on in highly conductive
layers, such as copper. In addition, multi-layer systems can be accurately analyzed with
this system. Under the assumption that only the thickness of the layers varies, the
varying layer thickness can be determined very precisely. By selecting the best possible
measurement frequency for each conductivity range, the accuracy of the measurement
system can be optimized and changes in the conductivity of the samples caused by
temperature variations, for example, can be easily separated from thickness variations.
This makes the EddyCus TF system a precise, fast, and automatable measurement
system with a great potential for cost-effective thickness measurement of thin

conductive layers.
References
[1] K. Nitzsche, Schichtmetechnik, Vogel-Buchverlag, technical book, 1. Auflage, 1996, ISBN 3-8023-
1530-8A.N. Author, Article title, Journal Title 66 (1993), 856890.
[2] H. Heuer, S. Hillmann, M. Rllig, M. H. Schulze, K-J. Wolter, Thin Film Characterization Using High
Frequency Eddy Current Spectroscopy, Conference on Nanotechnology, Genua, 2009
[3] E. Hanke, Prfung metallischer Werkstoffe, Band II, Zerstrungsfreie Prfverfahren, VEB Deutscher
Verlag fr Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1960, 2. berarbeitete Auflage
[4] A. Yashan, Numerische Modellierung von Wirbelstromaufgaben und Lsung des inversen Problems,
ZfP-Zeitung 67, Oktober 1999
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-339
Feasibility of stress state assessment on the

grounds of measurements of the strength of
the residual magnetic field of
ferromagnetics
Maciej ROSKOSZa,1
a
Silesian University of Technology, Poland
Abstract. The relations between stress and the values of the components of the
residual magnetic field of ferromagnetic steels exposed to static and low cycle
loads were examined. For static loads the measurements of the strength of the
residual magnetic field were shown under load and after unloading. For low cycle
loads, on the other hand, the impact of the number and the amplitude of changes in
load were presented. It was concluded on the grounds of reference literature and
the obtained results that the irreversible changes in magnetization, which result
from loads, could be used as diagnostic signals. The tangential component which
is parallel to the direction of tensile loads is characterized by a good correlation
with stress. The fact that the value of the RMF increases significantly after yield
stress is exceeded makes it possible to work out a method to determine areas with
plastic strain. The conclusions presented seem to be a good starting point for
further and deeper studies and analyses whose aim is to employ the strength of the
residual magnetic field to assess the stress state of machine and construction
components.
Keywords. residual magnetic field, stress, magneto mechanical effect, control

magnetic methods
Introduction
There is a strict relationship between the magnetic and mechanical properties of

ferromagnetic materials. The influence of stress on the magnetic properties is described
by the magneto-mechanical effect. If a ferromagnetic is placed in a magnetic field, its
level of magnetization varies according to loads. The change in magnetization has a
reversible component, which fades after unloading, and an irreversible one. The level
of magnetization depends on the type of material, the strength of the magnetic field, the
magnetic history, strain and temperature [1 3].
The strength of the (RMF) is known to have been used as a diagnostic signal in
flaw detection the Metal Magnetic Memory Method [1 4]. The magnetic properties
of steel and their use in diagnostics are the subject of many publications [4 14]
The presented results are a part of studies whose main objective is to develop a
system of a non-destructive assessment system of the technical condition and wear of
1 Institute of Power Engineering and Turbomachinery, Faculty Of Energy And Environmental

Engineering, ul. Konarskiego 18, 44 100 Gliwice, Poland
340 M. Roskosz / Feasibility of Stress State Assessment on the Grounds of Measurements
power machinery components subjected to typical loads such as low-cycle fatigue and
creep. One of the tasks is an analysis of the possibility to use the changes in the
magnetic properties of ferromagnetics as diagnostic signals for that purpose. The study
focused on methods based on changes in the magnetization of components, and
changes in the Barkhausen effect. It was assumed that the complementarity of the
methods would allow a determination of stress distribution and wear that would be
precise enough for industrial practice.
1. Objective and experimental details
This publication presents the results of preliminary studies of changes in magnetization

to determine:
The relations between stress and the values of the RMF components of
ferromagnetics for static and quasi-static loads.
The impact of changes in the external magnetic field on the RMF of samples.
The impact of the stress amplitude and the number of cycles on the values of
the RMF components of ferromagnetics.
The research was conducted for ferromagnetic steel. The samples were not
preliminarily demagnetized. The initial state of magnetization was a consequence of
the history of their preparation and was not homogenous.
The magnetometer TSC-1M-4 with the measuring sensor TSC-2M (Foerster type
sensor) supplied by Energodiagnostika Co. Ltd Moscow was used for the
measurements. As a result of the measurements, 3 values of the components of the
RMF strength on the surface of the examined ferromagnetic samples were obtained:
Ht,x tangential component measured in the direction perpendicular to the load
applied,
Ht,y tangential component measured in the direction parallel to the load
applied,
Hn,z normal component.
2. Static loads
The geometrical form of the examined samples is shown in Fig. 1. The chemical
constitution and the strength properties of the materials that the samples were made of
are listed in Table 1.
Figure 1. Experimental sample.

M. Roskosz / Feasibility of Stress State Assessment on the Grounds of Measurements 341
4 measuring sections of the same size were selected on a part of the sample. They were
denoted as , , , . The division into measuring sections was introduced to check
the repeatability of the relation: stress the values of the RMF components. The points
with symbols corresponding to the denotations of the measuring sections are average
values of the RMF components for these sections.
Table 1. Chemical constitution and strength properties of the sample material (R e yield stress, Rm ultimate
stress)
Re Rm
C Si Mn Cr Cu Al V W P S
[MPa] [MPa]
max 0,1- max max
0,3 - - 0,3 - 0,05 280 380-520
0,22 0,35 1,1 0,05
Exemplary measurements of the RMF strength under load grey lines, and after
unloading black lines, were shown in Fig. 2 to 4 as a function of the applied load. For
each of the measuring sections the dependence of the average values (from 3 samples)
on stress was approximated with a polynomial.
2.1. Measurements under load
The trend of the changes in the values of the RMF components under loading is not
constant, not even within elastic strain. The stress values at which it changes are
characteristic of a given material. For components Ht,x and Hn,z the trends of the
changes depend on the measuring section the measuring point. This proves that there
is no correlation between stress and the value of the component. However, in the
analyzed cases the trend of the changes in component Ht,y did not depend on the
measuring point, and was identical in all measuring sections.
The greatest diversification of the values of components Ht,x and Hn,z in individual
measuring sections occurs with stress approximating yield stress Re.
2.2. Measurements after unloading
The representation of the impact of the load on the values of the RMF components
measured after unloading is dominated by a decisive change in their values around
yield stress Re. As for elastic strain, it can be assumed that there is a steady trend of
changes in the values of the RMF components. After yield stress Re is exceeded, the
trend of changes in both component Ht,x and component Hn,z is not identical and
depends on the measuring point the measuring section.
2.3. Impact of changes in the external magnetic field
Fig. 5 shows the results of measurements of the RMF conducted after unloading on the
surface of the sample inside a strength testing machine and outside it. A substantial
quantitative change was observed, but the qualitative relations: stress magnetization
remain unchanged. It is due to the fact that the solution to the problem of allowing for
the impact of the external magnetic field value is decisive when considering the sense
of using RMF measurements for stress assessment.
160
Ht,x
[A/m]
120 .
80
40
-40
0 100 200 300 400 500
[MPa]
Figure 2. Relation between stress and component Ht,x, measurement under load grey lines, measurement
after unloading black lines.
500
Ht,y
[A/m]
400 .
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
[MPa]
Figure 3. Relation between stress and component Ht,y, measurement under load grey lines, measurement
200
Hn,z
[A/m]
-200
-400
.
-600
0 100 200 300 400 500
[MPa]
Figure 4. Relation between stress and component Hn,z, measurement under load grey lines, measurement
600
Ht,y
[A/m]
400 .
200
-200
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
/Re
Figure 5. Impact of changes in the external magnetic field on the values of component Ht,y, measurement
inside a strength testing machine black lines, measurement outside a strength testing machine grey lines.
3. Cyclic loads
Fatigue tests were conducted in the area of elastic strain. The measurement results
presented in Fig. 6 to 8 refer to one kind of ferromagnetic steel which was subjected to
loads where the value of the cycle asymmetry coefficient R was equal to 0, with
different maximum stress of the cycle.
Analyzing the obtained results it was found out that:
the greatest change in the values of the components occurred after the first load
cycle
each subsequent load cycle produces smaller and smaller changes in the values of
the components
the impact of the maximum stress of a cycle is visible.
20 100
Ht,x
[A/m] Ht,y
0 [A/m]
0
-20
-50
1/Re= 0.4
-40
2/Re= 0.8 -100
-60 -150
INITIAL INITIAL
STATE 1 10 100 1000 STATE 1 10 100 1000
N N
Figure 6. Impact of changes in the number of cycles Figure 7. Impact of changes in the number of cycles
and maximum stress on the values of component and maximum stress on the values of component
Ht,x, of the RMF. Ht,y of the RMF.
150
Hn,z H
[A/m]
50
-50
-100
-150
INITIAL
STATE 1 10 100
N
1000 N
Figure 8. Impact of changes in the number of cycles Figure 9. Schematic correlation between the
and maximum stress on the values of component permanent change in magnetization and the number
Hn,z of the RMF. of load change cycles.
On the grounds of this study, together with [7, 10, 14], a schematic correlation
between the changes in the RMF and the number of load change cycles was determined
(cf. Fig. 9). In the beginning phase of the load process, and also just before the sample
is destroyed, significant changes in the value of the RMF can be observed. In the
plateau phase, depending on the steel microstructure, there is a slight increase or

decrease in magnetization.
4. Summary
The paper presents preliminary results of a study of changes in the RMF strength
caused by applied loads. On the grounds of the results it can be concluded that:
The tangential component which is parallel to the direction of tensile loads is
characterized by a good correlation with stress.
The fact that the value of the RMF increases significantly after yield stress is
exceeded makes it possible to work out a method to determine areas with
plastic strain.
The irreversible changes in magnetization, which result from stress, can be
used as diagnostic signals which make it possible to determine the stress state
of ferromagnetics. Because of the special character of the stress component
Ht,y relation, the determination of the stress value is not possible with
component Ht,y only. Analyzing the dependences between stress and the values
of the RMF components it can be stated that it is possible to define the local
stress state on the grounds of the values of component Ht,y and gradient Hn,z.
[10] presents a good correlation between the distribution of component Ht,x
with the distribution of shear stress, which can also be used to assess the state
of stress.
There is a correlation between the level and number of load cycles, and the
state of magnetization. A dramatic change in the value of the RMF occurs in
the last phase of fatigue wear [7, 10, 14], which makes it possible to anticipate
the destruction of the component.
The external magnetic field has a significant impact on the values of the RMF.
The solution of the problem of how to account for this significance is decisive
when considering the sense of using RMF measurements for stress
assessment.
The conclusions presented seem to be a good starting point for further and deeper
studies and analyses whose aim is to employ the strength of the RMF to assess the
stress state of machine and construction components.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Polish National Centre for Research and Development
within the strategic program Advanced Technologies for Energy Generation
References
[1] Deputat J.: Basics of the Metal Magnetic Memory Method. Dozr Techniczny 5/2002 p. 97 105. (in
Polish)
[2] Jiles D. C., Theory of the Magneto Mechanical Effect, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 28 (1995) 1537 1546.
[3] Dubow A.A.: Principal Features of Metal Magnetic Memory Method and Inspection Tools as
Compared to Known Magnetic NDT Methods. WCNDT 2004, Montreal Canada,
http://www.ndt.net/article/wcndt2004/papers/359.ntm
[4] John Wilson, Gui Yun Tian, Simon Barrans: Residual Magnetic Field Sensing for Stress Measurement
and Defect Detection, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, Volume 135, Issue 2, 15 April 2007, Pages
381 387
[5] urek Z. H. Magnetic Contactless Detection of Stress Distribution and Assembly Defects in
Constructional Steel Element NDT&E International 38 (2005) 589 595
[6] Augustyniak B., Degauque J. Magneto Mechanical Properties Evolution of Fe C Alloy during
Precipitation Process, Materials Science and Engineering A 370 (2004) 376 380
[7] Dobmann G., Lang M. On line Monitoring of Fatigue in the LCF and HCF Range by Using Micro
magnetic NDT at Plain Carbon and Austenitic Stainless Steel, 8th ECNDT Proceedings TOC
European Conference on Nondestructive Testing Barcelona (Spain), June 17 21, 2002
[8] R. Sabet Sharghi, L. Clapham, D.L. Atherton, T.M. Holden The Effect of Defect Introduction vs. Load
Application Sequencing on Defect Induced Stress Distributions in Steel Samples NDT&E International
33 (2000) 201 212
[9] M. Soultan, X. Kleber_, J. Chicois, A. Vincent Mechanical Barkhausen Noise during Fatigue of Iron
NDT&E International 39 (2006) 493 498
[10] Roskosz M. Gawrilenko P, Analysis of Changes in Residual Magnetic Field in Loaded Notched
Samples, NDT&E International 41 (2008) 570 576
[11] Roskosz M: Possibilities of the Application of the Metal Magnetic Memory Method to the Analysis of
Gear Durability. 9th European Conference on Non Destructive Testing ECNDT Berlin 2006, Abstracts
Part 2, P 85
[12] Roskosz M.: C
,
" ",
2009 pp. 53 61
[13] Dong Lihong, Xu Binshi, Dong Shiyun, Chen Qunzhi, Wang Dan Variation of Stress Induced
Magnetic Signals during Tensile Testing of Ferromagnetic Steels NDT&E International 41 (2008) 184
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[14] Yang En, Li luming, Chen Xing: Magnetic Field Aberration Induced by Cycle Stress, Journal of
Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 312 (2007) 72 77
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-347
Magnetic Characterization of Material

Degradation Using Dynamical Minor
Loops
Satoru KOBAYASHI a,1 , Shinichi TSUKIDATE a , Hiroyuki OKAZAKI a ,
Yasuhiro KAMADA a Hiroaki KIKUCHI a , and Toshihiro OHTANI b
a
NDE and Science Research Center, Faculty of Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5
Ueda, Morioka 020-8551, Japan
b
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Shonan Institute of Technology,
Fujisawa 251-8511, Japan
Abstract. We have examined scaling laws in dynamical magnetic minor hystere-

sis loops of Cr-Mo-V steel subjected to creep and cold-rolled low carbon steel in
order to investigate the applicability to online evaluation of materials degradation
in ferromagnetic steels. Although scaling laws in the medium magnetization range
found previously fail in the high magnetization frequency regime owing to a sig-
nicant contribution of eddy currents, a scaling power law of the relation between
remanence and remanence work of minor loops holds true in a very low magnetiza-
tion regime, irrespective of magnetization frequency as well as investigated mate-
rials. The coefcient of the law exhibits a good correlation with creep damage and
rolling reduction and is proportionally related to Vickers hardness. These observa-
tions clearly demonstrate that the analysis of dynamical minor loops enables us to
evaluate materials degradation in a short measurement time with low measurement
eld and high sensitivity to defect density.
Keywords. Dynamical hysteresis loop, Creep damage, plastic deformation, Cr-Mo-
V steel, low carbon steel, Nondestructive evaluation
Introduction
Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of aging degradation of structural materials has been

carried out for a long time. Various techniques using eddy current, ultrasonic wave, X-
ray, magnetic powder etc., are now mature and widely used. Generally, these techniques
are effective for detecting cracks with dimension greater than 0.1 mm. Nevertheless,
none of NDE techniques have been employed so far as a standard method to evaluate
degradation before initiation of cracking.
Magnetic method using minor hysteresis loops has several advantages to get infor-
mation on lattice defects in ferromagnetic steels. Our previous studies in plastically de-
formed low carbon steels [1] revealed that there exist several scaling power laws between
1 Corresponding Author: Satoru Kobayashi, NDE and Science Research Center, Iwate University, 4-3-5
Ueda, Morioka 020-8551, Japan, E-mail: koba@iwate-u.ac.jp .

348 S. Kobayashi et al. / Magnetic Characterization of Material Degradation
Table 1. Chemical compositions of Cr-Mo-V steel (ASTM A193-B16). (wt. %)

C Si Mn P S Cr Mo V Fe
0.420 0.290 0.66 0.016 0.009 1.090 0.51 0.28 Bal
Table 2. Chemical compositions of cold-rolled low carbon steel. (wt. %)

C Si Mn Fe
0.16 0.20 0.44 Bal
parameters of quasi-static minor loops in a medium range of magnetization over which

irreversible movement of Bloch wall dominates magnetization process. The power-law
relations include

nF
0 Ma
WF = WF , (1)
Ms

nR
MR
WR = WR0 , (2)
MR
where WF , WR , Ma , and MR are hysteresis loss, remanence work, maximum magne-
tization, and remanence of minor loops, respectively, and the denition is given in the
inset of Fig. 2(c). M s and MR are saturation magnetization and remanence of the major
loop, respectively. The exponents n F and nR are approximately 1.5 and universally in-
dependent of temperature, stress, and kinds of ferromagnetic materials [1,2]. The coef-
cients WF0 and WR0 are a sensitive indicator of internal stress and can be obtained with
low magnetic elds, typically less than 2 kA/m, which is far less than saturation eld of
> 10 kA/m.
When one applies this method to online NDE of ferromagnetic components, how-
ever, it is necessary to reduce the measurement time; the measurement time to obtain
coefcients for one condition is considerably long (15-30 min) due to low magnetization
frequency below 0.1 Hz. Measurement with a higher magnetization frequency is one of
the solutions to reduce the measurement time. It would be therefore useful to examine the
scaling rules in the high frequency regime to investigate the applicability for magnetic
NDE.
In this study, we have investigated scaling rules of dynamical minor hysteresis loops
for Cr-Mo-V steels subjected to creep as well as cold-rolled low carbon steels, varying
the level of creep damage and plastic deformation, respectively.
1. Experimental Procedure
The chemical compositions of crept Cr-Mo-V ferritic steel and low carbon steel are listed
in Table 1 and 2, respectively.
The Cr-Mo-V steel, which is widely used for high-temperature power plant compo-
nents such as steam pipes, pressure vessels, was taken from a commercial plate of ASTM
A193-B16. The creep tests were performed at 923 K in air under applied tensile stress
of 35 MPa. Twelve specimens with different life fractions t/t r were prepared; t and t r
are creep time and rupture life, respectively. Figure 1 shows creep strain and Vickers
S. Kobayashi et al. / Magnetic Characterization of Material Degradation 349
hardness as a function of t/t r . The creep strain increases with t/t r , whereas the Vickers
hardness decreases. Both properties exhibit three creep deformation regimes; primary
(0 t/tr <0.2), steady (0.2< t/t r 0.5), and ternary (0.5< t/t r ) stages. The details of
the creep tests are given in previous works [3,4,5]
Figure 1. Creep strain and Vickers hardness as a function of life fraction t/tr for Cr-Mo-V steel.
The low carbon steel was cold rolled at room temperature. Five samples with differ-
ent rolling reductions i.e. 0, 5, 10, 20, 40%, were prepared. Microstructural observations
with transmission electron microscopy showed that dislocation density is low and dislo-
cations are distributed homogeneously before the cold rolling, whereas dislocation cells
are formed and the dislocation density becomes to be more than 10 10 cm2 after 20%
rolling reduction [1].
For magnetic measurements, the Cr-Mo-V and cold-rolled samples were cut into
toroidal shapes and frames, respectively, and an exciting and a pickup coil were wound
around the samples. A triangular current was applied to the exciting coil to generate a
cyclic magnetic eld and magnetize the sample. The magnetic eld within the sample
was obtained from the voltage across a 1- resistance connected to the exciting coil
in series. The induced voltage of the pickup coil was integrated in order to obtain a
magnetic ux within the sample. A set of magnetic minor hysteresis loops with various
eld amplitudes Ha up to 8 kA/m was measured by gradually increasing the amplitude
of the wave current. The frequency of a cyclic eld was 0.05300 Hz. Before measuring
each minor loop, the sample was demagnetized with a decaying alternating magnetic
eld with a frequency of 10 Hz.
2. Experimental Results
2.1. Cr-Mo-V steel
Figure 2 shows a set of minor hysteresis loops before and after creep tests, taken at var-
ious frequencies of a cyclic eld. The loop width of minor loops with the same eld
Figure 2. A set of minor hysteresis loops measured before and after creep tests for Cr-Mo-V steel, taken at
various magnetization frequencies; (a) 0.05 Hz, (b) 10 Hz, and (c) 100 Hz at t/tr = 0 and (d) 0.05 Hz, (e)
10 Hz, and (f) 100 Hz at t/tr = 0.80. Only representative loops are given for clarity. The inset in (c) denotes
parameters of a minor hysteresis loop, measured with a eld amplitude of Ha .
amplitude Ha becomes smaller after the creep tests for all the frequencies. The decrease
of the loop width as the creep progresses may reect the increase in the cell or subgrain
size during creep [5]. With increasing magnetization frequency, the loop width becomes
wider considerably owing to the increasing in the dynamical hysteresis loss due to eddy
current [6]. For each minor loop, the parameters such as hysteresis loss W F and maxi-
mum magnetization M a were obtained and the dependence of the relations on frequency
was examined in detail.
Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show the double logarithmic plots of the relation between W F
and Ma , before and after the creep tests. For a quasi-static condition of 0.05 Hz, the
relation shows a straight line in a limited M a range; 0 Ma = 0.21.2 T. Least-squares
ts of data at 0.05 Hz to Eq. (1) yielded a power-law exponent of n F = 1.58 0.02 for
all the samples, being consistent with our previous works [5]. With increasing frequency,
however, the slope in the double logarithmic plots increases and n F attains 1.78 0.06
at the maximum frequency of 300 Hz as shown in Fig. 4(a). Such a strong dependence on
frequency was also seen in the relation between W R and MR in a limited MR range of
0.11.1 T (M a = 0.21.2 T) as shown in Figs. 3(c) and 3(d); from least-squares ts
to Eq. (2), n R was found to increase from 1.47 to 1.63 with increasing frequency from
0.05 to 300 Hz as shown in Fig. 4(b).
The value of exponents n F and nR strongly depends on magnetization frequency
and is not constant. This means that the scaling power laws obtained in a quasi-static
condition (<0.1 Hz) are not universal in the higher frequency regime. This is due to the
fact that the increase of the magnetization frequency results in the increase in the inten-
sity of eddy currents induced during Bloch wall movement and therefore the increase in
the dynamical hysteresis loss [6]. The eddy current effects are much pronounced in the
Figure 3. Double logarithmic plots of relation between WF and Ma for (a) t/tr = 0 and (b) t/tr = 0.80, and
relation between WR and M for (c) t/t = 0 and (d) t/t = 0.80 for crept Cr-Mo-V steels, taken at various
R r r
magnetization frequencies.
Figure 4. Frequency dependence of power-law exponents (a) nF and (b) nR for crept Cr-Mo-V steels, ob-
tained from least squares ts to data in a medium Ma range; 0 Ma = 0.21.2 T, where irreversible motion
of Bloch walls dominates magnetization process. (c) Frequency dependence of power-law exponent nRL for
crept Cr-Mo-V steels, obtained from least squares ts to data in a low MR range; M = 0.0010.02 T,
0 R
which typically corresponds to 0 Ma = 0.010.1 T.
medium Ma range where irreversible movement of Bloch walls dominates the magneti-
zation process and the magnetization shows a steep increase with eld.
On the other hand, in a low 0 MR region below approximately 0.02 T, the slope
of the relation between W R and MR , plotted on a double logarithmic scale, is weakly
frequency dependent for all the crept samples as shown in Figs. 3(c) and 3(d), whereas
that between WF and Ma in a low magnetization regime changes considerably with
frequency as shown in Figs. 3(a) and 3(b). Least-squares ts of the W R MR curves
for 0 MR < 0.02 T to Eq. (2) yielded the exponent of n RL = 1.89 0.03, which is
independent of magnetization frequency and life fraction as shown in Fig. 4(c). Here,
the subscript "L" is added to distinguish the low eld data from the data in a medium
magnetization range.
Figure 5. (a) Minor-loop coefcient WRL 0 as a function of t/t for crept Cr-Mo-V steels, taken at various
r
0 and Vickers hardness for crept Cr-Mo-V steels, taken
magnetization frequencies. (b) Relation between WRL
at various magnetization frequencies.
0
Figure 5(a) shows a minor-loop coefcient W RL as a function of t/t r for several
magnetization frequencies, obtained from the least-squares ts. Here, the stage I, II, and
III correspond to the primary creep, secondary creep, and tertiary creep, respectively,
which were determined from the variation of the creep strain rate [3,4]. As the creep
0
progresses, WRL sharply decreases at the stage I and shows a slight increase in the stage
II, followed by a steady decrease at the stage III for all the frequencies. This trend is
consistent with our previous results for the medium magnetization range, obtained in a
quasi-static condition of 0.05 Hz [5]. This behavior is very similar to that of Vickers
0
hardness shown in Fig. 1 and W RL is roughly proportional to Vickers hardness for all
the frequencies as shown in Fig. 5(b), which is a sensitive indicator of creep damage.
These observations strongly indicate that the creep damage can be evaluated in a short
measurement time using the scaling power law of dynamical minor hysteresis loops;
measurement time is approximately a few hundreds of milliseconds if a magnetization
frequency is 100 Hz and a few dozens of minor loops with different H a are used for
analysis.
0
Note that the decrease of W RL and hardness with t/t r was interpreted by an increase
in the cell or subgrain size as well as the migration of dissolved carbon. The detailed
discussion is given in previous studies [3,4,5].
2.2. Cold-rolled low carbon steel
A set of minor hysteresis loops were measured at magnetization frequencies from 0.05
to 300 Hz, and the scaling relations between the parameters were examined. As in the
case of the Cr-Mo-V samples, both the W F Ma and WR MR curves in a medium
Ma range (0 Ma = 0.21.2 T) depend on magnetization frequency and the obtained
exponents n F and nR steady increase with increasing the frequency; as the frequency
increases from 0.05 to 300 Hz, n F changes from 1.59 to 1.85, whereas n R changes from
1.53 to 1.79. On the other hand, the W R MR curve in a low M a range is weakly
dependent of frequency and the least squares ts gave n RL = 1.80 0.04 for all the cold
rolled steels. This value is close to that of crept Cr-Mo-V samples.
Figure 6. (a) WRL 0 as a function of rolling reduction for cold-rolled steels, taken at various magnetization
0 and Vickers hardness for cold-rolled steels, taken at various magneti-
frequencies. (b) Relation between WRL
zation frequencies.
0
Figure 6(a) shows the minor-loop coefcient W RL as a function of rolling reduction,
0
taken at various frequencies. For all the frequencies, W RL monotonically increases with
reduction at almost the same rate and exhibits a linear relationship with Vickers hardness
0
as shown in Fig. 6(b). The increase of W RL and Vickers hardness with reduction is
attributed to an increase of dislocation density with rolling reduction [1]. These results
clearly show the validity of the scaling power law of dynamical minor loops in the low
magnetization regime also for cold rolled steels.
3. Summary
Scaling laws of magnetic minor hysteresis loops have been examined for crept Cr-Mo-V
steel and cold-rolled low carbon steel, varying magnetization frequency from 0.05 Hz
(quasi-static) to 300 Hz. As in the case of quasi-static condition, there exist scaling power
laws between the parameters of dynamical minor loops in the medium magnetization
range, where irreversible motion of Bloch walls dominates the magnetization process.
However, the exponents strongly depend on the magnetization frequency and increase
considerably with the frequency because of the increasing dynamical hysteresis loss due
to eddy currents. On the other hand, in the low magnetization regime, the relation be-
tween the remanence and the remanence work exhibits a power law with an exponent
of 1.81.9, which is independent of magnetization frequency, defect density, and inves-
tigated materials. The coefcient of the law changes depending on defect density and
exhibits a good correlation with mechanical property. By using scaling laws in the high
frequency regime, measurement time to obtain the coefcient for one condition is dras-
tically reduced to a few hundreds of milliseconds from a few tens of minutes in a quasi-
static condition. The present studies open up a new possibility of online NDE of material
degradation in ferromagnetic steels using dynamical minor hysteresis loops.
References
[1] S. Takahashi, S. Kobayashi, H. Kikuchi, and Y. Kamada, J. Appl. Phys. 100 (2006) 113908.
[2] S. Kobayashi, T. Fujiwara, S. Takahashi, H. Kikuchi, Y. Kamada, K. Ara, and T. Shishido, Philos. Mag.
89 (2009) 651.
[3] T. Ohtani, F. Yin, and Y. Kamada, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 47 (2008) 3916.
[4] T. Ohtani, H. Ogi, and M Hirao, Acta Mater. 54 (2006) 2705.
[5] S. Kobayashi, M. Tanaka, T. Kimura, Y. Kamada, H. Kikuchi, S. Takahashi, and T. Ohtani, Studies in
Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics, 32 (2009) 240.
[6] G. Bertotti, in Hysteresis in Magnetism, (Academic press, San Diego 1998).
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-355
Local Magnetic Properties and Magnetic

Particle Distribution due to Cr Depletion in
Sensitized Ni based Alloy
K. Yamaguchi a,1, K. Suzuki a, T. Takase a, T. Takara a, O. Nittono a, T. Uchimotob and
T. Takagi b
a
Faculty of Symbiotic Systems Science, Fukushima University, Fukushima, Fukushima
960-1296, Japan
b
Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8577, Japan
Abstract. For Alloy 600 which is Ni based super alloy, the relation between
sensitization and magnetic properties was studied from the view point of
chromium depletion distribution. Experimental results of magnetic hysteresis (B
H) curves were compared with calculation results by Monte Carlo simulation
including the information of the chromium depletion and both results showed good
correspondence each other for their residual magnetizations and magnetic
coercivities. Moreover, local magnetic hysteresis was measured by micro Kerr
magnetometer for the area of inner grain and on grain boundaries. The result
showed anisotropy on grain boundaries for the direction of magnetic field. The
result is analyzed using a magnetic cluster formed as wire type which was derived
from the chromium distribution estimated by energy dispersive X ray spectroscopy
of scanning electron microscope.
Keywords. Monte Carlo methods, nondestructive evaluation, Inconel, Cr

depletion, magnetic hysteresis curve
Introduction
Ni based super alloys, such as Alloy 600 (Inconel), are widely used as structural
materials because of their high mechanical strength, e.g. in nuclear power plants, and
therefore early detection of the fatigue of the materials is very important. It is known
that the sensitization of Alloy 600 due to chromium depletion near grain boundaries by
heat treatment causes the intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC), then
especially the behavior under the sensitization has been studied as pressing matters [1]-
[3]. It has been also known that the sensitization produces the magnetism in Alloy 600
which has no magnetism originally [4]-[5]. Recently the relationship between magnetic
properties and sensitization is being studied to potentially use it as a basis for
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of the material [6]-[7]. Several experimental reports
show the magnetization occurs at Cr depletion areas around grain boundaries and the
degree of sensitization affects the magnetic properties such as magnetic hysteresis (B-
H) curves. However, how the distribution of Cr depletion affects the change of
magnetism in Alloy 600 microscopically is not well understood, although the

1
Corresponding Author. K. Yamaguchi (e mail: yama@sss.fukushima u.ac.jp).
356 K. Yamaguchi et al. / Local Magnetic Properties and Magnetic Particle Distribution
relationship between the distribution of Cr depletion and the local magnetism around
grain boundaries needs to be understood in order to estimate of the degree of
sensitization using magnetic NDE.
In this paper, local magnetic properties of sensitized Alloy 600 were measured
using the micro Kerr effect and the experimental results are discussed comparing the
results with simulated results obtained using the Monte Carlo (MC) method. By
comparing the calculation results with experimental data, we lay down the basis of a
MC method for detecting the degree of sensitization including the distribution of Cr
depletion.
Analysis Method
A cubic system composed of 313 cells (0,x,30, 0,y,30, 0,z,30) was prepared
including magnetic sites with a certain distribution. The distribution was decided by Cr
depletion degree around a grain boundary on the supposition that Cr depletion
introduces magnetic moments around the depletion area [4]-[5]. The distribution of Cr
depletion, which depends on the heating duration time, was calculated using
thermodynamic analysis [8]-[12]. Here the heating duration time means the period of
thermal annealing under a constant heating temperature. Figure 1(a) shows the
calculation results of the distributions of magnetic site due to Cr depletion with each
duration time (1h, 25h, 150h) under the heating temperature at 650 Celsius degree. The
distributions of magnetic sites along x-axis of the cubic system for duration time of 25h
is shown in Fig.1(b) as the surface view of the clusters. Here, the black circles represent
the magnetic sites produced with a probability obeying the distribution of Cr depletion
and white circles are non magnetic sites. In Fig.1(b), the grain boundary is set on the y-
z plane at the x-coordination of 15 and the edge surface coordination x=0 and x=30 are
regarded as -300nm and +300nm respectively.
A following Hamiltonian was used for the simulation:
H HJ HD HB
S S
$ J S
ij ij S j D $
i j

3

S i rij
S j r
ij B $ S i .
(1)
all r
3 5
near
ij rij
i
HJ term, HD term and HB term represent exchange interaction energy, magnetic dipole
interaction energy and applied magnetic field energy, respectively. Here Si denotes the
magnetic moment of the magnetic site of i-th cell and rij represents the vector between
i-th site and j-th site. Below we deal with clusters with the lattice constant of 1 and this
is regarded as a criterion of length. In the first term HJ, Jij stands for an exchange
interaction energy constant for i-th and j-th sites. In the second term HD, D stands for a
magnetic dipole interaction constant. The magnetic dipole interaction works on all
magnetic sites because it is due to magnetic field interspersed in all space. The
summation includes the interaction energy between i-th site and all j-th sites except for
the case j=i. In the third term HB, B represents applied magnetic field which acts
equally all magnetic sites. The changing of Si on MC simulation progresses as spin-
flips by Metropolis sampling at finite temperature kBT [13]-[14]. The period that N
K. Yamaguchi et al. / Local Magnetic Properties and Magnetic Particle Distribution 357
times of the spin-flips occur is called 1 MC step (MCS) for the number of magnetic
sites N and it corresponds to time passage in this simulation. For details of MC method
for magnetic dynamic process, see the references [15]-[23]. In this simulation, the
parameters were set as Jij =1.0, D=0.01. The value of Si was fixed as |Si|=1.
Figure 1. (a) Distribution of magnetic sites due to Cr depletion as a function of distance from a grain
boundary for each heating duration time. (b) Example of a cluster including magnetic sites for a duration time
of 25h.
Results and Discussion
Figure 2(a) shows the experimental results of the magnetic B-H curves for Alloy 600
with different duration times under the heating temperature at 650 Celsius degree. The
measurements were performed at room temperature using a vibration sample
magnetometer (VSM). On the other hand, Fig. 2(b) shows the calculation results of B-
H curves. The results of calculated B-H curves are the average of magnetization for
two directions of applied magnetic field along perpendicular (x direction) and parallel
(y direction) to grain boundary surface of cubic system. The behaviors of calculated B-
H curves for duration times correspond to the experimental ones, especially for the
residual magnetization Mr and magnetic coercivity HC.
Figure 3(a) and 3(b) show the heating duration time dependence of Mr and HC,
respectively, including more different duration times. The calculation result shows
good correspondence with the experimental data. The little difference of the duration
time at Mr maximum between calculation and experiment can be due to the poor
reliability of the estimated distribution of magnetic site due to Cr depletion in Fig.1(a).
The calculation results of the duration time dependence of Mr and HC tell us the relation
between the distribution of Cr depletion and the magnetic properties. As shown in
Fig.1(a), the total amount of Cr depletion, i.e. the integral of the distribution, is the
most for the duration time of 25h, and ones for 1h and 150h are almost same each other.
Comparing B-H curves in Fig.2, Mr reflects the total amount of Cr depletion. On the
other hand, the concentration of Cr depletion around a grain boundary is the most for
the duration time of 25h, and the least for 150h as shown in Fig.1(a). Therefore HC
depends on the average density of Cr depletion around grain boundaries.
Next local magnetic B-H curves were measured by micro Kerr magnetometer
(Neoark BH-L920V). Figure 4(a) shows a B-H curve at a point in a grain in sensitized
Alloy 600 with duration time of 100h under the heating temperature at 650 Celsius
degree and the result shows no magnetizations. Figure 4 (b) and (c) are B-H curves for
same sample at the points on grain boundaries parallel and perpendicular to the applied
magnetic field direction respectively. Micro Kerr magnetometer shows B-H curve
without quantitative criterion of magnetization (e.g. unit of emu or T), but can tell the
difference of magnetic properties relatively. The results indicate a magnetic anisotropy
depending on grain boundary directions.
To study the magnetic anisotropy properties more deeply, the distributions of Cr
depletion around grain boundaries were measured using a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). Figure 5(a) shows scanning electron micrograph of sensitized
Alloy 600. In this figure, two circles show carbon condensations on a grain boundary.
Figure 5(b) and (c) show distribution of Cr component measured by Energy Dispersive
X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) along each line A, B and C in Fig. 5(a). In Fig. 5(b), the
distribution of Cr component along line A has a dip around the center of the boundary,
on the other hand, along line B it shows a peak on the carbon condensation. These
results mean the transference of Cr from boundary to carbon as well known in previous
works by several authors. In Fig. 5(c), the distributions of Cr component along line C
were measured using two different applied voltages of the electron beam for EDX. Line
C is set on grain boundary between two carbon condensations. The distribution along
line C shows Cr depletion occurs to the extent of about 200nm from carbon
condensations along the boundary and Cr component rate is recovered in the area over
the distance of 200nm. Moreover Fig. 5(c) shows Cr depletion rate measured using
applied voltage of 10kV is larger than 15kV. In general, EDX measurement with higher
voltage detects the elements in deeper region from the surface. Then the results show
Cr depletion just occurs near the surface around a grain boundary. Then a magnetic
cluster was formed as shown in Fig. 6. The cluster is reflected in the results of the
distribution of Cr depletion, that is, it has a narrow width and a thin depth compared
with the length along a grain boundary. Figure 4(d) shows the calculation results of B-
H curves applied the magnetic field parallel (z direction) and perpendicular (x
direction) in Fig. 6 and the results show shape magnetic anisotropy. As a result, the
anisotropy as shown in Fig.4 (b) and (c) will be caused as the shape effect due to the
distribution of Cr depletion.
As shown in above discussion, B-H curves for sensitized Alloy 600 include the
information of the distribution of Cr depletion and it can even tell the local dispersion
of Cr depletion around carbon condensations.
Figure 2. B H curves of (a) experiment and (b) calculation for each duration time.
Figure 3. Duration time dependence of residual magnetization Mr and coercivity HC for (a) experiment and
(b) calculation results.
Figure 4. (a) (c) Experimental results of B H curves for sensitized Alloy 600 under thermal aging with 100
hours heating duration time and (d) calculation results of B H curves by MC method for a cluster as shown in
Fig.6. Experimental B H curves were measured using Kerr effect at each point: (a) in a grain, on a grain
boundary (b) parallel and (c) perpendicular to the magnetic field direction. (d) Calculated B H curves are
applied the magnetic field parallel (z direction) and perpendicular (x direction) in Fig. 6.
Figure 5. (a)Scanning electron micrograph of sensitized Alloy 600. Circles show carbon condensations on a
grain boundary. (b) (c) Distribution of Cr component along each line A, B and C in Fig.5(a).
Figure 6. Surface view of model cluster including magnetic sites due to the distribution of Cr depletion.
Conclusion
The magnetization properties of sensitized Alloy 600 were analyzed using the Monte
Carlo (MC) method including the distribution of Cr depletion. The experimental and
computational results show good correspondence with each other, especially for Mr and
HC. This shows that the magnetic properties are indicative the distribution of Cr
depletion which can be obtained through MC simulation. The analysis allows one to
use magnetic NDE to estimate the degree of sensitization.
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-362
Metamaterials in electromagnetic
nondestructive evaluation
Adriana SAVIN, Rozina STEIGMANN, Alina BRUMA,
Nicoleta IFTIMIE and Raimond GRIMBERG
National Institute of Research and Development for Technical Physics, Iasi, Romania
Abstract. This paper proposes the study and implementation of metamaterials in

the electromagnetic nondestructive examination; these materials can serve as
electromagnetic flux concentrators in radiofrequency range. Thus, the using of a
new type of metamaterials, namely conical Swiss roll has been proposed. As direct
application, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) plates with and without
delaminations, created by impacts with low energy, were examined with the
electromagnetic transducers with metamaterial lens. The characteristics of carbon
fibers woven structure became visible and the delaminations are clearly
emphasized.
Keywords: metamaterials, conical Swiss roll, CFRP, electromagnetic

nondestructive evaluation
1. Introduction
Basically, the nondestructive examination of a material consists in the applying a

physical field to the object examined and evaluating the interaction between the field
and the eventual material flaws.
If the physical field applied to the examined object is an electromagnetic field with
frequencies ranging from tens of hertz to tens of gigahertz or even terahertz, the
procedure is named electromagnetic nondestructive examination.
When the object to be examined has high electrical conductivity, and
inhomogeneities (voids, inclusions, cracks - having lower electrical conductivity) are
present in the interior, under the action of the electromagnetic field, eddy currents will
be induced inside the object.
The inhomogeneity will become a new current source within the structure of the
tested object [1], [2]. If the electrical conductivity of the tested piece is lower then the
one of the inhomogeneities (which is the case of carbon fiber reinforced plastics that
present delaminations due to impact with different energies), the phenomenon that
contributes to the detection of inhomogeneities is the electromagnetic field scattering
on conductive zones by different shapes and positions inside the dielectric medium [3],
[4]. As long as the frequencies used are not high (lower than 1GHz), the incident
electromagnetic field is usually created by the coils circulated by alternative currents or
current impulses. The detection of electromagnetic field created by the secondary
current sources, or the detection of the scattered one, can be made either by coils or, in
the case of low frequency field, specific sensors, i.e. sensors with Hall Effect or
SQUID [5].
A. Savin et al. / Metamaterials in Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation 363
To obtain more precise mapping of regions with electrical conductivities different

from the ones of the host material, the assembly generation of electromagnetic field
detection should assure a spatial resolution as better as possible.
In order to obtain a signal to noise ratio as large as possible at detection, leading to
the increase of detection probability for a higher reliability coefficient, the use of a
small lift-off (i.e. distance between the electromagnetic transducer and the controlled
piece) is necessary [6]. This leads to the necessity of working in near field, as the
generated and the scattered electromagnetic waves respectively are evanescent waves
(i.e. waves that are rapidly attenuated with the distance [7]) and are difficult to be
focalized using classical materials.
2. Conical Swiss roll as metamaterials
Metamaterials [8] can provide an engineered response to electromagnetic radiation that

is not available from the class of naturally occurring materials. They consist of
individual or arrays of elements for which all the geometrical dimensions are small
compared to the wavelength of operation. Because the wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation is large (at 300MHz, the wavelength in air, O0=1m), the
condition that the element should be much smaller than wavelength is accomplished.
A conical Swiss roll consists of a number of spiral-wound layers of insulated
conductor on a conical mandrel, Figure 1.
a b
Figure 1. Conical Swiss roll: a) Schematic of a conical Swiss roll; b) Photograph of a conical Swiss roll
The insulated conductor is a copper foil with 18m thickness and a layer of
polyamide with 12m thickness (LONGLITETM200 produced by ROGERS
CORPORATION USA). The Copper and polyamide layers have been laminated
without adhesive to decrease the losses at high frequencies. The insulated layer has a
relative dielectric permittivity of 3.2 and loss tangent, tan=0.0099.
The conical Swiss rolls have 5 layers, 20mm base diameter, 3.2mm top diameter,
the aperture angle 200 and height 55mm. Only few conical Swiss rolls with similar
properties were selected from a produced range.
Pendry et al. [8] proposed that Swiss roll made from thin conducting sheets have a
macroscopic magnetic behaviour for a magnetic field applied along the rod. The radio
frequency magnetic field will induce currents on the circumference of the cone (Figure
1a) and consequently a magnetization opposing the applied magnetic field.
The capacitive and conductive elements of the structure create a resonant RLC
circuit that the induced currents are subject to, and therefore a resonant P taking high
positive and negative value for a range of frequencies is achieved [9].
Thus, a conical Swiss roll can act as radio frequency magnetic flux concentrator.
364 A. Savin et al. / Metamaterials in Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation
To determine the effective magnetic permeability of a conical Swiss roll, the S

parameters have been measured using a Network/Spectrum/Impedance Analyzer
4395A Agilent coupled with S Parameter Test Kit 87511A, Agilent, USA.
The electromagnetic field is generated by a coil with 2 turns having 16mm
diameter, made of 1mm diameter copper wire. The response of conical Swiss roll
metamaterial is measured with a reception coil having 2 turns with 3mm diameter
(Figure 2a). The dependence of real and imaginary components of S11 and S21 by the
frequency is presented in Figures 2b and c.
b c
Figure 2. Dependence of S paramaters by frequency: real component and imaginary component: a)

experimental set up; b) S11; c) S21
According to [10] the impedance of the metamaterial considered a homogeneous
slab and excited by a plane wave is given by
Z r
1 S11 2 S212 (1)
(1 S11 )2 S21
2
The sign in front of the square root sign is chosen such that
Re(Z ) t 0 (2)
The refraction index of metamaterial n, is obtained as solution of transcendental

equation
1 1
e jnk0d r j 1

(3)
2S21 1 S11
2
S21
2
2S21 1 S11
2
S21
2
2S f
where k0 with f - the frequency and c the speed of light in vacuum,
c
j 1 , d the height of conical Swiss roll; the + or sign is chosen such that
Im(n) t 0 (4)
In these conditions the effective magnetic permeability of a conical Swiss roll is

given by
Peff Re(n) Im(Z ) Im(n) Re(Z ) (5)
where n is the refraction index, solution of eq. (3) and Z is the impedance of
metamaterial given by eq. (1).
In Figure 3 is presented the dependency of frequency for the effective magnetic
permeability of a conical Swiss roll.
It can be observed that the effective magnetic permeability became high for a
certain frequency range, whereas for certain frequencies it became negative. As
applications in the domain of electromagnetic nondestructive examination we are
proposing an optimized work frequency of 72.5 MHz which assures a magnetic
effective permeability of 22.
At this frequency, the property of a conical Swiss roll as alternative magnetic flux
concentrator has been verified. Using the Network/Spectrum/Impedance Analyzer
4395A Agilent, it has been measured the electromotive force (emf) induced in the
detection coil that is displaced with a XY motorized stage Newmark type over the
small basis of the conical Swiss roll at the distance of 1m.
The dependence of the amplitude of the emf induced in the reception coil by the
frequency is presented in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Dependence by frequency of effective Figure 4. The dependence of the amplitude of the
magnetic permeability of conical Swiss roll emf induced in the reception coil at the scanning
along the small base of the Swiss roll. Lift off
0.2mm
Examining data from Figure 4 it can be observed that in the zone corresponding to
the diameter of the small base of conical Swiss roll, for a frequency that assures a
maximum of effective magnetic permeability of the investigated metamaterial, the
concentration of the radio frequency magnetic flux is very high. Also, it must be
mentioned that on this aperture the magnetic flux is almost constant, fact that suggests
the existence of an electromagnetic plane wave.
3. Near field images using conical Swiss roll
Let consider a layout of two Swiss rolls disposed as in Figure 5. The small basis of the
first Swiss roll behaves as a circular aperture and, due to radio frequency flux
concentration properties, previous described, the rays that pass inside can be traced.
Thus, the object plane is in the front of the aperture of Swiss roll I and the focal
plane is located in the plane of small base of Swiss roll II.
Into a region without sources, the Helmholtz wave equation is [3]
Figure 5. Layout of two conical Swiss rolls acting as lens to obtain near field images
2

k 2 E x, y, z 0 (6)
where k is the wave number k= 2S f , with f frequency and v the propagation speed of
v
the electromagnetic waves in the considered media.
In angular representation, for a plane wave
f f
dk dk
Ek k x , k y e
1 j kx xk y y
E x, y , z x y (7)
2S f f
2
where angular spectrum is
f f
dx ' dy '

Ek k x , k y 1
E x ', y ', 0 e
j kx xk y y
(8)
2S f f
2
If k 2 ! k x2 k y2 , the electromagnetic wave is a plane wave, and if

k 2 k x2 k y2 , the electromagnetic wave is an evanescent wave, being rapidly damped
along z axis.
If the evanescent waves are the dominant states, condition accomplished at
distances smaller than the wavelength, the field in any z position will be
E x, y , z
f f

jk x x j sign k x z z0 jk y y j sign k y z z0 (9)

1 dk
fk kx , k y e x dk y
4S 2 f f
where
f k k x , k y is the angular spectrum of the field from aperture
1 if kx ! 0
1 if ky ! 0
sign k x
kx 0
; sign k y
ky 0
0 if 0 if
Considering a wave that has constant angular spectrum in aperture, truncating the
integral from (9) at a double finite sum we obtain
E0 if ka d k x d kb , ka d k y d kb

f kx , k y (10)
0 in rest
Using the Fourier optics method [11] for the condition given by (10), the field in
focal plane is obtained
k k k k
k k k k
j b a x b a y
sin b a x sin b a y
E x, y0 2d , z
E0
e 2 2 2 2 (11)
S2 x y
A relatively uniform angular spectrum can be obtained by scattering an

electromagnetic wave on a small scatter of circular shape made from a material
considered a perfect electromagnetic conductor (PEC).
The diameter of the focal spot of the metamaterial lens will be given by [11]
4S
D (12)
kb ka
and will be, according to Figure 5, equal with the diameter of the small basis of the
conical Swiss roll (i.e 3.2mm).
Inserting this value in (12), the values of kb and ka are obtained, and, the field in
the focal plane can be calculated, according to (11).
Plate from CFRP type having 6 layers of carbon fibers woven type 5 harness satin
(Carbon T300 3K 5HS) with a layout that assures the quasi-isotropic properties of the
plate were studied. The polymer matrix is made of Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS). The
thickness of the plate is 1.91mm with 0.5 volume ratio. The plates are produced by
TenCate Advanced Composites, Netherlands.
On these plates, delaminations due to impact with different energies have been
induced using a spherical impactor with 22mm diameter.
The plates were examined by means the electromagnetic procedure described
above using the transducer presented in Figure 6, which contains a metamaterial lens,
for detection. For the plane wave generation, a conical Swiss roll also has been used,
acting as a flux concentrator. The lift-off was maintained constant at 0.25mm; the
material to be examined can be considered practically in the plane of the aperture, the
reception coil being in the focal plane of the lens. The control frequency was 72.5 MHz.
In Figure 7, we present [12] the schematic layout of the 5H satin carbon fibers
woven.
Figure 6. The electromagnetic transducer with Figure 7. Schematic representation of 5H biaxial

metamaterials lens woven fabric architectures
In Figure 8a is presented the amplitude of the signal delivered by the
electromagnetic transducer with metamaterials at the scanning of a region of composite
without delamination.
The structure of CFRP obtained with the electromagnetic transducer with
metamaterials respects with high fidelity the structure of the first layer of carbon woven
5H type.
In Figure 8b is presented the signal given by the same transducer at the scanning of
a region of composite which contains a delamination due to an impact with 2.5J energy.
On the edges of the electromagnetic image, the structure of the woven can be observed;
in the central zone, the delaminated region is emphasized.
a b
Figure 8. The measured amplitude of the signal delivered by the electromagnetic transducer with
metamaterials at the scanning of a CFRP zone: a) without delamination; b) with delamination
This zone becomes electromagnetically detectable due to the modification of the
electrical conductivity on the normal direction to the woven plane as a consequence of
the impact [13].
5. Conclusions
The metamaterials have started to be intensely studied mainly in the last decade, both
from a theoretical and experimental point of view. Using a new type of metamaterial
conical Swiss roll, a series of new type of applications such as electromagnetic
examination procedures can be designed. These are mainly based in on the fact that the
conical Swiss roll presents high effective magnetic permeability in the range of radio
frequencies such that, due to their shapes, can serve as radio frequency magnetic flux
concentrator. By coupling two conical Swiss rolls, lenses of metamaterials can be
designed and studied using Fourier optics. The electromagnetic transducers based on
lenses with metamaterials can be used with good results at the examination of small
dimensions electrical conductive bodies embedded into the dielectric matrix. Clear
images of the woven of carbon fibers from CFRP can be obtained and delamination
due to impacts with low energies can be emphasized.
6. Acknowledgments
This paper is partially supported by the Romanian Ministry of Education, Research and
Innovation under Nucleus Program 09 43 01 04 and National Plan II - Contract no.
71-016/2007- MODIS.
7. References
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-371
Evaluation of Plastic Deformation in Steels

by Magnetic Hysteresis Measurements
Gbor VRTESY a,1 , Shuzo UEDAb, Tetsuya UCHIMOTOc, Toshiyuki TAKAGIc,
Ivan TOMd and Zofia VRTESYa
a
Research Institute for Technical Physics and Materials Science, Budapest, Hungary
b
c
Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
d
Institute of Physics, Praha, Czech Republic
Abstract. Tensile tests of plastically deformed specimens were performed in order

to investigate the relation between variation of magnetic characteristics and
residual plastic strain. Deformed stainless steel (SUS316L) and carbon steel
(SS400) specimens were investigated by the method of Magnetic Adaptive Testing,
measuring and evaluating series of minor magnetic hysteresis loops. Reliable
correlation was found between magnetic parameters and residual strain of the
specimens. Magnetic descriptors also depend on the orientation of magnetizing
field with respect to the direction of elongation. Based on these results, Magnetic
Adaptive Testing is suggested as a highly promising non destructive method for
monitoring plastic deformation in different types of steel.
Keywords. Magnetic Adaptive Testing, Magnetic hysteresis measurements
1. Introduction
Magnetic measurements are frequently used for characterization of changes in structure

of ferromagnetic materials, because magnetization processes are closely related to
microstructure of the materials. This fact also makes magnetic measurements an
obvious candidate for non-destructive testing, for detection and characterization of any
defects in materials and manufactured products made of such materials [1,2,3].
Structural non-magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials have been non-
destructively tested using traditional magnetic hysteresis measurement methods for a
long time with fair success. A number of techniques have been suggested, developed
and currently used in industry, see e.g. [4,5]. They are mostly based on detection of
structural variations via the classical macroscopic parameters of hysteresis loops.
An alternative, more sensitive and more experimentally friendly approach to this topic
was considered recently in [6] and [7], based on magnetic minor loops measurement. In
[6] the method of Magnetic Adaptive Testing (MAT) was presented, which introduced
general magnetic descriptors to diverse variations in non-magnetic properties of
ferromagnetic materials, optimally adapted to the just investigated property and
1
Corresponding Author. Gbor Vrtesy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Institute for
Technical Physics and Materials Science, H 1525 Budapest, P.O.Box 49, Hungary, E mail:
vertesyg@mfa.kfki.hu.
372 G. Vrtesy et al. / Evaluation of Plastic Deformation in Steels
material. In [7] the sets of minor hysteresis loops were scrutinized, and sensitive
descriptors of plastic deformation of the material (independent on the minor loop
amplitudes) were identified. As another method, a hyperbolic model of magnetization
was applied for describing the magnetization curves of magnetic alloys. This model
provides an analytical solution to the complex phenomena of magnetic hysteresis [8].
Magnetic Adaptive Testing has already been successfully applied for investigation of
structural changes in several different materials. For instance, cast iron material was
measured [9], cold rolled low-carbon steel was studied [10] and also cold-rolled
austenitic stainless steel samples were non-destructively characterized by this technique
[11]. However, degradation of low-carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel with
plastic tension after unloading has not still been investigated by MAT. Influence of
plastic tension causes different structural changes in the specimen than cold rolling.
The studying of this phenomena is extremely important for the inspection of nuclear
power plants. The purpose of this work is to investigate the influence of plastic
deformation in stainless steel (SUS316L) and in carbon steel (SS400) specimens by
Magnetic Adaptive Testing. Furthermore, another novelty is this work is to study the
influence of plastic deformation as a function of magnetizing field with respect to the
direction of applied tensile stress.
2. Experimental
Carbon steel SS400 and austenitic stainless steel SUS316L materials were used for the
measurements. The specimens were made from 500x100 mm2 plate of 3 mm in
thickness. The residual strain, , was added by tensile loads. Values of the residual
strain for both types of materials are given in Table 1. Two specimens with each strain
were measured. Maekawa universal testing machine was used at room temperature in
air. The strain gage was located in the middle area of the specimens. The specimens
can be seen in Fig. 1(a). The test equipment is shown in Fig. 1(b). The stress-strain
diagram of the stainless steel sample is shown in Fig. 2. For magnetic measurements
100x70mm2 size pieces were cut from the strained plate.
Table 1. Added residual strain for carbon steel (SS) and austenitic steel (SUS) samples
Specimen Residual strain, [%] Specimen Residual strain,
SSRef1 0 [%]
SSRef2 0 SUS2 0.2
SS2 0.2 SUS4 0.2
SS4 0.2 SUS5 0.5
SS5 0.5 SUS7 0.5
SS7 0.5 SUS9 1
SS8 1 SUS10 1
SS10 1 SUS11 2
SS11 2 SUS12 2
SS13 2 SUS14 5
SS14 5 SUS15 5
SS16 5 SUS17 10
SS17 10 SUS18 10
SS19 10 SUS20 20
SUS22 20
SUS24 50
SUS25 50
G. Vrtesy et al. / Evaluation of Plastic Deformation in Steels 373
All samples in the two series were measured by the MAT method. Both directions of
magnetization in parallel and perpendicular to the tension direction were examined. A
specially designed Permeameter [12] with a magnetizing yoke was applied for
measurement of families of minor loops of the magnetic circuit differential
permeability. The magnetizing coil wound on the yoke gets a triangular waveform
current with step-wise increasing amplitudes and with a fixed slope magnitude in all
the triangles. This produces a triangular time-variation of the effective field in the
magnetizing circuit and a signal is induced in the pick-up coil. As long as the field
sweeps linearly with time, the voltage signal in the pick-up coil is proportional to the
differential permeability of the magnetic circuit. The Permeameter works under full
control of a PC computer, which registers data-files for each measured family of the
minor permeability loops. The experimental raw data are processed by an evaluation
program, which divides the originally continuous signal of each measured sample into
a family of individual permeability loops and it is chosen for next processing. The
program filters experimental noise and interpolates the experimental data into a regular
square grid of elements, ij(hai,hbj), of a -matrix with a pre-selected field-step. Here
(hai,hbj) are the field coordinates of the element, hai being the value of the sweeping
field, and hbj amplitude of the minor loop. Each ij-element represents one MAT-
descriptor of the investigated material structure variation.
Figure 1. Appearance of the test specimens (a) and the test equipment (b).
5 00
4 00
[N/mm ]
2
3 00
2 00
1 00
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
appl [% ]
Figure 2. The stress strain diagram of the SUS sample.
The matrices are processed by another evaluation program, which normalizes them by
a chosen reference matrix, and arranges all the mutually corresponding elements ij of
all the evaluated -matrices into a ij() table. Each ij()-column of the table, i.e.
variation of each MAT-descriptor with residual strain, numerically represents one
ij()-degradation function of the material. The consecutive series of -matrices,
each taken for one sample with a value of the strain, k=0%, 0.2%, 0.5%,... , of the
consecutive series of the more-and-more deformed steel, describes the magnetic
reflection of the material plastic deformation.
Integrating the permeability along the field, ha, hysteresis loops and B-matrices can be
obtained. The B-matrices contain in principle the same information as the matrices,
however, presentation of the -dependences is different and sometimes more
advantageous.
3. Results
In the case of carbon steel, definite differences were found in the directly measured
signal (~permeability) of differently deformed samples, as shown in Fig. 3. However,
in spite of large differences among the magnetic properties of the samples, there is no
evident correlation between the permeability values and the given independent
parameter, namely the residual strain.
Induced signal (~permeability) [V]
SS8
0 08 SSRef1
SSRef2
SS7 SS14
0 06
SS16
SS10 SS19
SS17 SS11
SS13
0 04 SS5 SS2
SS4
0 02
0 00
15 10 05 00 05 10 15
Magnetizing current [A]
Figure 3. Induced signals of the SS400 samples as functions of the magnetizing current. The plotted curves
are proportional to the increasing hysteresis half loops.
Similarly, the calculated ij-degradation functions did not reveal systematic correlation
with residual strain. On the other side, the optimal Bij-degradation functions show good
correlation with , as plotted in Fig. 4. Here all the Bij values are normalized by one of
the reference (SSRef1) not deformed) samples. Note, that significant difference was
found if the direction of magnetization was taken parallel or perpendicular with respect
to the direction of elongation. The most deformed samples had about 5 times larger
MAT descriptors than the not deformed sample.
6
5 Parallel
Optimal Bij functions
Perpendicular
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Residual strain, [%]
Figure 4. The optimal Bij() degradation functions vs. residual strain of carbon steel for parallel and
perpendicular magnetization with respect to the elongation.
The stainless steel samples are very weakly magnetic, in contrast to the carbon steel
samples. It is difficult to perform any magnetic measurement on these samples. This
character is very well reflected on the directly measured (permeability) curves, as
shown in Fig. 5.
nduced signal (~permeability) [V]

0,0074
0,0072
0,0070
SUS2
SUS17
0,0068 SUS22
SUS25
0,0066
-1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0

Magnetizing current [A]
Figure 5. Induced signals of the SUS samples as functions of the magnetizing current. The plotted curves are
proportional to the increasing hysteresis half loops. Only four samples are depicted, for the sake of legibility
of the plot.
It is not surprising, that in this case of stainless steel also no correlation with the
residual strain can be seen if the evaluated -degradation functions are considered. But
similarly to the case of the carbon steel samples, good, definite and reproducible
correlation was found between the derived Bij()-degradation functions and the residual
strain. Fig. 6 shows the correlation between the optimally chosen B-degradation
functions and the residual strain, for the orientation of the magnetizing field being both
parallel and perpendicular with the samples elongation. In this case all the values are
normalized by the corresponding values of sample SUS4. Almost the same result was
obtained, if sample SUS2 was used for normalization (not shown here). The low values
of parameters, however, can sometimes cause a problem, if they are normalized with
each other. To be sure, the calculation was also performed without normalization. It
was found that the correlation is not affected by the way of normalization.
1,5
1,4
Optimal Bij functions
Parallel
1,3
1,2
1,1
Perpendicular
1,0
0,9
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Residual strain, [%]
Figure 6. The optimal Bij() degradation functions vs. residual strain of stainless steel for parallel and
perpendicular magnetization with respect to the elongation..
In the perpendicular direction almost no influence of elongation was found on the MAT
descriptors, but in the parallel case the optimally chosen magnetic parameter was about
30% larger as compared with the reference sample. The scatter of points is rather large,
but the tendency is clearly seen.
4. Discussion
As it is shown above, the magnetic minor hysteresis loop measurements, performed by

a magnetizing yoke, after proper data evaluation, is suitable for detection of plastic
deformation in the SS400 carbon steel and also in the SUS316L stainless steel, if the
data are evaluated by the Magnetic Adaptive Testing method. In contrast to the
previously observed case on cold rolled steels, the primarily measured permeability
values (and also the -matrices) on tensile stressed samples do not seem to correlate
with the material degradation, so they are not suitable to characterize the plastic
deformation of the investigated samples. However, parameters, which describe the
magnetic induction, B, and/or derivative of the permeability, , (not shown in this
paper) of the samples give well acceptable results. This experience demonstrates well
the multiparametric behaviour of Magnetic Adaptive Testing. MAT is considered a
way towards optimization of hysteresis testing, where those magnetic descriptors of the
varied structural properties, are chosen, which are best adapted to the investigated
property and to the investigated material.
The scatter of points is relatively large, however, the tendency is clearly seen and the
magnetic descriptors are reliable and reproducible as concluded from the repeated
measurements on the same series of samples under different experimental conditions
(different yokes, different speed of magnetization, etc.). Large difference between the
characteristic values was found, if the samples were magnetized in the parallel or
perpendicular directions with respect to the samples elongation. In case of
perpendicular magnetization with respect to the elongation only very weak influence
was found, while in case of paralallel magnetization the most degraded samples have
about five times larges magnetic descriptors than the reference, not elongated sample
has. This fact shows the anisotropic character of material degradation, and it also
makes evident the capability of MAT to reveal this anisotropy. The well known and
widely studied phenomenon, formation of Lueder bands in our carbon steel specimens
has not been studied, because it is not the subject of the present work.
Degradation of a low-carbon steel with plastic tension was investigated after unloading
by magnetic methods (major hysteresis loop measurement and Barkhausen noise, BN
emission) [13]. In this work magnetically closed samples (rings and frames) were
measured. Monotonous correlation was found between and Hc and also between
and BN. Due to 20% residual strain, coercivity increased by about 75%, while BN
increased less than 10%. The behaviour of the hysteresis parameters and the RMS
values of BN was explained by the change of the dislocation structure of the material
with the deformation, which was confirmed by TEM observation. We received similar
correlation between magnetic descriptors and strain, but in our case the sensitivity was
much larger and we used magnetically open samples, which were magnetized by
attaching a yoke. Our method can only be considered as really nondestructive one.
Austenitic stainless steel was previosuly investigated by Magnetic Adaptive Testing,

but in that case the conditions were quite different. In the case, described in [11],
titanium stabilized austenitic stainless steel, 18/8 type, was studied where stripe-shaped
specimens were cut from the original stainless steel plate. The specimens were
annealed at 1100 C for 1 hour. Then they were quenched in water in order to prevent
any carbide precipitation, and to achieve homogeneous austenitic structure as the
starting material structure. Then the as-prepared stainless steel specimens were cold-
rolled at room temperature up to about 60% strain. This process resulted a significant
amount of the ferromagnetic phase, which was measured by a conventional portable
ferrite tester equipment. The most deformed samples had 69 % bcc -martensite,
which is highly ferromagnetic. The ferromagnetic character of the deformed sample
can be seen in Fig. 7, where the signal registered for one family of minor loops
0 06
Pick-up coil signal [arb units]
0 04
0 02
0 00
-0 02
-0 04
-0 06
-1 5 -1 0 -0 5 00 05 10 15
Magnetizing current, I [A]
Figure 7. Induced signals of cold rolled austenitic stainless steel sample as functions of the magnetizing
current. All the minor loops are shown [11].
(measured on sample having 69% -martensite) is shown, similarly to Figs. 3 and 5,

but here all the minor loops are shown. It is evident from this graph, that the magnetic
behaviour of the previously and presently studies samples are very different. In the
present case tha samples were almost no ferromagnetic, the content of martensite phase
was very low. This result demonstrates very well the capability of Magnetic Adaptive
Testing. The measured signal in this case is very weak, due to the very low
magnetization of the samples and there is almost no difference in the measured plots of
differently deformed samples. However, in spite of this fact, after the data processing, a
reliable correlation can be found between the residual strain and the magnetic
descriptors. Successful magnetic measurements on this type of material are still not
known from the literature.
Another advantage (compared to traditional magnetic hysteresis methods) of the MAT

method is that the magnetic saturation of the samples is not required. It is possible to
apply a small simple yoke for both the magnetization and for the measurement of
magnetically open samples. The method does not give absolute values of the traditional
magnetic quantities, but evidently it is able to serve as a powerful tool for comparative
measurements, and for detection of changes, which occur in structure of the inspected
samples during their lifetime or during a period of their heavy-duty service.
5. Conclusions
In the present paper additional advantageous features of previously shown and

discussed Magnetic Adaptive Testing method were shown. New results were presented
on two different, but similarly tortured sample series. This work demonstrates again
that MAT seems to be a good method for replacing destructive methods by
nondestructive magnetic measurements. MAT offers a large choice of parameters.
According to the investigated materials behavior, those parameters, which describe the
material degradation the best, should be chosen. For the successful application of the
MAT method, first it is necessary to make comparative, traditional, destructive
measurements on a series of samples, for teaching the MAT. This teaching procedure
determines the optimum degradation function/s (i.e. the optimum calibration function),
and the method of Magnetic Adaptive Testing is best adapted to the investigated task in
this way. Then, this/these chosen optimum degradation functions will serve as sensitive
parameters for practical measurements on unknown samples (of the same kind) to be
investigated. The presented results are encouraging for future practical applications of
MAT in nondestructive material evaluation.
Acknowledgements
The work was supported by Hungarian Scientific Research Fund through project A08
CK 80173, by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic through project
No.101/09/1323, and by the Czech-Hungarian Bilateral Intergovernmental S&T
Cooperation project. Authors express their thanks also to Japan Society of
Maintenology and Tokyo Electric Power Company for preparing the samples.
References
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Materials Science and Technology, Elsevier Press, Oxford, (2001), 6021.
[3] I. Mszros, Materials Science Forum, 473-474 (2005), 231 236.
[4] D.C. Jiles, NDT International, 21 (1988), 311 319.
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[7] S.Takahashi, L.Zhang, T.Ueda, J.Phys.: Condens.Matter, 15 (2003), 7997 8002.
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INTERNATIONAL, 41 (2008) 252 257.
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High Frequency Techniques and Others
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-381
GPR for UXO recognition

Raimond GRIMBERG, Adriana SAVIN, Nicoleta IFTIMIE,
Sorin LEITOIU and Aurel ANDREESCU
Nondestructive Testing Department, National Institute of Research and Development

for Technical Physics, 47 D.Mangeron Blvd., 700050, Iasi, Romania
Abstract. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has become at present an instrument

widely used in different domains. This paper is based on the using of GPR for
detection and characterization of unexploded ordnances (UXO). The obtained
experimental data and some signal and image processing procedures are presented
in order to make a correct evaluation of type of UXOs, caliber, dimensions and
their location in the horizontally plan as well in depth.
Keywords. GPR, UXO, signal and image processing, shape recognition
Introduction
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a non-intrusive technique used to obtain

information about the medium below the surface of the earth. The technique relies upon
transmission of electromagnetic energy into the earth, and subsequent reflection of the
energy at interfaces of differing dielectric permittivity. There are a wide range of
domains that have used GPR such as archaeology, geology, civil engineering, and
military applications. Current applications of GPR include but are not limited to
detection of unexploded ordnance (UXO), buried landmines (anti-personnel and anti-
tank), road layer thickness measurements, position of underground pipes and cables.
To operate successfully GPR must achieve [1] an adequate signal to clutter ratio;
an adequate signal to noise ratio; an adequate spatial resolution of the target and an
adequate depth resolution of the target. Most GPR systems detect the backscattered
signal from the target, although forward transmission methods are used in borehole
tomography radar imaging [2]. When a down-looking antenna is scanned over a
relatively small target, a characteristic hyperbolic arc appears in the time-domain data.
However, a significant limitation of GPR in this application is that it can be very
difficult for a non-expert user to extract information about the underground from the
raw data.
1. GPR principles
A block diagram of a generic GPR system is shown in Figure 1. The transmitter can
provide an amplitude frequency or phase modulated waveform signal and the selection
of the bandwidth, repetition rate or mean power will depend upon the path loss and
382 R. Grimberg et al. / GPR for UXO Recognition
target dimensions. The transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) antennas will be usually
identical and will be elected to meet the characteristics of the generated waveform.
Figure 1. Block diagram of a generic GPR system.

The majority of GPR systems uses an impulse time domain waveform and receives
the reflected signal in a sampling receiver.
The key of success of this method lies in proper pre-processing of the GPR data,
which is a very important step before formal data analysis can begin.
Models of the GPR situation range from a simple single frequency evaluation of
path losses to complete 3D time domain descriptions of the GPR and its environment.
Modeling techniques include single frequency models, time domain models, ray tracing,
integral techniques and discrete element methods. The Finite Difference Time Domain
(FDTD) technique has become one of the popular techniques [1, 3].
2. The equipment and the studied samples
The GPR equipment is Utility Scan - Standard System - GSSI USA, having a
400MHz antenna. On the front wheel of the GPR displacing system, an encoder is
mounted assuring the determination of the position with 1mm precision. The sampling
raster is 0.04ms, the quantization being made on 16bits.
An experimental test site has been arranged on a terrain from which metallic
objects (the detection was effectuated with GPR), civil engineering materials and big
stones have been removed. In this test site, parallelepiped holes with 1x1x0.8m3
dimensions have been practiced, where different types of ammunition (without
explosive material) were buried. The ammunitions studied are presented in Figure 2.
R. Grimberg et al. / GPR for UXO Recognition 383
Figure 2. The ammunition tested

After its introduction in the hole, this was tamped with soil which has been pressed.
In Figure 3, there is presented the GPR equipment in the test site. The average value of
dielectric permittivity of the soil was determined during the measurements, using
standard procedures [4] as being 6. Each situation has been individually simulated
using GPRMax2D, based on FTDT method [3].
Figure 3. The GPR system at the test site
3. Signal processing
Figure 4 presents the scan #19 which represents the passing over a zone in which a
Kargo projectile (122mm caliber, 780mm length) was buried in a horizontal position
(a) and the result obtained by simulation (b). It can be observed that in the case of real
measurements, the image is very noisy, containing, in addition, clutters. Using the
specific technology of ultrasound examinations, the image form Figure 4a is a B-scan
made from 55 raw data A-scan type.
a b
Figure 4. Scan of Kargo projectile: a) raw data; b) simulation using GPRMAX 2D.
3.1. A-scan processing
An important process operation is to ensure that the mean value of the A-scan be near
to zero. This assumes that the amplitude probability distribution of the A-scan is
symmetric about the mean value.
N
1
A 'n = An
N
A
n =1
n (1)
where An -unprocessed data sample, An - processed data sample, n the sample

number, N total number of samples.
The next step in GPR signal processing is noise reduction and this can be achieved
by either averaging each individual sample at the A-scan. The general effect is to
reduce the variance of the white noise and gives an improvement in signal to noise
ratio.
The general form of the filtering operation is given by
An A 'n 1
A 'n = An + (2)
K
where An is the averaged value, An is the current value.

The factor K may be chosen to be related to n, N, or a fixed value, which will
weight the averaged value appropriately. Averaging has no effect on clutter.
3.2. B-scan processing
If we consider an assembly set of five samples comprising a B-scan, there are a number
of approaches to signal processing which can be considered. Imaging with GPR data is
frequently hampered by clutter.
The principal problem for a correct interpretation of GPR images consists in the
extraction of unwanted signals as the ones due to transmission of the forward wave
from Tx to Tr and those due to reflection on the air-soil interface. This operation is
named background removal, a series of specific algorithms being used. The results,
good enough, have been obtained using the simple procedure named subtract mean
trace [5].
In this method, we define a window of L pixels and subtract the mean of the pixels
from all the pixels in this window. The window is moved along and the procedure is
repeated until the entire image is covered, as following
L
i=
1 2
g ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) f ( x + i, y ) (3)
L i = L
2
where g filtered image, f- raw data and L is the window size.

This method works well, even with GPR data taken over soil having an uneven
profile, provided the magnitude of the ground reflection is uniform across the GPR
map. Because of the factors such as variations in soil moisture content, vegetation, soil
profile, etc, the method of subtract mean trace is often unsatisfactory in practice. We
propose a method in which spatial variations in both the ground reflection magnitude
and delay are simultaneously estimated using nonlinear optimization. Because these
variations are relatively smooth functions of position, we model them using low-order
polynomials.
To proceed, the measured data are split into Nseg spatial segments. Over each
segment we approximate the spatial resolution in both the amplitude and time delay of
the ground reflection by weighted sums of Chebyshev polynomials, the domain of the
segment was normalized to the interval [-1,1].
Let Ai(x) denote the spatially ground reflection amplitude and Bi(x) the time delay
of the ground reflection peak over segment ith. We approximate Ai(x) and Bi(x) as a sum
4
Ai ( x ) = ain Tn ( x )
n=0
4
(4)
Bi ( x ) = bin Tn ( x )
n =0
where Tn(x) are the Chebyshev polynomials defined by the recursive relation
Tn +1 ( x ) = 2Tn ( x ) Tn 1 ( x ) , n >1 (5)
with T0(x)=1 and T1(x)=x.

Because the reflection coefficient at the air-soil interface is typically complex, we
can represent the coefficients as
ai = aireal
0
, aiimag
0
, aireal
1
, aiimag
1
, ... (6)
bi = bi0 , bi1 , ... (7)

The frequency-domain ground reflection in spatial segment ith can be estimated as
Giest ( x, f ) = Ai ( x ) H ( f ) exp ( 2 jfBi ( x ) ) (8)
where H ( f ) is the windowed frequency response of the radar, i.e.
H ( f ) = H ( f )W ( f ) (9)
In which H ( f ) is the average frequency spectrum of the raw GPR data within the
segment and W ( f ) is a window applied when creating the time-domain data. We have
used a Hanning window. The time domain reflection estimated becomes
( )
giest x, t , ai , bi = Ai ( x ) h ( t Bi ( x ) ) (10)
where h(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of H ( f ) . The measured ground reflection
over segment ith can be expressed as
( )
gimeas ( x, t ) = giest x, t , ai , bi + ni ( x, t ) (11)
where ni(x,t) represents the modeling error. The coefficients ai and bi are found by a
least-square error process, which requires a nonlinear optimization of
( (
ai , bi = arg min gimeas ( x, t ) giest x, t , ai , bi
)
2
) (12)
Once the weighting coefficients ai and bi are estimated, the amplitude term Ai(x)
and the delay Bi(x) of segment ith are evaluated using Eq. (4).
The parameter estimation was performed using a nonlinear least square error
minimization function, in the Matlab 2009b Optimization Toolbox. If the optimization
routine does not converge for a data set, we must use a recursive approach.
Imaging techniques can be used to focus the energy present in a point targets
hyperbolic arc back to a single point.
This technique, named migration allows the determination of the depths of buried
objects.
4. Results
The GPR raw data for different types of UXO, presented in Figure 2, have been
obtained. All types of UXO have been buried at 0.8m depth, excepting the antitank
plastic mine that was buried at 0.6m, according to its indications for using it.
Also, groups of different types of UXO have been used. The measurement
conditions remained the same in all cases: 0.05m distance between row data in A-scan,
1024 samples/cm, 0.1m distance between successive B-scans, 20dB amplification.
The signal processing methods and their efficacy are presented in Figure 5,
corresponding to the scan #19 from Figure 4, including the procedures of A-scan
processing described in chapter 3.1. In Figure 5a it is presented the background
removal effect applied to the original image from Figure 4a.
a b
c
Figure 5. GPR images of kargo projectile: a) after A scan processing and ground removal; b) after migration;
c) top view.
After applying migration technique, the region of maximum concentration of

energy, corresponding to the real position of top surface of the kargo projectile has
been emphasized. It can be observed that the migration procedure locates correct the
superior part of the projectile. Concatening the B-scan obtained after migration of
corresponding GPR images of the kargo projectile and applying top view technique, the
image of the kargo is obtained and from simple measurements, the type and the
dimensions of the projectile can be determined. Also, the depth at which the projectile
has been buried can be determined from raw data after migration.
The same techniques have been used for detection and evaluation of two
projectiles, type 76mm caliber, the distance between their generatrix being 0.6m,
Figure 6a. In Figure 6b there is presented the top view for an antitank mine MAT 62B.
It must be mentioned that its shell is made from plastic, the metallic parts having a total
weight of 15.8g.
a b
Figure 6. Top view: a) two projectile, 76mm caliber; b) antitank mine
5. Conclusions
GPR has started to be used, with good results, in different types of application, from
which, UXO must be mentioned. This fact is more important for the countries that have
been theatre of war. To interpret correct the images delivered by GPR, due to the high
level of noise and of clutters, it is very important to solve the forward problem using
FDTD procedure. Applying specific procedures of signal and image processing, the
shape of UXO become visible, the type, caliber, number and their coordinates can be
determined from simple measurements on the results. These procedures allow to detect
antitank mines from plastic, even if the weight of metallic parts is very small.
6. Acknowledgements
Special thanks to the Colonel Stefan Lazar, Chief Inspector of Inspectorate for Emergency
Situations Mihail Grigore Sturdza Iasi, Romania. This paper is partially supported by the
Romanian Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sports under National Plan II Contract
no.32 134/2008 SysArr.
References
[1] D.J.Daniels, Ground Penetrating Radar, 2nd ed., , IEE 2004, UK.
[2] M.J.g Yi, J.H. Kim, S.J.Cho, M. Sato, Integrated Application of Borehole Radar Reflection and
Resistivity Tomography to Delineate Fracturesat a Granite Quarry, Subsurface Sensing Technologies and
Applications, Vol. 6, No. 1, January 2005
[3] A.Giannopoulos GprMax2D/3D, User's Guide, 2003
[4] ISO11265:1994 Soil quality, Determination of specific electrical conductivity
[5] C.C.Chen, J.D.Young, L.Peters, F.Paynter, Radar signature measurements of buried, unexploded
ordnance targets, Tech.Rep. 727388 2, The Ohio State University, Electroscience Laboratory,
Columbus, Ohio, 1994.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-389
Application of Microwave Interferometry

in Complex Engineered Dielectric
Materials
Karl SCHMIDT, Jack LITTLE
Evisive, Inc., 8867 Highland Road, #378, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 70808 USA
Abstract. A portable microwave interferometry system has been demonstrated to detect

material properties in high performance materials including engineered ceramics,
organic and ceramic composites and other composite dielectric materials. The technique
detects and images internal cracks, internal laminar features such as disbonds and
variations in material properties such as density. It requires access to only one surface,
and no coupling medium. Other NDE methods and destructive examination are used to
verify performance.
Keywords: Microwave Interferometry, NDT, Dielectric
Introduction
A portable microwave interferometry system using the Evisive Scan microwave

interference scanning method has been demonstrated to detect defects, material
anomalies and material properties in high performance materials including engineered
ceramics, organic and ceramic composites and other composite dielectric materials.
This includes detection of defects and damage in composite ceramic armor; aerospace
ceramic matrix composite material; fiber reinforced resin pipe, nuclear power plant
flexible couplings and other high performance dielectric materials. The microwave
interference scanning technique detects and images internal cracks, internal laminar
features such as disbonds and variations in material properties such as density. It
requires access to only one surface, and no coupling medium. Other NDE methods,
including through-transmission x-ray, x-ray Computed Tomography, and destructive
examination, are used to verify defects and other detected anomalies.
The microwave-based method, having US and international patents, has been
developed and demonstrated to be applicable to dielectric materials in a wide range of
high value components.1 A probe (transmitter and receiver antenna) is moved over the
part, bathing it in microwave energy. Some energy is reflected and transmitted at every
interface of changing dielectric constant in the field of the transmitter. This includes
the front and back surfaces of the part, and every feature in the part that has a
discontinuity in dielectric properties. A microwave interference pattern is created
when the reflected energy is combined with the transmitted signal to create the
measured voltage at each position on the object.
The Evisive Scan system has been advanced from laboratory demonstration to
successful field applications. The microwave interference scanning technique has been
applied in operating nuclear power plants for condition assessment of reinforced rubber
390 K. Schmidt and J. Little / Application of Microwave Interferometry
flexible couplings.4 This work was qualified and applied under an NQA-1 compliant
quality assurance program and is a basis for fleet-wide condition based maintenance
program. Other applications are summarized. These include fiber reinforced resin
composite structures and spiral wrapped pipe; pipe wrap repairs of steel pipe; and joints
in high density polyethylene pipe.
1. Description of the Technology and Method
The basic operating principle of this technology is based on the backscattering of

microwaves as they travel from one media to another media with different dielectric
constant. So a defect in the nonmetallic pipe is viewed as a new media with a different
dielectric constant from the surrounding material. Hence it scatters the microwaves at a
different rate and phase from the surrounding medium. The microwave energy applied
in the method has wave lengths in the centimeter range and frequencies from 0.3 to 300
GHz.
The images represent the reflected microwave energy from the entire volume of
inspected material. The microwave energy transmits through gaps and material
variations, and is reflected entirely by a conductive surface. This permits examination
from one surface, without coupling media, through non contacting layers and coatings.
Evisive Scan method requires access to only one side of a part. The microwave
interference pattern is created by bathing the part in microwave energy as illustrated in
Figure 1. The probe (transmitter and receiver antenna) is moved over the part, bathing
it in microwave energy. Some energy is reflected and transmitted at every interface of
changing dielectric constant in the field of the transmitter. This includes the front and
back surfaces of the part, and every feature in the part that has a discontinuity in
dielectric properties. A microwave interference pattern is created when the reflected
energy is combined with the transmitted signal to create the measured detector voltage
at each of the receivers. The voltage values for both receivers are saved with the
associated X-Y position on the object.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing relative position of microwave transmitter and receiver head to the
part under examination. One sided access is shown.
The microwave frequency used in the tests yields wavelengths in air of about 12.4
mm (0.49 inches) to 28.5 mm (1.12 inches). The magnitude of the phase difference
between the emitted energy and reflected energy determines the voltage of the signal at
the receiver. Hardware Channels A and B are separated by a quarter wavelength (/4)
in the wave propagation dimension, Z. In any image data, the rate of change of the
K. Schmidt and J. Little / Application of Microwave Interferometry 391
detected signal value impacts the clarity of that image. This relationship is illustrated
in Figure 2.
The amplitude repsonse of a feature is optimized at a Z dimension associated with
maximum rate of change of the signal in the Z dimension. This is achieved for each
channel by moving the emitter (and receiver) within a quarter wave length in the Z
direction. This position is referred to as the Stand-Off distance. This is also
affected by the frquency of the microwave signal, and can be adjusted in large (10 or
24 GHz) of fine increments.
Figure 2. The phase relationship of the receiver Channels presented as a theoretical standing wave,
showing the phase relationship of a reflective surface
The reflected signal and transmitted signal form an interference pattern which is
sampled over the surface of the part as illustrated in Figure 3. The image of a point
reflector as shown in the diagram in Figure 3 is theoretically presented in Figure 4, in
which this interference pattern is predicted mathematically for a point reflector.
Figure 3. The interference scan image is created by moving the probe over the surface of the part and
sampling the interference pattern voltages.
The image of features in the examined part is created by the interference pattern of
reflections from the features and the transmitted signal. Thus, minimum detectable
feature size can be much smaller than the wavelength. The magnitude of the phase
difference between the emitted signal and reflected signal determines the voltage of the
signal.
Figure 4. Mathematical plot of theoretical interference pattern from a point reflector
The anticipated interference pattern for a point reflector is illustrated in Figure 5,

which shows Channel A and Channel B images for a small spherical reflector.
Hardware Channels A and B are separated by a quarter wavelength (/4) in the wave
propagation dimension, Z.
Figure 5. Channel A and Channel B images of a 2.54mm (0.10 inch) conductive sphere located 19 mm
below the surface of a glass plate.
2. Equipment Configuration
The portable version of the Evisive Scan equipment is shown in Figure 6a. This shows
the laptop-computer with the driving electronics and the scan head. The same
computer and electronics can be coupled in the laboratory to an XY Positioning Table
as shown in Figure 6b. Operating, interface and display software resides on the
interface and display computer. Data are collected via an X-Y raster scan over the
surface of the part.
Figure 6. Photographs of portable scanning microwave system

a computer, electronics and head
A number of portable configurations have been applied to field use: The

instrument and control system has been interfaced to mechanized pipe scanners and
with a multi-axis position system for free-form manual positioning, and with a variety
of manual position encoders. A portable system has been interfaced to an infrared
camera as shown in the field in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Portable Evisive Scan equipment configured with infrared position tracking
For free-hand positioning, the probe is manipulated manually, position tracked and
presented in real-time. The tracking display facilitates control of coverage and scan
density. Before and after images are automatically saved with each scan (the position
tracking display is shown in Figure 8). The data rate is sufficiently high to assure that
mechanical positioning or position feedback for manual positioning is the only
limitation in scan speed. The scan data are available in near real time. Scan speed with
the hand held infrared tracking system varies and may exceed 10 inches per second
a. Initial scan area display b. Scan area with position trace

Figure 8. Scan area image and position tracking image (data points shown in green)
Evisive has incorporated the system electronics into the hand held probe housing
and developed a wireless interface of the probe and control computer. This
significantly reduces the system size, as well as improving field applicability. The
Wireless Hand Held Evisive Scan system is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Evisive Scan Wireless Handheld System. The Evisive Scan electronics and controls have been
incorporated into the Probe Assembly, which communicates by Bluetooth with the User Interface
Computer. The camera tracks the infrared beacon providing real time position and data input.
3. Applications Experience
The Evisive Scan technique has been successfully applied to complex engineered
dielectric materials which present challenges to alternative non-destructive testing
methods because of the complex structure of the material, or the subtle nature of the
targeted defect. The following examples illustrate several of those applications.
3.1. Detection of Cracked Armor Tile and Delaminations in Assembled Part
The Evisive Scan system has been demonstrated to detect cracked ceramic armor tile in
a typical ceramic armor layered configuration. Figure 10 shows a correlation between a
photograph of the part surface, a microwave scan image of the cracked tile and a
through-transmission x-ray image of the same tile. The wide, light gray patterns shown
in the microwave image follow the crack centerlines, which are hilighted in red. The
Evisive Scan data has sufficient dynamic range, (greater than 12 bit resolution), to
identify the centerlines and edges of features within the data position precision. The
artificial cracking was created by compression with a drill press, crushing the ceter
Figure 10. Photograph (left), microwave interference scan image (center) and x ray image (right) of an
artificially cracked tile in an armor panel.
region from which the cracks radiate. The tile is part of an actual armor panel which
was also used for other destructive testing.
The panel presented in Figure 11 has six artificial laminar features, arranged at two
depths: above and below an elastomeric layer. The artificial features range in size from
6.4mm (0.25 inches) to 63.5mm (2.50 inches) square. Figure 11 shows that the
scanning microwave system detected all six artificial laminar features. Similar
artificial features were detected below (left in the image) and above (right in the image)
the elastomeric layer in the part. The difference in geometry of the left and right
presentation of these features relates to contours of layers above the deeper features
which are on the left in the image. The difference in depth of the features is indicated
by the difference in gray scale (voltage) which relates to their relative phase positions.
The phase position of laminar features can be adjusted to focus the acquired
image data at specific depths in the material, or to minimize the effect of specific
laminar features. This is particularly beneficial in optimizing the technique for
detection of laminar features at a specific layer in the complex material structure.
The small circular indication in the upper right is apparently an unintended laminar
feature near the depth of the artificial feature. The difference in depth of the artificial
laminar features on the left side (underneath the rubber layer) and those on right side
(above the rubber layer) is apparent in the dark (low negative voltage) and light (high
positive voltage) phase difference associated with their depths. The consistent voltage
of the three artificial laminar features on the left and right sides similarly indicates their
common depth in the material. The circular indication at (9.5, 12.5) is from a laminar
feature at a depth very near the artificial feature.
The effect of the interaction with the elastomeric layer above the artificial features
on the left is very clear in this image, with the edges of the features occurring at the
center of the surrounding patterns.
Figure 11. Scanning microwave image data of specially prepared test sample prepared with artificial
delaminations. Six different delaminations in three sizes, located at two depths were inserted and as noted
here these were all detected.
The artificial feature and analogous feature at (9.5, 12.5) were examined by
through transmission x-ray and x-ray computed tomography (CT). The anomalous
laminar feature is also demonstrated to have a through wall dimension less than the
minimum resolution of the CT image (smaller than about 0.25 mm).
3.2. Clock Spring Inspection
Inspection of the metal surface under a clock spring repair is another important
application for microwave NDT. A clock spring repair is a composite reinforcement of
carbon steel pipes to repair a leak or a corrosion pit by wrapping layers of composite
material held together with epoxy. The surface of the metal is prepared using sand
blasting and then the epoxy and composite wrap are applied and wrapped around the
surface (usually 8 wraps) in a manual process. This repair is common in the oil and gas
industry. If there is a void between the wrap and the metal surface due to poor
workmanship then the corrosion process will resume. The microwave interferometry
system has been successfully applied with a pipe scanner to inspect the volume of the
clock spring and the metal surface under such a repair. An example of a test clock
spring with artificial and natural defects is shown in Figures 12 and 13.
Figure 12. Clock Spring specimen. Fiber reinforced resin over wrap with interlayer mastic applied to a
carbon steel pipe
Figure 13. Evisive Scan image of Clock Spring repair, showing artificial and natural features in the Clock
Spring volume and in the carbon steel pipe surface.
3.3 Large Tire Application
The microwave interference scanning technique has been successfully applied to

inspection of larger tires for detection of embedded stones. The stones enter the rubber
tire tread under load, and migrate toward the steel reinforcing belts in the tire. If
unchecked, they can wear against the reinforcing belt causing tire failure.
The selected region is scanned freehand, using infrared position tracking. The
scan coverage is shown in real time as presented in Figure 8. Embedded rocks are
discriminated from cavity in the rubber tread and other anomalies by differentiating
between the responses at different phase angles using Channel A and Channel B which
are /4 apart. In Figure 14, the deeply embedded stones appear as red in Channel A,
and are diminished in Channel B, while the residue and open fissure appear as yellow
and red in both Channels.
Figure 14. Channel A and B Evisive Scan images of stones in a large tire tread. The presence of red stone
response in the Channel A (left) image only, indicates a stone deep in the crack.
In a field demonstration, local operators were trained in the differentiation

technique, and performed at better than 90/90 detection / confidence percentage after
eight weeks.
3.4. Application for Inspection of High Density Polyethylene Pipe
High density polyethylene (HDPE) is used in a wide range of petroleum and power
industry applications. Thermal fusion of pipe ends is commonly used to join pipe
sections. Evisive licensee Exova, of Broxburn, UK, have applied the method thermal
fusion joints, and have completed a number of destructive examinations to validate the
application. The microwave interferometry method has been applied to HDPE weld
joints in laboratory and field programs.
In the specimen shown in Figure 15, a portion of the prepared weld surface was
contaminated with talcum powder. The microwave interference scanning image
displays the irregular pattern from the contaminated region of the weld which can be
contrasted with the appearance of the properly formed weld in the pseudo-color scan
image. The improper formation lacks the well-formed center response (dark blue to
red in this image). In the image, the weld centerline is displayed at X=4.1 inches, and
the circumference of the pipe is expressed in inches on the Y axis. The bend samples
from the contaminated region and clean region of the weld provide confirmation of
expected results: the contaminated region failed by brittle fracture and the successfully
welded segment failed ductility.
Figure 15. Microwave interference scan image of a thermally fused butt joint which is
contaminated with talc powder on part of the weld face. The uneven formation of a weld joint is
evident at 1, and yields brittle failure in a bend test. The even formation of the weld is apparent at
2, and yields the desired ductile failure in the bend test.
3.5. Application in Ceramic Matrix Composites
The Evisive Scan interferometry method has been successfully applied to metrology
and non-destructive testing in ceramic matrix composite (CMC) materials. The
material is formed with multiple layers of ceramic fiber fabric surrounded by a ceramic
matrix. The complex structure of CMC materials, and the mechanical properties of the
constituent materials present challenges to conventional non-destructive testing
techniques. These properties lend themselves to inspection by microwave
Interferometry.
The series of images in Figure 16 includes a photograph of the sample part, and
Evisive Scan images at two phase angles which correspond to different focal plane
depths in the part. The part has three artificially created cavities which are clearly
apparent in the images. The difference in display of the cavities in the two images
illustrates the variation in geometry at the different depths. The feature on the right
vividly shows the displacement of the material, which occurred during formation.
Anomalies are apparent in all three features.
Figure 16. Top down: photograph, Channel A image and Channel B image showing differences in internal
features at different depths in the CMC sample.
4. Summary
The Evisive Scan microwave interferometry system has been developed and tested
on a wide range of engineered dielectric materials. These include ceramic composite
armor, composite matrix ceramic aircraft components, fiber reinforced resin
components, high density polyethylene and rubber components. Applications include
laboratory testing and field services projects. The method is applicable to material
which is a bulk dielectric, requires access to one surface only and requires no coupling
medium. Experiments with antenna configuration and post processing software
demonstrate the ability to shape the beam pattern, and increase feature discrimination
in complex materials.
Acknowledgements
Work included in the report is supported by the US Air Force Research Laboratory, US
Army Tank-Automotive Research, Development and Engineering Center (TARDEC),
US Army Research Laboratory and US Air Force Research Laboratory. Evisive would
also like to acknowledge project participation and support by Argonne National
Laboratory, Saudi Aramco and Exova.
References
[1] J. Salem, D. Zhu, Edited by L. Prokurat Franks, Advances in Ceramic Armor III, Ceramic
Engineering and Science Proceedings, Vol. 28, Issue 5, 2007
[2] K. Schmidt, J, Little, W. Ellingson, A Portable Microwave Scanning Technique for Nondestructive
Testing of Multilayered Dielectric Materials, Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference &
Exposition on Advanced Ceramics and Composites, 2008
[3] K. Schmidt, J, Little, W. Ellingson, W. Green, Optimizing a Portable Microwave Interference
Scanning System for Nondestructive Testing of Multi Layered Dielectric Materials, Review of
Progress in Quantitative NDE, 2009
[4] Bob Stakenborghs, Jack Little, Microwave based NDE Inspection of HDPE Pipe Welds, Proceedings of
the 17th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering (ICONE17), July 12 16, 2009, Brussels,
Belgium
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-402
Detection of Concealed, Graphite

Containing Frescos, Using Microwave
Enhanced Infrared Thermography
Pawe LESIECKI a and Barbara SZYMANIK a1
a
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology,
al. Piastw 17, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. Active infrared thermography is one of the most popular NDT

techniques. In this method an external energy source is used to produce the
temperature difference between the feature of interest in examined specimen and
the background. Thermovision cameras are used do observe obtained temperature
differences. The variety of external energy sources can be used in IR
thermography. Conventional sources (such as powerful halogen lamps or infrared
heaters), apply heat externally to the surface of the material. The microwave
irradiation, unlike to mentioned previously sources, penetrates and simultaneously
heat the bulk of the specimen. For that reason, microwave heating can effectively
minimize the heating times. This paper presents the method of detection of
concealed graphite containing frescoes, using active infrared thermography with
microwave irradiation as a heat source. It has be determined, that most of mural
paintings, like frescoes, consist some amount of coal (in the form of carbon black
used as a paint or charcoal used by the artist for sketching). Analysis of dielectric
properties of coal shows that generally it can be considered as a good microwave
absorber, therefore the high temperature difference between coal containing
frescoes and the background is produced during the microwave heating of painting.
Keywords. Microwave heating, concealed frescos detection, active thermography
Introduction
According to report [1] most of the cultural heritage in Europe consist of

buildings of historical meaning. There are many circumstances that affect the stability
and the state of such constructions. Current assessment techniques of many historical
buildings are based on optical inspection and laboratory measurements on samples
taken. Such approaches are often not accurate or they may be harmful or even
destructive for valuable works of art. There exist many modern NDT methods to
determine the state of such structures. The most frequently methods applied are: Radar,
impulse thermography, pulse-phase thermography, infrared thermography, geoelectric
and microseismic methods. These methods can be used for inspection of known, well
documented places for continuous maintenance but they can be used also for
discovering previously unknown structures. In the mentioned report these techniques
were used for revealing hidden doors which was walled up and plastered. In [2] and [3],
1
e-mail: szymanik@zut.edu.pl
P. Lesiecki and B. Szymanik / Detection of Concealed, Graphite Containing Frescos 403
active thermography was used for studies of plastered mosaics. Especially radar and
active thermography seem to be both fast and accurate methods for such inspections.
Active thermography methods utilize external heat sources for object excitation and the
temperature profile is recorded. Especially Impulse Thermography and its derivative
pulse phase thermography proved to be reliable methods in nondestructive testing.
Impulse thermography is well known in many industrial applications as a tool for the
detections of detachments, disbonds and voids. In building inspections passive
thermography was used for many years mostly for testing thermal insulation quality.
Since modern infrared cameras are very sensitive and offer good SNR, such
investigations are fast and reliable tool for building assessment. As an extension to this,
active thermography was successfully applied for locating defects like disbonds of tiles
and plaster or honeycombing in concrete.
In the above methods excitation and response were of the same nature and more or less
in the same frequency band. Here we would like to introduce another approach that was
studied earlier [4]. This approach uses excitation of one kind and processes response of
another kind (or from another frequency). Such hybrid solution can take advantages
from both. Here we would like to show an example of discovering hidden frescoes. We
will make use of excitation in microwave band and response in infrared band.
1. Theory of microwave enhanced infrared thermography
1.1. Theory of microwave heating of graphite and plaster materials
Microwave heating is mostly based on interaction between the electromagnetic field

and the material at the molecular level [6]. Therefore the material's dielectric properties
ultimately determine the effectiveness of such a heating. Microwave energy utilization
is widespread and has been studied by many researchers [7].
This paper presents the method of detection the concealed, graphite containing frescoes,
using active infrared thermography with microwave irradiation as a heat source.
It has been determined [8], that most of mural paintings, like frescoes, consist some
amount of coal (in the form of carbon black - used as a paint or charcoal used by the
artist for sketching). Analysis of dielectric properties of coal [9] shows that generally it
can be considered as a good microwave absorber, therefore the high temperature
difference between coal containing frescoes and the background is produced during the
microwave heating of painting.
There are two physical mechanisms that sustain efficient energy transfer during
microwave irradiation into non metallic material. At the lower end of the microwaves
band conductive currents are flowing within the material. These currents that appear
due to ionic conduction, can transfer energy from microwave field to the material. At
higher microwave frequencies energy absorption is mainly due to the existence of
permanent dipole molecules which try to re-orientate under the existence of the
changing electric field. This loss mechanism has its origin in the inability of the
polarization to follow the fast changing electric field. In the complex plane the
polarization phasor lags the applied electric field component of the wave. This causes
that resulting current has a component in phase with the applied field (a real part
appears) and power is dissipated in the dielectric material. Summing up, the losses of a
material can be expressed as a function of both dielectric loss and conductivity:
404 P. Lesiecki and B. Szymanik / Detection of Concealed, Graphite Containing Frescos
(1)
r'' = rd'' +
0
The dielectric loss is characterized by the relative loss factor r which is part of
the relative permittivity r*=r+jr while absolute permittivity is given by =0*.
The ratio
'' (2)
tan =
'
is the dielectric loss tangent and it is frequency dependent. It describes how good a
material absorbs microwave energy.
In the absence of radiant heat losses and convection losses, for homogenous material
we may easily express EM wave to thermal energy conversion process:
Power density dissipated per unit volume is given as:
P = 0 '' E 2 (3)
were P power density absorbed, f frequency, E electric field strength.

Because of the relationship between conductivity and loss factor given above, we
may write:
dT E 2
= (4)
dt C p
It would appear that it is good to have greater conductivity to get greater energy
conversion efficiency.
However increased conductivity (or loss factor) has its drawbacks because of skin
depth defined as the inverse of the attenuation factor:
1/ 2
' '
= 1 + '' 1 (5)
c 2 0

Skin depth is the distance that wave reaches, before its E field component value
drops to 1/e the value at the surface.
In general we may classify material as either: transparent, reflective or absorbing.
From both theoretical and experimental results we may see that insulator - type
minerals and compounds are not good microwave absorbers and we may classify them
as microwave transparent. All of the high conductivity minerals and compounds should
be classified as microwave reflective materials since energy loss due to reflection is
high and penetration depth is low.
To detect plaster-covered frescoes we definitely need absorption difference
between wall material and fresco paintings. Fresco painting material should absorb
microwave energy, so only the last class is of particular interest. Good absorbing
material must combine moderate values of with high values of tan() [9]. Yet our
material should not be to conductive electrical conductor reflects microwaves.
Most promising minerals are those that belong to semiconductors. This is because
of higher penetration depth than for reflective materials and greater loss factor than for
transparent materials.
From these reasons microwave heating devices, that usually are working on
materials with high water content, operate at 2.45 GHz. This is the frequency at which
the water is lossy enough to heat efficiently, but at the same time it is not to reflective.
The maximum of loss factor for water is peaking at around 20 GHz. In the same
manner we should think about pigments and paint ingredients.
We have seen that some of pigments contain charcoal, carbon black and graphite [11],
which might be excellent microwave absorbers. Dielectric loss tangent of charcoal
varies between 0.11 0.29 at 2.45 GHz and at room temperature, so it is higher than
tan() of distilled water. Dielectric loss tangent of carbon black lies between 0.35
0.83 at the same frequency so it is quite high.
It is important to say that pure graphite is not a good microwave absorber, because
it is well known as good electrical conductor. On the other hand over the years graphite
powder has been used in microwave absorbing materials, when mixed with rubber to
lower its overall conductivity. We may say that graphite as crystal will reflect
microwaves but graphite as powder with bound water should be good absorber.
At the same time we should look at the loss factor of wall structure, very often they
are made from brick, limestone, sand and concrete.
Table 1. Relative permittivities and loss tangents for materials at around 2.45 GHz (and at 22OC if not
otherwise specified)
Material Freq tan() source
coal 2.45 - 0.02-0.08 [9]
charcoal 2.45 - 0.11-0.29 [9]
carbon black 2.45 - 0.35-0.83 [9]
concrete (dry) 2.45 4.5 0.0111 [12]
concrete 5000PSI after 38 days 2.45 6.25 0.048 [13]
mortar cement after 38 days 2.45 4.4 0.045 [13]
green granite 2.03 7.75 0.0144 [13]
white marble 2.02 8.63 5.09 10 4 [13]
green granite 3.31 7.76 0.0193 [13]
white marble 3.21 8.61 5.99 10 4 [13]
calcite (CaCO3) 60OC 2.216 2.89 0.0085 [14]
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 60OC 2.216 2.89 0.0161 [14]
pyrite (FeS2) 60OC 2.216 7.07 0.1503 [14]
1.2. Fresco preparation techniques
In [15] some popular investigation methods applied to the works of art are studied.
The method presented in this paper may by considered similar to the infrared
reflectography. We have made an assumption that usually a wall consists of some kind
of brick or conglomerate which is plastered with lime. The old fashioned plastering
techniques were of our interest. The true fresco is a painting made on wet plaster.
Artists use natural pigments dissolved in lime water. Pigments must be alkali-proof
(resistant to caustic limewater) [5]. The fresco technique may be considered similar to
aquarelle. However, in contrast to aquarelle, the pigments and lime plaster bind
together and thus they become integrated. The technique described here is called Buon
Fresco and it make use only of natural materials. Fresco plaster is made from calcium
lime putty and an aggregate consisted of is washed river sand, marble meal and
volcanic tuff. The proportions will wary but are usually one part of lime putty and two
parts of aggregate. Very often there are three to five plaster layers. In general the
hidden layers contain more sand, and the sand is coarser there. Drying of lime plaster
includes many physical and chemical processes such as absorption of water into wall,
evaporation of water from the surface and carbonation of slaked lime by carbon
dioxide:
Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 CaCO 3 + H 2 O (6)
According to many sources, a number of artists prepared full scale drawings of frescoes.
The purpose of these drawings was a study of composition. There were important
issues such as lights and shadows and other details of future frescoes. It is important to
understand that it takes a lot of time to paint large fresco and that lime plaster is drying
during work. So artists divide their work by decomposing one fresco into a set of
sections called giornatas. Each section is small enough to be easily made in one day.
Giornatas were sometimes marked or sketched using charcoal and this fact may be used
for fresco unrevealing.
2. The experimental setup and results
The experimental setup consists of a microwave heating device, thermovision

camera (Flir E300, able to record hi-resolution - 240 x 340 - JPEG images) and test
sample. The 1kW magnetron, powered by computer controlled switching power supply,
was used as a microwave source. With the help of adjustable shorting back plate, the
magnetron is coupled with rectangular waveguide. The distance between its open end
and the tested sample may be manually changed, providing far-field working
conditions. Due to safety purposes the experiment's taken place in antiecho chamber.
The examined fresco model was placed directly below the open-ended waveguide and
heated for 10 minutes with 1000 W of microwave power.
Figure 1. Experimental setup.

Figure 2. Block diagram.
The graphite painting done on concrete block was used as an examined fresco
model. Two straight lines painted using graphite containing pigment were modeling the
fresco paining. This simple sketch was placed directly on the surface of the wall model.
To simulate the concealment of the fresco, the painting was covered with dried gypsum
plaster made on plywood - this
Figure 3. Examined fresco model (w/o and with plaster cover).
First, the microwave heating rates of charcoal, marble brick and plaster piece were
compared. Examined materials were heated for 5 minutes using 1kW of microwave
power.
Figure 4. The microwave heating rates of charcoal, marble brick and plaster piece.
From left to right: Before heating in visible light , before heating in IR and just after heating in IR
Thermogams below present temperature distribution on the surface of fresco before and
just after microwave heating. Next, thermal images of wall model were acquired during
cooling phase. Simple image processing algorithms were used to reveal fresco sketch
from obtained thermograms
Figure 5. Thermograms w/o plaster cover.

From left to right: Before heating, just after heating and after 10 min of cooling
The set of pictures above presents the uncovered fresco; The one below shows fresco
covered with plaster.
Figure 6. Thermograms with plaster cover.

From left to right: Before heating, just after heating and after 10 min of cooling
Fresco model with and without plaster cover was heated for 10 minutes. The difference
between the thermogram taken immediately after heating, and the thermogram taken
after 10 minutes of cooling, shows the inner structure of the wall fragment as well as
the fresco contour.
Figure 7. The difference between the thermogram taken immediately after heating, and the thermogram
taken after 10 minutes of cooling. Left: w/o plaster cover, right: with cover
3. Conclusions
The method described here may be used not only for revealing fresco, but also for
imaging of the inner structure of the wall. Additional study, including advanced image
processing techniques, should be carried out in order to more accurately fresco shape
recognition. The method could be used for crack detection (upper right corners of
concrete block in Figure 7), because the heat from inner heat sources propagate through
air filled cracks very slowly.
References
[1] On-site investigation techniques for the structural evaluation of historic masonry buildings BAM, SLG
and partners (IaFB, IDK), November 2004
[2] N.P.Avdelidis, M.Koui, C. Ibarra Castanedo, X. Maldauge, Thermographic studies of plastered
mosaics, Infrared Physics & Technology, 49, (2007), 254 256
[3] N.P.Avdelidis, A.Moropoulou, Applications of infrared thermography for the investigation of historic
structures, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 5 (2004) 119 127
[4] Robert Osiander, Jane W.M. Spicer, Time resolved infrared radiometry with step heating a review, Rev.
Gn. Therm., 1998, 37, 680 692.
[5] Tessa Lindsey, Fresco Painting: The Dichotomy of Rigorous Craft and Artistic Expression, NLA
International Building Lime Symposium 2005, Orlando Florida, 2005, Building Lime Group.
[6] E. T. Thostenson, T. W. Chou: "Microwave processing: fundamentals and applications", Composites:
Part A 30 (1999) 1055 1071.
[7] Metaxas A. C., Meredith R. J.: Industrial microwave heating, Peter Pereginus Ltd., 1983.
[8] M. C. Corbeil: "Application of X ray diffraction in conservation science and archeometry", International
Centre for Diffraction Data 2004, Advances in X ray Analysis, Volume 47
[9] J. A. Menendez, et. al.: "Microwave heating processes involving carbon materials", Fuel Processing
Technology 91 (2010) 1 8
[10] Hua Yixin Liu Chunpeng, Heating Rate of mineral and Compounds In Microwave Field, Transactions
of NFsoc Vol.6 No.1, 1996
[11] D. Hradil, J. Hradilov, S. varcov, E. Kotulanov, Hand Held XRF for the Preliminary Screening of
Early Romanesque Frescoes in Slovakia, 9th International Conference on NDT of Art, Jerusalem Israel,
25 30 May 2008
[12] Rohde & Schwarz Application Note, Measurement of dielectric material properties, 2006
[13] J. Baker Jarvis, M.D. Janezic, B.F. Riddle, R. T. Johnk, P Kabos, C.L. Holloway R. G. Geyer, C. A.
Grosvenor, Measuring the Permittivity and Permeability of Lossy Materials: Solids Liquids Metals,
Building Materials and Negative Index Materials, Technical Note 1536, The National Institute of
Standards and Technology, 2005
[14] S. Marland, A. Merchant, N. Rowson, Dielectric Properties of Coal, Fuel (80), 2001, 1839 1849
[15] W. S. Taft, J. W.Mayer, The Science of Paintings, Springer Verlag, New York, 2000
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-410
Solid Materials Complex Permittivity and

Inhomogenities Determination in High
Frequency Range
Dagmar FAKTOROV
Department of Measurement and Applied Electrical Engineering,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina, Slovak Republic
Abstract. The paper is devoted to dielectrics from more standpoints. A practical

method for dielectric constant determination with fully unknown dielectric
properties is given. Particular attention is paid to the influence of dielectric fillings
in the crack in metals and the processes of defects detection in dielectrics and
metals are compared. The ability of microwaves to detect a conductive object
under the dielectric surface has been demonstrated by a practical example.
Keywords. complex permittivity, crack, NDT, microwave frequency, waveguide

reflection method
Introduction
The paper responds to technological practice needs, when the knowledge of complex
permittivity is required, e.g. at manufacturing building slabs which are to safeguard
buildings or their critical parts against microwave signal penetration [1], when the
accurate estimation of crack dimensions in metal and dielectric sample in the case
when the investigated crack is filled with dielectrics with unknown dielectric
parameters is needed and when the crack presence and its dimensions assessment in
dielectric sample is need to be estimated.
1. Complex permittivity dielectric sample with admixtures
Since the building materials are mostly of dielectric character, it is possible to influence
this required property by suitable admixtures. In spite of the fact that the dielectric
properties of suitable admixtures are well known, their inclusion with the suspension
material can result in dielectric with unexpected properties. The measurement of
complex permittivity is the subject of many technical and scientific areas and an
unambiguous determination of its value often runs into difficulties. Particularly in
technical applications it is possible to notice a situation when e.g. two specimens of
nominally the same material may have significantly different complex permittivity as a
consequence of different manufacturing processes, different degree of oxidation and
different inclusions.
From the microwaves absorptions point of view [2] the mean quantity is the loss
factor, which is connected with the real part of complex permittivity. The problem
D. Faktorov / Solid Materials Complex Permittivity and Inhomogenities Determination 411
comes down to the determination of relative permittivity of the building material with
the suitable admixture providing the required absorption of microwave signal. For this
purpose we use for dielectric constant measurement the waveguide reflection method,
by which for the wavelength in waveguide gd filled with investigated dielectric holds
[2]
0
gd = , (1)

0
c
where 0 is the wavelength in free space, c is the critical wavelength in the waveguide.
By a simple arrangement of Eq. (1) for calculation we get
1 1
= 02 +
2 2
. (2)
gd c
As 0 is known from the used frequency and c depends on the waveguide dimensions,
it remains to measure the wavelength of electromagnetic wave in investigated dielectric
materials gd.
If it is a case of measurement (for loss tangent tg determination it can be used
an another method, e.g. resonant method), gd (respectively gd/2) can be measured on
the measuring line by simple monitoring of the standing wave ratio (SWR) minimum
on the slotted line by successive shortening of the sample. Equation (2) gives
unambiguous determination of and if the suitable technique is available for the
sample length changing, such unambiguous determination of is very effective and
reliable. For individual lengths of the sample SWR is measured and results can be used
for tg determination, too. The known tg value can be used for calculation of isolation
panel with carbon admixture thickness in the case of electromagnetic shielding needs.
In Fig. 1 there is plotted the dependence of SWR on the length of the sample
manufactured from a chipboard containing 10% of carbon. From the measured values
the wavelength in the sample for frequency 8200 MHz was found out: gd = 16.4mm
(0 = 36.6mm, c = 45mm).
f = 9,97 GHz
0,6
SWR [-]
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
sample length [mm]
Figure 1. Dependence of SWR on the sample length for dielectric sample with carbon admixture (10%)
412 D. Faktorov / Solid Materials Complex Permittivity and Inhomogenities Determination
2. Influence of dielectric in defect volume on the detected signal
Attention was paid to defects on metal surfaces to be detected by means of microwaves

as reported by some researchers and particular results from this research can be found
also in [3] with the appropriate theoretical analysis, where also further literary sources
are given. In this section the attention is turn to the investigation of the microwave
signal response in the case when dielectric filling occurs in the volume of the artificial
crack introduced in the metal sample. When the waveguide track is terminated with the
load, it can be characterised by complex loading impedance [1]
1 +
Z = Z 0 , (3)
1
where Z0 is the characteristic waveguide line impedance and is the complex

reflection coefficient. As all quantities on the right hand side of Eq. (3) are
measurable, the complex loading impedance of waveguide can be calculated.
The measurements of complex impedance of waveguide load, represented in our
case by the defect in metal sample filled with various kinds of dielectrics, were
performed on the standard microwave track. The microwave track was equipped with
the measuring line for SWR measurement and terminated with the open waveguide as a
probe. This technique of an open-ended waveguide probe requires an accurate
measurement of the complex impedance of waveguide probe opening which is in
precise relation with the dielectric properties of crack filling and crack dimensions (Fig.
2). As a source of microwave signal HP signal generator was used.
Figure 2. Experimental set up for inhomogenities and dielectric parameters measurement, K reflex klystron,
KPS klystron power supply, IM- impedance match, VA variable attenuator, MT magic T, A adapter,
FM frequency meter, FI ferrite isolator, CL coaxial line, FM frequency meter, WRS waveguide
rotation changeover switch, SWD standing wave ratio measurement line, FC ferrite circulator, CD
crystal detector, OW open waveguide, SA selective amplifier, MSH movable sample holder
For the measurement an artificial rectangular crack (1mm wide and 8mm depth)
in metal plate was fabricated. The measurements were performed for the crack with
different dielectric fillings, (Table1) and the distance of the probe from the crack was
1mm.
Table 1. The crack fillings dielectric properties
crack filling of filling tg of filling

air 1.0 0
teflon 2.1 0.00028
plexiglas 3.0 0.00670
pertinax 4.5 0.04600
The results for values of amplitude and phase of complex impedance for crack
with dielectric filling in metal sample are in Fig. 3. From the results it can be concluded,
that the dielectric filling of the crack in metal sample strongly influence the signal
reflected from the inhomogenity represented by crack filled with dielectric. The
absolute value and the phase of complex impedance of defect with dielectric filling
investigated by the waveguide probe can assume an inductive and capacitive character.
In case when the dielectric parameters of crack filling are known we can estimate the
depth of defect with appropriate corrections of received reflected microwave signal. If
we do not know the dielectric properties of the crack filling it is possible in case of
inversion problems to solve for dimensions and the shape of crack to deliberate the
presence of dielectric in the crack volume.
f = 9,97 GHz f = 9,97 GHz
1600 1400
Im{Z}
Z||
1200 700
800 0
-700
400
-1400
0
0 350 700 1050 1400
0 1 2 3 4 5 Re{Z}
[-]
a) b)
Figure 3. Dependence of complex impedance a) amplitude and b) phase of crack with dielectric fillings with
known dielectric properties
3. Investigation of defects in dielectric materials
The practical needs are often connected with requirements of defect in dielectric
sample presence and with defect geometry knowledge. For this purpose in some cases
it is sufficient to measure the inhomogenity response on the microwave signal passing
over the investigated dielectric material. The pertinax plate ( = 4.1, tg = 0.046)
specimen with dimensions: the width 150mm, the length 150mm and the thickness
20mm with introduced artificial notch with dimensions the width 0.2mm, length 10mm
and the depth 3mm was used in experiments. The measurements were performed on the
measuring waveguide line terminated with an open waveguide used as a probe. The
probe was moved over the defect filled with air and SWR was measured. Dependence
of complex impedance amplitude and phase of the investigated defect on probe
position is shown in Fig. 4.
f = 9,97 GHz
f = 9,97 GHz
80
Im{Z}
100
|Z| []
80 40
60
0
40
-40
20
-80
0
-80 -40 0 40 80
-10 -5 0 5 10
Re{Z}
probe position [mm]
a) b)
Figure 4. Dependence of complex permittivity a) amplitude on probe position and b) Lissajouse curve
To investigate the influence of lift off on the reflected crack signal in the pertinax plate
sample the amplitude of the reflected microwave signal from the dielectric sample was
measured. The measurements were performed at two positions of the pertinax sample
with artificial defect close to the sample and at the distance of 5mm from the
waveguide probe from the side of open effect (OD) and the side of closed defect (ID).
The recorded results are given in Fig. 5.
f = 9,97 GHz, liftoff - 5mm f = 9,97 GHz, liftoff - 0mm
125 100
am plitude [a.u.]
amplitude [a.u.]
100 80
75
60
50
40
25
20
0 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-20 -10 0 10 20 probe position [mm]
probe position [mm]
ID OD
ID OD
a) b)
Figure 5. Dependence of reflected signal amplitude on the probe position for ID and OD defect in pertinax
sample , a) lift off 5mm, b) liftoff 0mm
From Fig. 5 it can be seen, if the probe comes near to the defect from open side, the
reflected signal amplitude changes promptly and in the case approaching from the lose
side, the change in the reflected signal amplitude is slow (the distance of the probe
from the defect is bigger and is equal to the depth of the dielectric behind the defect).
f = 9,97 GHz, ID f = 9,97 GHz, OD
100 120
amplitude [a.u.]
amplitude [a.u.]
80 100
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
-20 -10 0 10 20
probe position [mm] -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
probe position [mm]
0 mm 5 mm
0 mm 5 mm
a) b)
Figure 6. Dependence of reflected signal amplitude on the probe position in pertinax sample for two
distances of the probe from the sample with defect
Surprisingly, the values of the reflected signal from the close and open side of defect
can be seen at first sight. But considering the fact that at measuring for different sample
distances from the probe also the phase effect applies, this fact is acceptable. As an
illustration we performed also measurements demonstrating this fact and the
dependences of the reflected wave amplitude on the sample distance from the probe are
shown in Fig. 6.
Should the need arise to measure defects from different distances (lift off) we
have made complete this effect of phase influence on the course of reflected signal with
continuous changing of the probe distance from the defect and the results are in
Fig. 7 for pertinax sample from open side and close side of the defect.
f = 9,97 GHz
100
amplitude [a.u.]
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
liftoff [cm]
ID OD
Figure 7. Dependence of reflected signal amplitude on the distance of the probe from OD and ID defect in
pertinax sample
4. Conclusion
Experimental results mentioned in the individual chapters confirm the ability of

microwaves to detect the defects in dielectric materials. For the better outlook at
practical measurement and considering material properties theoretically, measurement
for reliable determination of fundamental dielectric materials determination where
performed. For the practical evaluation of the signal reflected from the defect, the
signal shapes at the probe moved horizontally over the defect and at moving away from
the defect were investigated by the open waveguide method.
It is possible from our measurements in microwave frequency range to perform
the following evaluations: the presented results showed that the method is suitable for
medium loss materials dielectric properties measurement because at high loss
materials the determination of wavelength in investigated dielectric material is difficult.
Our measurement method proves the possibility unambiguous value of assessment.
The method can provide the reliable information about the microwave attenuation in
various admixtures composed from dielectric materials with different dielectric
properties.
Our experimental results showed influence of crack dielectric filling on the
reflected microwave signal from the defect in metal sample. The open waveguide
method is suitable for nondestructive testing of dielectric samples with introduced
crack. Our results showed the ability of crack characteristics investigation from open
and closed side in microwave frequency range.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank MSc. Pavol irko director of High School for
Agriculture and Fishing in Moovce for technical help at realization of experiments.
The author would like to thank to Prof. Ivan Makovny for providing the samples for
this work.
The work has been done in the framework of Slovak Grant Agency APVV Project
No. SK-RO-0015-10.
References
[1] M. Pastorino et al.: A global optimization technique for microwave. nondestructive evaluation, IEEE,
Transaction on Instrumentation and Measurement 51 (2002), 666-673.
[2] D. Faktorov: Some experiences with microwave investigation of material defects, Studies in Applied
Electromagnetics and Mechanics 31 (2008), 162-170.
[3] D. Faktorov: Utilisation of microwaves material defect investigation. Acta Technica CSAV, 53, (2008),
17-27.
[4] D. Faktorov, K. Grondk: Microwave Measurement of Biological and Allied Materials, Proceedings
of the APMC 2006 conference, Yokohama, Japan, (2003), 544-547.
[5] B.M. Makovcev, K.N. Cibizov, B.F. Emelin: Teorija Volnovodov, Moskva-Leningrad, Nauka, 1966.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-417
Terahertz Time Domain Inspection of

Composite Coatings for Corrosion
Protection
Przemyslaw LOPATOa,1, Tomasz CHADY a and Joao M.A. REBELLO b
a
Technology,
al. Piastow 17, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
b
Laboratory of Nondestructive Testing, Corrosion and Welding, Department of
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of Rio of Janeiro,
CEP 21941-596, Brazil
Abstract. Terahertz radiation is sensitive to refractive index variations and is

strongly reflected by conducting objects, thus it is an effective tool in
nondestructive evaluation of protective coatings of steel. In this work a composite
material consisting of a paint layer, polymeric layer, ceramic layer and a steel plate
in its interior was examined. Typical applications are: storage tanks for petroleum,
diesel, aviation fuel, diesel, crude oil, salt water, gasoline, alcohol, process and
transport of chemical products, platforms and offshore structures, electrolytic cells,
anodizing lines, stations water and wastewater treatment, water tanks in the
chemical, petrochemical and chlorine alkali plants. Evaluated test specimen
contains manufacturing flaws in the metal/ceramic layer interface. Because of
multilayered structure of the coatings, time domain measurements with very short
THz pulse duration (~20 ps) were utilized in presented experiments. Defects were
detected by reflection imaging based on pulsed terahertz TDS (Time Domain
Spectroscopy). Selected THz B scans in case of non defected and defected area
are shown. Dedicated defects detection algorithm is proposed and verified. Results
achieved during terahertz inspection are compared with those obtained using
active thermography.
Keywords. THz imaging, time domain inspection, corrosion protection, defects

detection algorithms
Introduction
Terahertz imaging become more and more popular NDT technique. Usage of high
frequency electromagnetic waves restricts its applicability to dielectric and
semiconductor materials volumetric examination. Only surface of conducting materials
can be inspected, but for this case several other and cost-effective techniques exists,
like eddy current testing ECT, magnetic flux leakage MFL or visual inspection.
1
Corresponding Author: Przemyslaw LOPATO, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, al. Piastw 17, 70 310
Szczecin, Poland, E mail: plopato@zut.edu.pl
418 P. Lopato et al. / Terahertz Time Domain Inspection of Composite Coatings
Terahertz inspection seems to be very good choice for examination of metallic

parts composite coatings. Opposite to ultrasonic technique (also applicable in coatings
inspection) the use of coupling medium is not necessary. Due to large differences in
absorption coefficient of coating (ceramics and polymers) and core material (steel
plate) and a relatively small loss of material occurring in the case of delamination,
radiography is not sufficient method of such structures inspection.
The paper shortly introduces to specific type of coating applied in industry (e.g. oil
or chemical industry). Also some basic information about terahertz technique are given.
Then the results of THz time domain inspection of composite anticorrosion coating are
presented. Next dedicated defects detection algorithm is proposed and verified by
results of active thermographic imaging.
1. Anticorrosion coatings
Many construction materials suffer from corrosion, which causes degradation of

their lifetime. For this reason such structures are often covered with an anticorrosion
coating. In order to assure sufficient strength, the coating must be mechanically and
thermally suited to the base material, mostly steel. This condition is fulfilled only if
coating fabrication process does not produce defects. An example of composite coating
is presented in Fig. 1. The sample consist of an anterior coating with esther-vinyl epoxy
novolac resin strengthened with glass fibres. The coating was applied in three layers
composed of primer, mortar reinforced with glass fibre plated with impregnation resin,
veil of surface also impregnated and finishing with resin. The base metal was blasted
mild steel with a profile of 70 m. The total dry thickness of the coating is
approximately 6 mm.
Typical applications of such coatings are: storage tanks for petroleum, diesel,
aviation fuel, diesel, crude oil, salt water, gasoline, alcohol, process and transport of
chemical products, platforms and offshore structures, electrolytic cells, anodizing lines,
stations water and wastewater treatment, water tanks in the chemical, petrochemical
and chlorine-alkali plants.
Figure 1. View of anticorrosion coating sample.

P. Lopato et al. / Terahertz Time Domain Inspection of Composite Coatings 419
2. Terahertz reflection imaging
Terahertz electromagnetic radiation (T-ray) enables non-invasive, non-ionizing

and non-contact examination of dielectric materials such as: plastics, dry wood,
ceramics, foams and composites [1]. The T-rays are sensitive for refractive index, thus
any defect which disturbs it, e.g.:
void,
delamination,
inclusion,
material inhomogeneities (fiber/matrix distribution),
surface roughness,
fiber waviness,
internal interfaces between layers (in layered structures)
can be detected. In most cases, defects are located by reflection pulsed terahertz TDS
(Time Domain Spectroscopy) [2]. The method is well suited for evaluation of layered
materials. Each interface between separate layers causes reflection of incident THz
pulse and attenuation of transmitted one. Differences in delays of the propagated pulses
and their echo (delayed layer reflections) enable characterization of the thicknesses and
inner structure state. Very short pulses (order of picoseconds) contain wide frequency
bandwidth (0.05 - 3 THz) and therefore it is possible to carry one single point
broadband measurements.
2.1. Imaging system
Simplified scheme of terahertz time domain imaging system is shown in Fig. 2.

The main components of the system are:
pair of transducers (transmitter and receiver),
ultra fast laser,
optical delay line.
THz pulses are generated and picked up by photoconductive antennas (PCA) [3].
The main part of the THz transmitter is bowtie antenna with photoconductive gap,
which is illuminated by femtosecond laser pulses. Such excitation and application of
external DC bias causes pulsed current flow through metallic part of antenna. The
currents induce electromagnetic wave. The resulting bowtie antenna radiation is
collimated by high resistivity hemispherical silicon lens and then focused on examined
object surface by High-Density PolyEthylene (HDPE) lens. View of measuring heads
in reflection arrangement is shown in Fig. 3. During our measurements we applied
TRay4000 imaging system of Picometrix, which offers the frequency resolution of
3 GHz and average power of THz beam less than 500 W. Lateral resolution of TDS
technique is less than 200 m and depth resolution less than 50 m [4].
Figure 2. Simplified scheme of the measuring system.
Figure 3. View of the measuring system.
2.2. Results of measurements
B-scan signal obtained by reflection inspection of delaminated composite

anticorrosion coating using terahertz technique is shown in Fig. 4. In case of non-
defected area one can observe two pulses caused by:
front surface reflection,
steel plate reflection.
Any additional pulse is caused by a defect. Position of such pulse (related to
surface and plate reflection pulses) carry an information about defects depth. In case of
defected area such additional pulse arises in vicinity of base material reflection pulse,
thus the detected defect is a delamination (air gap) between steel plate and ceramics.
Using THz time domain technique we are able to measure also the thickness of the
coating based on time delay tD between both pulses, however this parameter is not a
good one in order to detect delaminations (information about the coating thickness is
insufficient). In examined sample there were delaminated areas having smaller
thickness than other locations without defects.
Figure 4. Measured B scans in case of non defected (left) and defected (right) area.
3. Defects detection
3.1. Algorithm
Block scheme of proposed defects detection algorithm is presented in Fig. 5. THz

inspection needs a raster scanning in x-y directions. In each (x,y) position an A-scan
signal (as shown in Fig. 6) is acquired. One can see there are two main pulses (front
surface and steel plate reflection). For each of them some features were calculated, e.g.
MaxVal maximum value of the pulse and its position (time delay tD) MaxPos. After
extraction of waveform features, their two dimensional maps are created (e.g. MaxPos
(x,y)). Achieved maps contain an information about the coating thickness and possible
defects. The thickness information is strongly correlated with low frequency
component of the 2D feature map. This trend may be calculated and eliminated from
2D signal, leaving only information about defects. The most important step is trend
calculation. It is based on background elimination procedure applied before in digital
X-ray imaging [5]. Background (or trend) is obtained using median filter with
relatively big mask size . The best results were achieved in case of 60x60 points square
window of median filter. An elimination of trend was obtained by its subtraction from
the original map. Then the signal was thresholded and the result indicates defects
positions.
Figure 5. Block scheme of defects detection algorithm.
Figure 6. Measured A scan with indication of separate reflections and several waveform features.
3.2. Results of defects detection
The results achieved for both sides of examined composite coating specimen are
shown in Fig. 7 and 8. Both figures show detrended two dimensional distributions of
selected waveform feature (MaxPos(x,y)) and final signal after thresholding operation.
Results achieved using time domain THz technique were validated using active
thermographic inspection. Thermal excitation of the specimen was done using
inductive heating of base material (steel plate). This kind of thermal excitation causes a
temperature growth from interior part of the specimen. Thermal image was acquired
using thermographic camera, during heating process. One can observe similarities of
the results in case of both techniques.
Figure 7. Results of THz inspection specimen side without visible defects in crossection (upper part in
Fig. 1).
Figure 8. Results of THz inspection specimen side with visible defects in crossection (lower part in Fig. 1)
Figure 9. Results of thermographic inspection after 3s of inductive heating.(left: the same side as in Fig. 7,
right: as in Fig. 8)
4. Conclusions
In this work pulsed time domain terahertz imaging of composite anticorrosion

coatings was presented. Complex coating with manufacturing defects was examined.
Dedicated defect detection algorithm was proposed and validated using results of THz
measurements and thermographic inspection. Obtained results enable to form a
conclusion that pulsed THz inspection with proposed defects detection algorithm are
effective tool in nondestructive testing of composite anticorrosion coatings of metallic
base materials.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the State Committee for Scientific Research,
Poland under Grant (N N510 538039) Badania nieniszczce materiaw
kompozytowych falami elektromagnetycznymi w pamie czstotliwoci
terahercowych/ Nondestructive testing of composite materials using terahertz
frequency electromagnetic waves (2010-2012).
References
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nondestructive evaluation, Review of Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, vol. 28 (2009), 426 433.
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[4] D. Zimda rs, J. A. Va ldmanis, J.S. White, G. Stuk, S. Willi amson, W.P. Win free,
E . I. M a d a r a s , Technology and applications of terahertz imaging non destructive examination:
Inspection of space shuttle sprayed on foam insulation, Review of Quantitative Nondestructive
Evaluation, vol. 24 (2005), 570 577.
[5] R. Sikora, P. Baniukiewicz, T. Chady, W. Rucinski, K. Swiadek, M. Caryk, P. Lopato, Comparison of
selected weld defects extraction methods, , Review of Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, vol. 27
(2008), 1034 1041.
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-425
SIMULATION ASSISTED DIAGNOSTIC

OF SWITCHING ARCS
Hans-Peter SCHMIDT a,1, Michael ANHEUSER b, Sylvio KOSSE c
a
University of Applied Sciences Amberg-Weiden, Amberg, Germany
b
Siemens AG, Amberg, cSiemens AG, Erlangen, Germany
Abstract. A diagnostic method for low voltage switching arcs is proposed where
the magnetic field of the switching current is used to determine the arc movement.
The magnetic field of the switching current density is recorded with an array of
field sensors. The time and space resolved readings are compared with results from
simulations of the arc. Parameters of the simulation and therefore current densities
are adapted to reconstruct the measurement readings. So an inversion of the ill
conditioned integral equation is not necessary. Results with a hardly optimized set
up showed that this approach may be successfully applied to measure arc
movements.
Keywords. Switch gear, arc simulation, measurement of arc movement, Hall

sensor array
Introduction
Applying arc modelling to circuit breaker design implies a trade off between detailed
physical modelling and necessary simplifications. While simplifications might neglect
even dependencies relevant for results an accurate detailing is still not feasible [1].
Only adequate measuring techniques may verify the actual model for the required
purpose. Low voltage circuit breakers exhibit an arc in air within a complex shaped arc
chamber. Usually the arc is quenched, when the voltage drop exceeds the voltage of the
grid. This voltage drop is achieved by driving the arc into stacked splitter plates. The
dielectric recovery of the residual gas mixture determines the re-ignition behaviour.
The breaking behaviour of medium circuit breakers depends also heavily on arc
movement and high voltage switch gear is also strongly dependent on arc movement.
The actual arc movement is crucial for the overall quenching process. Figure 1 gives a
cross sectional view of two different types of low voltage circuit breaker which are
equipped with stacked splitter plates.
1. Arc modelling
An overview of relevant arc models is given by Anheuser [1]. The governing equations
of magneto-hydro-dynamics for a single fluid consist of the energy conservation
1
Hans Peter Schmidt, h.schmidt@haw aw.de, Kaiser Wilhelm Ring 23, 92224 Amberg, Germany.
426 H.-P. Schmidt et al. / Simulation Assisted Diagnostic of Switching Arcs
equation (1), the momentum (2) and mass conservation (3) extended by species
conservation (4).
Figure 1 Cross sectional view of miniature circuit breaker (left) and a circuit breaker (right). Figures are not
to scale.
Because we deal with fast flowing gas, the energy equation is formulated in total
enthalpy, to account for kinetic energies h=hstat+1/2 u2. Enthalpy changes are
balanced by heat conduction, radiative cooling/heating and Joule heating.
& &
( h ) + $ ( h u& ) = $ (h h ) + E $ j s (1)
t
h enthalpy, density, u velocity, heat conduction: h /cp diffusion coefficient, cp specific heat, E j Joule
heating; s radiation losses
In low voltage circuit breakers, shock waves influence the characteristics of an arc
considerably. To model this type of gas flow the momentum conservation becomes the
transient compressible Navier-Stokes equation, where the Lorentz forces constitute the
source term. As the operating gas is Newtonian the stress tensor with the dynamic
viscosity may be used [1]. If we denote density W, thermal conductivity , velocities u,
time t and pressure p, the transient compressible Navier-Stokes reads [1][2][3]:
&
&&& & & ( & &
u
t
( )
+ u u = p + $ + j B (2)
p pressure , friction stress tensor , u velocity, j x B Lorenz force
Equation (1) and (2) are completed by the mass conservation (3) and may be extended
by species conservation (4) if ablation is to be considered [1].
& &
+ $ ( u ) = 0 (3)
t
H.-P. Schmidt et al. / Simulation Assisted Diagnostic of Switching Arcs 427
( Yi ) & & & &

t
+ $ ( Yi u ) = $ i Yi ( ) (4)
Yi Species , i diffusion coefficient for species Yi
The current density is calculated from a generalized Ohms law taking movement into
account (5). The magnetic field is derived from a standard vector potential formulation
(6).
& & & &
j = + u B (5)
& & 1 * &

A = j (6)

Field diffusion within the magnetic splitter plates is neglected. This set of equation may
be even more extended by equations for arc root movement or general arc wall
interaction, respectively. Likewise radiation may be formulated with net emission
coefficients or may be detailed by solving a simplified radiation transfer equation [1]
[2] [3].
Material properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity are derived from
minimizing Gibbs function with a Chapman-Enskog procedure. The material properties
are then functions of temperature, pressure and concentration. These coupled equations
may be solved with finite volume codes [1] or with coupled FEM and FVM procedures.
Existing 2-D and 3-D codes are applied to calculate the temperatures and therefore
current densities. Figure 2 gives results from such calculations. A snap shot of a typical
temperature distribution is given for different models of the arc root movement. FVM
is applied for solving the fluid dynamics part. This is realized by the commercial CFD
solver CFX 11 with additional user defined functions. Maxwells equations are solved
with the finite element method applying edge based elements of low order. For this task
ANSYS 11 is used as the electromagnetic solver. The meshes consisted of
approximately 300000 cells for the finite volume mesh with a similar spatial resolution
for the FEM code. The data is mapped onto the meshes by interpolation using a next
neighbour search.
Figure 2 Calculated temperature distribution for a miniature circuit breaker as given in figure 1 [4]. Different
models for arc roots were used for the two results. Temperature ranges from an ambient value of 300K to
approximately 20000K.
2. Arc diagnostics
Integral quantities such as voltage and total arcing currents may be recorded. Likewise
pressures at specific positions may be taken directly from measurement readings.
Temperatures are usually assessed by spectroscopic means and tomographic procedures
yield the distributions. This diagnostic method suffers from the following uncertainties:
Radiation may be totally or partially reabsorbed and the cold gas at the fringes blurs
images and actual gas composition e.g. metal vapour concentrations influence the
readings [5].
For accessing the arc movement one resorts to high speed cameras, where the
intensity which enters the camera lens is recorded. Here the relative brightness is taken
for the current density distribution. Commonly intensity readings are taken from a
single line of sight and no tomographic procedures are applied. Still the above
mentioned difficulties are present [6]. As a simulation assisted approach the intensities
at the outer edge of the arc are computed from the solution of equations (1) to (6) and
compared with camera readings [6].
3. Magnetic Diagnostics of Arc Movement
To determine the time dependent current density distributions the following procedure
is assessed. The magnetic field outside the circuit breaker is recorded via a Hall sensor
array. Readings are then compared to calculated field strengths. While previous work
assumed that current paths are a succession of rectilinear and threadlike segments [7]
we propose to use either the self consistent (1) to (6) solution or a 3-D FEM solution of
(6). The self consistent solution of equations (1) to (6) has to be used only if all details
are of interest. Clearly, current densities themselves are more efficiently deduced from
equation (6) only. Therefore we solve (6) for a variety of sets of reasonably guessed
current distributions taking into account that saturation of the splitter plates sets in at
high current values. The current distributions are then adjusted to yield the measured
magnetic field strengths. These calculations are carried out with the Vector Fields 3D
Opera suite. Figure 3 gives an example of calculated magnetic inductions for an
assumed current path and the according breaker geometry.
Figure 3 Calculated magnetic induction for a given current path. The simulated breaker is shown on the right.
4. Measurement of the Magnetic Field
To demonstrate the feasibility, we use a scanning magnetic camera. A circuit breaker

with a fixed current path is scanned with magnetic field sensors. The measuring device
consists of an L-shaped Hallsensor array. This array consists of two times 8 sensors
with perpendicular orientation. A 3-D precision positioning device provides a scanning
volume of app. 0,3 m x 0,3 m x 0,4 m with a spatial resolution better than 0,2 mm.
Readings are provided by a multi-channel electronics for the Hall probes, an analog-
digital conversion with 1 MHz bandwith and a computer control. Figure 4 gives a
schematic view of the experimental set-up for the circuit breaker with a fixed current
path.
5. Results
Instead of an actual arc a fixed current path within the breaker was used. With the
scanning device we recorded field patterns as depicted in figure 5. Readings of the Bx
component shown were taken at a fixed z-position corresponding to the breaker
housing. The spatial resolution was 1 mm covering an area of 80 mm x 80 mm. This
region is also shown in the left part of figure 4.
Figure 4 Schematic and actual view of the measurement setup
We record the Bx and By components of the field at each point. But for clarity we
considered here only the Bx component of the field. One recognizes the straight part of
the current path close to the lower half of the region at the position x= 20 mm. The
dilution of the field at a height of y=30 mm to approximately 50 mm corresponds to the
position of the steel splitter plates. The U-shaped current feed in the upper half gives
the varying field levels of the Bx component.
To demonstrate the general feasibility of our approach we solved equation 6
utilizing the Vector Fields Opera 3D software. We used the known breaker geometry
and guessed a reasonable current path. As the essential a priori information we use the
approximate distance of the current path from the sensors plane. Still this guessed
current path differed from the one we have set out for our measurement considerably.
We adjusted the x- and y-position of a current segment according to difference in the

measured and calculated field maximum. Figure 5 gives the result for such a single
iteration.
Figure 5 Measured (left) and calculated (right) magnetic induction; Bx component. Field levels range from
0 20mT.
As expected, we found reasonable good agreement between the given current path
and the one obtained from the calculation for straight paths, despite using one iteration
only. We have been able to reconstruct the U-shaped section of the current path
approximately using only the Bx and By component. For the region with the splitter
plates we found it difficult to adjust the current path according to measurement. The
restricted dynamic range of our measurement did not provide sufficient detailed
readings.
We found the measurement of the two field components Bx and By sufficient to
approximately reconstruct the current path, which we reduced to a path in one plane.
For further investigations we will need to measure all three components of the
magnetic induction. For the relatively small currents of 100-200A, which we used here,
the region with steel splitter plates could not be resolved. Nevertheless applying real
breaking currents of some kA will yield magnetically saturated plates and therefore
magnetic field levels which will be used to determine the current path. We expect that
the suggested procedure may be successfully applied to determine a real arc movement
if a magnetic camera with an appropriate bandwidth is used instead of our scanning
device.
References
[1] M. Anheuser, C. Lders, Numerical Arc Simulations for Low Voltage Circuit breakers, Proceedings
XVIIIth Symposium on Physics of Switching Arcs, 2009 Brno, Czech Republic
[2] U. H. Bauder, H. P. Schmidt, Arcs, Sparks and Other Discharges, Encyclopaedia of Applied Physics,
Editor L. Trigg, VCH Publishers NY, 1995
[3] H. P. Schmidt, G. Speckhofer, Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of High Pressure Arcs Part I
and II, IEEE Trans. On Plasma Science (34) (1996) 1229 1238 and 1239 1248
[4] Hauser et al., Proceedings 19. Albert Keil Kontaktseminar, 2007 Karlsruhe, Germany
[5] H. P. Schmidt, M. Anheuser, S. Kosse, Arc Modelling in Low Voltage Switch Gear, Proceedings GEM
XVI, 2010 ,Murramarang, Australia
[6] S. Kosse, C. Lders, C. Hauser, Switching Arcs: Comparability of Simulations and Experiment,
Proceedings XVIIIth Symposium on Physics of Switching Arcs, 2009 Brno, Czech Republic
[7] C Brdys, et. al., Optical and Magnetic Diagnostics of the Electric Arc Dynamics in a Low Voltage
Circuit Breaker, Meas. Sci. Technol. 13 (2002) 1146 1153
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-432
Studies on Analysis Technique of Commutation

Phenomena for Cleaners Universal Motor
Using the State Variable Method
Yuji AKIYAMAa,1 and Yuta NIWA a
a
Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Japan
Abstract. This paper focuses on the restraint method of the 3rd harmonics current,
which close attention has been paid to the iron core shape of the universal motor
for power vacuum cleaners. In this paper, the air gap permeance, magnetic
saturation of an iron core, and the influence a slot ripple has on the harmonic
current were verified using FEM electromagnetism analysis.
As the result, stator core shape proved quantitatively that a restraint of harmonic
current has effect. The authors assert that a design manual should be adapted to
create international standard about a restraint of the harmonic current of a
universal motor.
Keywords. universal motor, commutation phenomenon, finite element method,

state function
Introduction
Today, many electronic appliances are driven by an inverter to achieve high efficiency.
As a result, under the influence of a capacitor input type commutation circuit, a big
current distortion arose for the electric power system, the serious problems, such as a
transformer and a phase advance capacitor can be occurred big damage. The regulation
of harmonic current restraint represents an international problem.
In this paper, we explore the restraint technique of the harmonic current of universal
motors. The harmonic restraint technique described in this paper didnt use neither a
reactor nor an active filter. We did study the harmonic restraint paid the iron core shape
for a universal motor. This verifies quantitatively air gap permeance ripples, iron core
saturation, and the influence of a slot and pole shape ripples.
The result proved quantitatively that a harmonic restraint has an effect according to
expansion of an air gap size on the pole edge, and the conditions of stator magnetic
pole shape and the iron core characteristics of the material. Therefore, the authors
assert the iron core design manual of the universal motor about a harmonic restraint
which carries out international standard conformity was able to be shown. In addition,
the targeted model machines are input power 1.5kw and a 33,000rpm high-speed
universal motor for cleaners.
1
Corresponding Author. Kanagawa Institute of Technology, 1030 Shimo ogino Atsugi shi Kanagawa
ken, Japan; E mail: office@sml nb.co.jp; Tel: +81 462 91 3233
Y. Akiyama and Y. Niwa / Studies on Analysis Technique of Commutation Phenomena 433
1. Application of Power Supply Harmonic Current Restraint Standard
1.1. IEC Standard (international standard) and a JIS Standard (in Japan)
The targeted testing machine is targeting the vacuum cleaner of input voltage AC200V
and 1.5kW of input electric power in this paper. As for the international standard about
the harmonic current restraint applicable to this apparatus, IEC61000-3-2 and "the
limited value over the apparatus (below the input 16A) connected to a general low-
voltage power distribution system" correspond. However, the limit value under the
supply-voltage 220V is not prescribed by IEC61000-3-2.
In Japan, two or more guidelines related with a harmonic current restraint were
published. For examples, JIS-C-61000-3-2 "Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)-Part
3-2: Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current 20A per phase)"
was enacted in 2003. This aims at consistency with an international standard in Japan
where the electric input power base differs from that European one.
1.2. Application of IEC Standards
First, application of the harmonic restraint standard in this paper is defined. In this
paper, since the target universal motor assumes the use of a vacuum cleaner, it applies
the vacuum cleaner of IEC61000-3-2. A vacuum cleaner is classified into a
classification "Class A" of apparatus.
The harmonic current limit of Class A is shown in Table 1 here. In this paper, it is
satisfied with a motor only, the substance of these harmonic current limit values, and
aims the design manual which suppresses reduction performance for the minimum. In
addition, by the standard, which apparatus with the regulating function of power
consumption is described controlling phase angle as 905 degrees such severe.
However, in this time, our target is sine wave drive only, this means no use of
harmonics filter.
1.3. Calculation of Harmonic Currents
The measurement apparatus of the harmonic current is specified to IEC61000-3-2. In

this paper, the distortion of the waveform of the current was measured by the high
speed digital oscilloscope, and Fourier transformation of [Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT) was used it] (1).
1 N 1 2
ck = xi exp j ki , k = 0,, N 1 (1)
N i =0 N
2. Simulation of the Harmonic Current using FEM Electromagnetic Field

Analysis
2.1. Outline of an Target Machine
The sectional view of the iron core of the universal motor used for this analysis is
shown in Fig. 1. This design dimensions and rating are shown in Table 1. The Slots
combinations are 22slot/2pole, and the total numbers of commutator segments are 22
434 Y. Akiyama and Y. Niwa / Studies on Analysis Technique of Commutation Phenomena
bars. Moreover, the armature winding is lap winding. (Refer to Fig.2). Moreover, the
spatial relationship of Raiser and winding has placed the brush at the neutral point,
when a magnetic field system is the weakest including armature reaction. Table 1
reveals that this motor is considerably more high-powered than a Japanese standard
cleaner motor (inputs 900W and 100V) for home use. The motor used in this
experiment is a high-output cleaner of 200V system, commonly used in Europe and the
U.S. These are equivalent to a business-use cleaner in a Japanese market. In Japan, is
no connection terminal wire to the 200V power source; however, it is a standard system
type in Europe and North America.
Table 1. Motors specification
Input Voltage 200 V / 50 Hz
Input Max Power 1,500 W
Rotational Frequency / Min. 33,000 r/min
Field Winding 0.5 106Turn / Pole
Armature Winding 0.4 30Turn / Slot
Air Gap 0.5 mm

Core Thickness 21.0 mm
Iron Core Material Silicon Steel Plate (50A1300)
Figure 1. Cross section of universal motors core.
Figure 2. Figure of armature winding & brushes and poles arrangement.
2.2. Harmonic Current Analysis by Non linearity of Iron Saturation
In order to conduct to the harmonic current analysis, there is the necessity of computing
input current distortion correctly. The measured waveform of the input voltage at the
time of the sine wave drive, in the radical model described above to Fig. 3(a) and
current was shown. An analyzed simulation result was shown in Fig. 3(b). Comparison
of both will obtain very good coincidence. This frequency analyzed result is shown in
Fig. 4. The result is checked, that it was less than 5% of error although perfect
coincidence is not said.

9ROWDJH 9ROWDJH

&XUUHQW &XUUHQW
&XUUHQW >$@
&XUUHQW >$@
9ROWDJH >9@
9ROWDJH >9@

PVHF PVHF

(a) Measured results (b) Simulated results

Figure 3. Voltage and current waveform (control angle 0 deg.).
Figure 4. Frequency analysis result of harmonics current
3. The Restraint Technique of Harmonic Current
3.1. Air-gap Size
The analyzed figure model is shown in Fig. 5(a). This is a common technique used in
Europe to suppress a steep current distortion by taking a large gap on the pole edge size,
and satisfies an IEC standard. However, generating torque becomes problematic.
Harmonic current is shown in Fig. 5(b), and when the air gap size was 1.0mm or more,
the result of EMCs standard could be satisfied.
D PP
E PP
F PP

r
(a) Shape of analysis model (b) Analysis result of harmonic currents

Figure 5. Change the harmonic current at the time of changing the length of an air gap.
3.2. Non Uniformed Air Gap Length Concept of State Function Calculation
The calculation model was changed, the stator pole side shape of air gap length in Fig.
6(a), that compared it. The analyzed result of harmonics current was shown in Fig. 6(b),
and that difference was insubstantial. The harmonic current resulting from a slot ripple
reflects is very high frequency. Therefore, it does not influence in the order of low
frequency waves. Our hypothezis is that the harmonics of a lower degree will not be
greatly affected. Moreover, in the separate torque analysis conducted by our team, the
mitigation effect of the torque ripple which aligned with Rota Tooths cycle was
accepted. From this result, the constant length of air gap (a) type of a stator pole, can
not be expected cause reduction of a torque ripple.
D QRQ XQLIRUP
DLUJDS
PP PP
D XQLIRUP DLUJDS
PP

r
(a) Pole shape of analysis model (b) Analysis result of harmonic current
Figure 6. Change the harmonic current at the time of changing the length of unequal Air gap shape.
3.3. Stator Pole tips face Geometry
The analysis model figure which made thickness of the stator pole the parameter is
shown in Fig. 7(a). This figure considers the influence on the harmonics of the
magnetic saturation phenomenon at the tip of a stator pole portion. A large pole angle
is seen here, as well as the magnetic saturation at the pole tips, suggesting a reduction
of the harmonic current. However, since the magnetic saturation phenomenon at the
stator chip indicates an improvement of a commutation phenomenon has much effected,
further research are required and need it.
G PP
H PP
I PP

r $LUJDS
PP
(a) Shape of analysis model (b) Analysis result of harmonic current

Figure 7. Change the harmonic current at the time of changing the stator pole tips thickness.
3.4. Influence by the Iron Core Material
The influence on the harmonic current at the time of changing by the iron core material
into 50A1300 from the silicon steel plate 50A800 was also considered in our research.
In addition, the analysis models that are the gap shape and length such as 0.5mm of air
gap, and 1.5mm of stator chips. By the harmonic current that result in this analysis is
shown in Fig. 8. It is more improvement are possible, by using the iron core material of
high Bmax iron core, then raise a torque, than this result. As expected, this has an effect
of a restraint of harmonics current. Our results shows that iron core material and quality
has a drastic impact on harmonic current, and should be considered along with cost.
Figure 8. Change the harmonic current at the time of changing the core materials.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, we consider the influence of the core shape and iron core material upon
the harmonic current. The valuation basis was based on the IEC standard.
The evaluation technique was examined using FEM electromagnetism analysis. This
strict analysis utilized various functions, such as brush contact resistance, which
changes with rotation, in this FEM electromagnetic was analyzed by FLUX-2D. We
also took into account variated state functions, such as brush contact resistance,
commutation phenomena and used iron core shapes, Air gap length, etc. As a result, the
power supply current distortion waveform and simulated results has good mashing was
able to obtain the waveform was very similar to an actual measurement result.
In this paper, we can show the result quantitatively that a restraint of harmonic current
has an effect under the influence real iron core shape and the characteristics of the
materials. Although it corresponds by addition of a reactor, etc. conventionally in many
cases, naturally there is a problem of increased cost. Therefore, current harmonics are
controlled by the design of iron core shape. The balance of a restraint of operation
characteristics and harmonic current should be maintained. By using the methods that
mentioned above, we assert that iron core shape and performance (considering cost
optimization) should be implemented into the design process.
References
[1] Yuji Akiyama, Toshiyasu Takura, Yuta Niwa : A study about Core shape Design of 200V Lines for
Vacuum Cleaner Universal Motor, The paper of Technical Meeting on Rotating Machinery, IEE Japan,
No.RM03 137, pp.7 12 (2003) (in Japanese)
[2] S.Suzuki, K.Kurihara, H.Nase, K.Takahashi : RF Noise Associated with Time Varying Arc Current
across Brush and Commutator in Universal Motors, T.IEE Japan, Vol.118 D, No.6, pp.773 779 (1998)
(in Japanese)
[3] H.Koharagi, K.Tahara, Y.Ishii, S.Suzuki : Application and Evaluation of Commutation Performance
with an Exceptional Armature Winding Form for Small Universal Motors, T.IEE Japan, Vol.115 D,
No.4, pp.488 494 (1995) (in Japanese)
[4] Yuta Niwa, Mithuhito Kawamura, Yuji Akiyama : Request of technological points for vacuum cleaner
motor in 200V system, The paper of Technical Meeting on Rotating Machinery, IEE Japan, No.RM04
168, pp.45 50 (2004) (in Japanese)
[5] R. Richter : Elektrische Maschinen (1950)
[6] IEC 61000 3 2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 3 2: Limits for harmonic current emissions
(equipment input current16A per phase)
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-439
Propositions for the Analysis of

Commutation Phenomena of Universal
Motors Using the State Function Method
Yuji AKIYAMAa,1 and Yuta NIWA a
a
Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Japan
Abstract. The universal motors of our advanced research use FEM simulations to
perform modeling of universal motors rotating at ultrahigh speed, by using the like
state function method with respect to the details regarding the commutation
scintillation or arc phenomenon of the commutators, the air gap surface, and its
contact condition of the brushes. As a result, at the design stage, the commutation
scintillation phenomenon was quantitatively estimated and an investigation was
performed with respect to the configuration of the iron core. Furthermore, an
example of this modeling method based on FEM analysis was performed with
regard to the electromotive force of the transformer effect, the armature reaction
and the scintillation voltage including the contact resistance of the brushes
resulting from the rotation, the configuration of the iron core, and the changes in
the gap permeance. Regarding the validity of this analysis, an extremely close
match was attained between the results of the present simulation and the
experimental results. In this regard, the targeted model motor was a 1.5 kW,
33,000rpm ultrahigh speed, high capacity universal motor for cleaners.
Keywords. universal motor, commutation phenomenon, sparking voltage, finite

element method(FEM), state function
1. Analysis Technique of Harmonic Current for Universal Motor
1.1. Outline of the Object Machine
The sectional view of the iron core of the universal motor is shown in Fig. 1. The
design dimensions and rating are shown in Table 1.
The Slot combinations are 22slot/2pole, and the number of commutator segments is 22
bars. Moreover, the armature winding is lap winding. (Refer to Fig.2)
Table 1 reveals that this motor is considerably more high-powered than a Japanese
standard cleaner motor (inputs 900W and 100V) for home use.
The motor used in this experiment is a high-output cleaner of 200V system, commonly
used in Europe and the U.S. These are equivalent to a business-use cleaner on the
Japanese market. In Japan, although there is no track record in 200V power supply;
however, it is a standard system type in Europe and America.
1
Corresponding Author. Kanagawa Institute of Technology, 1030 Shimo ogino Atsugi shi Kanagawa
ken, Japan; E mail: office@sml nb.co.jp; Tel: +81 462 91 3233
440 Y. Akiyama and Y. Niwa / Propositions for the Analysis of Commutation Phenomena
Table 1. Motors specification

Input Voltage 200 V / 50 Hz
Input Max Power 1,500 W
Rotational Frequency / Min. 33,000 r/min
Field Winding 0.5 106Turn / Pole
Armature Winding 0.4 30Turn / Slot
Air Gap 0.5 mm

Core Thickness 21.0 mm
Iron Core Material Silicon Steel Plate (50A1300)
Figure 1. Cross section of universal motors core.
Figure 2. Armature winding & brushes and poles arrangement.
1.2. Analysis Method
This analysis simulation became the coupling analysis of the iron core geometric model
and external circuit which was taken in as a state variable.
First, model is made with the finite element method in the state element shown in Fig.
4, and considering the spatial relationship of the space. Moreover, the external circuit
shown in Fig. 3 is equivalent to the circuit composition of all universal motors[4]. The
relations arrangement and number of rotations of an external circuit and an iron core
geometric model have been preestablished. Furthermore, the voltage equation by
electromagnetism circuit combination (which added the conditions of equation (1)) has
been formed. The details are given below:
di RT RT
L + iR+ b (I + i) b (I i) + ec = 0 (1)
dt T t t
Y. Akiyama and Y. Niwa / Propositions for the Analysis of Commutation Phenomena 441
Here, it is R=Rc+R1 (Rc is coil resistance, Rl is resistance of the lead which conducts a
coil to commutator bars.). T is the value which shaped brush width, and is divided by
speed of the commutator or the commutation cycle, and t is time (second). ec represents
the electromotive force "commutation electromotive force" by a commutation[1][5].
Equation (1) is the first order differential equation, and L, R, and T are circuit constants
and time in this formula. Moreover, t and i are variable constants, although it is not a
variable: here, the portions related to change of a state variable are the 3rd term and the
4th term. That is, the contact resistance Rb of a brush is expressed in the shape of a
temporal response. In this analysis, it is considered as change of brush part resistance
of the external circuit shown in Fig. 3 means contact of the brush and commutators
contact resistance[4]. The contact surface product of a brush and a commutator bar
carries out modeling as brush contact surface product change, which shows signs that it
changes by the rotation angle in Fig. 5 (a). If this contact surface product is treated in
the form of a differential equation as a temporal response by rotation angle degree =t
of an armature, it will change, as shown in Fig. 5 (b). In addition, contact resistance
changes with the reciprocal of this contact surface product.
L of equation (1) is the inductance of a commutation coil, and is computed in finite-
element-method, magnetic field analysis from the shape and material characteristics of
an iron core, or the number of turns of winding. In addition, the normal magnetization
curve is used for the nonlinear one of the iron core to simplify our analysis. Moreover,
the induced voltage generated in a commutation coil becomes a relation of equation (2).
Usually, there are two types divided, roughly into the speed electromotive force of the
1st terms, and the transformer electromotive force of the 2nd terms:
di d d di
e = L = +M (2)
dt d dt dt
This first term changes with magnetic resistance that change of a air gap magnetic
parmiance; harmonic current and commutation sparks are influenced by slot shape,
shape of a stator magnetic pole, and air gap length. The problem of commutation
sparks or EMC is later explored in this analysis. It is related with change of the leakage
reactance of the coil that mainly related with the position of overlap condition of slots
and magnetic poles. The simulation has been done for the all of the 22 pieces of coil in
a slot was shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, is carried out by small rotation at a angle ( = 1
deg.) within every cores and rotor stator angles. With the conventional method, slot
opening and magnetic pole shape are taken in to the shape of the state variable of a air
gap face by this method to dealing with magnetic flux density as fixed. And the
simulation is carried out to revolving speed , most important changing factors
considered have been taken into account. And magnetic flux density in the air gaps,
will calculated by remains magnetic flux, or induction voltages etc can be done by
finite-element-method of electromagnetic field analysis.
In addition, FLUX-2D of this laboratory and the Grenoble University (France)
(CEDRAT) of the joint research point and Ver.7.6 are used for this analysis.
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Figure 3. External Circuit figure for universal Figure 4. Figure of armature winding,
motor simulation. brush, poles arrangement.
bru + bar
bru bar
1
G=
Ron
1
Roff pos pos + 360
(a) Contact condition of modeling figure. (b) Modeling figure of contact area & resistance.
Figure 5. Figure of armature winding, brush, poles arrangement.
1.3. Analysis Conditions
Physical quantity required for this analysis as well as models and the finite element
method in expression of the state element are shown in Fig. 4, and is inputting iron core
shape by CAD. Moreover, a normal magnetizing curve are used iron core makers
published data.
In the external circuit shown in Fig. 3, the source of voltage (voltage and frequency), a
brush and its overlap condition (whole surface contact resistance, brush width, and
commutator-bar width) of a commutator bar, armature winding (a number of turns and
DC resistance), and magnetic field system winding (a number of turns and DC
resistance) are listed. In addition, the ratio of brush width to commutator-bar width is
set to 2.0 (brush covering ratio).
Analyzed conditions are based on the rated operational status of the real machine
shown in Table 1. A total of 3960 steps are analyzed between 20msec, 1 cycle of a
50Hz power supply will using as 1 step of 33,000rpm, rotations and a rotor rotates 1
degree of analysis step angles.
2. Proposed New Testing Method
The appearance of the voltage measuring device between commutator bars devised for
the purpose of commutation waveform observation of an actual armature coil is shown
in Fig. 6, and the model figure of the testing equipment is shown in Fig. 7. This is the
new system device at our laboratory. This test equipment has 2 slip rings for observing
the voltage and current of commutator-bars No.1 and No.2. Coil current is picked out
from these two slip rings outside through the brush of an upper left part. That is a
system which carries out direct measurement of the commutation short-circuit current
waveform which flows into the object of armature coil. This equipment takes out a
commutation waveform from the commutation coil of a real machine directly.
Therefore, the measurement of the waveform in which all the state variable elements
were included is possible. The state variable are slot shape, the overlap condition of a
brush and a commutator bars, influence of iron core saturation, etc. In addition, this
equipment can change a brush covering ratio and a brush shift position easily. This
equipment can be used as a means by which more complicated and details of a future
commutation phenomenon are verifiable.
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Figure 6. New measuring testing contrivance for Figure 7. Model figure of testing device for
commutation our proposed testing equipment contact area of brush and commutator bars.
figure of voltage and current.
2.1. Analysis Conditions
The measurement result is indicated to a typical principle figure of equivalent

commutation phenomenon test equipment with Fig. 8.
This result and the proposal method of us, if it compares, it will result in the following
conclusions. ((1)-(5))
(1) Core shape is not taken into consideration.
(2) The short-circuit current between commutators is immeasurable.
(3) In our proposed method, the current value and potential difference of each
commutator bar are correctly and direct measurable.
(4) The naming of measurement system (Fig. 6 and 7) by the proposal of this Akiyama
and Niwas method so calls Akiyama & Niwas method.
(5) The spike noise between the commutators shown in Fig.10 (Brush commutations
spike voltage is not including the polarity of AC power supply voltage)
Figure 8. Figure of equivalent commutation phenomenon test equipment.
3. Analysis of Commutation Phenomenon
3.1. Comparison of the voltage wave analysis

between commutator bars, and a measurement result
A high-precision dynamic analysis of the commutation coil by brush and commutators,

which is the energy source, will required of the analysis of a commutation sparking
phenomenon. The analysis of the commutation voltage between two commutator bars
is analyzed. For example, the result having compared, the analysis and the
measurement of the voltage waveform of the coil (a) of Fig. 2 is shows in Fig. 9. It can
be said that the analyzed value and the actual measured one are well in accord from the
waveform of this figure (a) & (b).
This measured result, indicates the voltage waveform obtained by our method, the
electric potential measuring device between commutator bars shown in Fig. 6.
Therefore, the influence of air gaps magnetic permeance distribution is reflected. The
analyzed value is based on analysis with the high accuracy described previously.
Figure 9. Voltage waveform of armature coil.

The analysis waveform very similar to a measurement was obtained. This analysis
method was able to take in the important variable factors as a state variable. The
detailed elucidation of a commutation phenomenon and a commutation problem
elucidation are possible with this method. In addition, under the present circumstances,
commutation sparks and EMC are average value calculations, and neither a slot nor
magnetic pole shape is taken into consideration[11].
3.2. Examination of brush sparking voltage analysis
In the universal motor for ultra high-speed kW class cleaners, the analysis of
sparking voltage is an advanced technology and is an ultramodern technical
development, because the analysis of sparking voltage is a key factor of the brush life
of the present bottlenecked problem.
This problem is a cutting-edge subject globally. Here, the analysis result of
commutation sparking voltage is shown in Fig. 10.
This is an example of sparking voltage analysis that compared with low resistance
graphite brush and the high resistance carbon brush. In comparing these results, so, the
latter of a spike voltage will high with a low resistance, brush (A) has occurred at the
time of commutation. On the other hand, in the case of a high resistance brush (B), it
has reduced sharply of sparking voltage.

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Figure 10. Calculated brush voltage waveform.

Also, these results are in accord with the sparks generating phenomenon of DC
motor. The reason compared with the sparking voltage of DC motor, there are few
reports of the sparking voltage of an alternating current drive universal motors.
Therefore, it judged that it was better to compare with the sparking voltage waveform
of DC motor.
As compared with a measurement result, and our new proposed FEM simulated
basic voltage waveform are very good congruous. However, the spike voltage of the
latter is not much congruous.
This reason have addition of the contact state of a brush and commutators, the
influence of a factors, the temperature rise of a contact surface, and vibration of a
mechanical system other than the influence of an analysis step angle. Therefore, the
reproducibility of this analysis is not so good. Naturally, the waveform of an actual

measurement is also always changed and is not constant.
Also, there is the necessity of inquiring further from now on. However, we introduce
the result of the our present level of Fig. 10.
4. Conclusions
A complicated commutation phenomenon peculiar to a universal motor is treating

many factors as a state variable, and high-precision analysis has been realized. The
importance of analyzed these phenomena quantitatively is large. Therefore, we think
that future EMC correspondence and a commutation sparks problem can be coped with.
We think that these techniques will be helpful in the elucidation of the commutation
sparks phenomenon.
References
[1] R. Richter : Elektrische Maschinen , (1950)

[2] Donald G. Schultz, James L. Melsa : STATE FUNCTIONS AND LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS,
McGrwa Hill Book Company (1967)
[3] Richard P. Feynman : The Feynman lectures on physics, (1986)
[4] (France) CEDRAT SA : FLUX2D, Users Guide Vol.3
[5] Y.Akiyama : The comparison of the characteristics in INV drive BLDC motor and Brushed DC motor,
The paper of Technical Meeting on Rotating Machinery, IEE Japan, No.RM01 162, pp.19 23 (2001) (in
Japanese)
[6] Y.Akiyama, T.Takura, Y.Niwa* : A study about Core shape Design of 200V Lines for Vacuum
Cleaner Universal Motor, The paper of Technical Meeting on Rotating Machinery, IEE Japan,
[7] H.Koharagi, K.Tahara, Y.Ishii, S.Suzuki : Application and Evaluation of Commutation Performance
with an Exceptional Armature Winding Form for Small Universal Motors, T.IEE Japan, Vol.115 D,
No.4, pp.488 494 (1995) (in Japanese)
[8] S.Suzuki, K.Kurihara, H.Nase, K.Takahashi : RF Noise Associated with Time Varying Arc Current
across Brush and Commutator in Universal Motors, T.IEE Japan, Vol.118 D, No.6, pp.773 779 (1998)
(in Japanese)
[9] K.Kurihara, S.Sakamoto, : Starting Preformance Analysis for Universal Motors by FEM, IEEJ Trans.
IA, Vol.126, No.2, pp.124 130 (2006) (in Japanese)
[10] K.Tahara, T.Takura, : Trend of High Performance Universal Motors, The paper of Technical Meeting
on Rotating Machinery, IEE Japan, No.RM98 32, pp.77 82 (1998) (in Japanese)
[11] S.Wagatsuma, T.Ueno, N.Morita : Considerations for commutation theory by residual current, using
commutation testing machine , The paper of Technical Meeting on Rotating Machinery, IEE Japan,
[12] Y.Niwa, T.Naruta, Y.Akiyama : Consideration about the core shapes, generating Torque, and
Commutation phenomena of an ultra high speed Universal motor, ICEMS2006, DS3F2 01, (2006)
(Nagasaki, Japan)
[13] Y.Niwa, Y.Akiyama, K.Miyazawa : Nonlinear FEM simulation of the Commutation Sparking
phenomenon of an Ultra High Speed Universal Motors, EPNC2008, pp.95 96 (2008) (Lille, France)
[14] Toshio Fuji, Study of the universal motor (1977) (in Japanese)
[15] IEC 61000-3-2 : Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 3-2, Limits Limits for harmonic current
emissions (equipment input current 16A per phase)Third edition (2005)amendment1 (2008)
[16] JIS C 61000 3 2 : Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 3 2, Limits Limits for harmonic current
emissions (equipment input current 20A per phase) (2003)
[17] JIS C 9108 : Electric vacuum cleaners (1992)
IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-447
Detection of CFRPs degradation through

electromagnetic procedures
Bogdan SERGHIAC1, Daniel Petrica SALAVASTRU2, Paul Doru BARSANESCU2,
Adriana SAVIN3, Rozina Steigmann3 and Raimond GRIMBERGa3
1
University Al.I.Cuza, Iasi, Romania
2
Technical University Gh.Asachi, Iasi, Romania
3
National Institute of Research and Development for Technical Physics, Iasi, Romania
Abstract. Carbon fiber reinforced plastics, due their average electrical

conductivity of the reinforcement, can be nondestructively evaluated by
electromagnetic procedures. In the case of reinforcement from carbon fibers
woven, to improve the spatial resolution of the image of the conductivity, we
propose the using of a circularly aperture, very small, placed at short distance from
the surface to be controlled that can diffracts the evanescent waves. By this
procedure, the image of the reinforcement woven is observed, the delamination
due impact with low energy being clearly distinguished.
Keywords. Carbon fiber reinforced plastics, electromagnetic nondestructive

evaluation, image reconstruction
Introduction
Carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) have now applications from most different
starting with aerospace industry and finishing with sports goods.
CFRP have evolved both in reinforcements and matrix. From the point of view of
the reinforcement, the tendency is to pass from pre-preg laminas at which the carbon
fiber are parallel arranged to laminas that contain woven of different types of carbon
fibers, leading to the improvement of formability of these composites. The carbon
fibers have an average electrical conductivity around 103y104S/m and relative magnetic
permeability is 1 [1].
The epoxy resin was the most usually the matrix for CFRP. Due to the facts that its
mechanical properties are influenced by the moisture content and at temperature
exceeding thermal destruction temperature, the resin relieves dangerous vaporous, the
tendency is to be replaced it by Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS). This plastic material is
less influenced by the moisture content and the quantity of noxious vaporous at high
temperature is low [2]. The matrix has low electrical conductivity <10S/m and is
paramagnetic.
The specific degradations of CFRP are [1]
x delamination due to impacts, even at low energies, or overloading of the
structures
x debonding between different reinforcement layers and matrix
a
Corresponding author: email grimberg@phys-iasi.ro
448 B. Serghiac et al. / Detection of CFRPs Degradation Through Electromagnetic Procedures
x excessive porosity
x water adsorption
In present, C-scan or top view ultrasound, Lamb waves using non-contact
transducers [3], with Hertzian contact [4] or compression waves generated by normal
transducers or phased array [5] are used for nondestructive evaluation of CFRP. Also,
active thermography [6] is used with good results and for debonding evaluation bond
tests can be used [7].
The fact that in CFRP, the carbon fibers of average conductivity are embedded into
an electrical insulating matrix has suggested that electromagnetic evaluation methods
can be also utilized. These can emphasize the structure of fibers in the case of uniaxial
laminas [8] or delamination due to impacts that lead to plastic deformation of
composite, accompanied by important modification of transversal conductivity [9].
The modeling of electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation starts from the idea
that one lamina can be considered as an anisotropic electric conductive plan, having
different conductivity along the direction of carbon fibers and perpendicularly on them
[10]. The entire composite can be modeled as a succession of thus plane, in thickness,
having the direction of anisotropy axis according to the composite layout. The
calculation of eddy current induced in different lamina can be effectuated, for example,
using the dyadic Greens functions method and the integral on the sources volume
method 10]. This procedure can be used to solve the forward problem for CFRP with
different cracks that affect the fiber layers.
However, in reality, the carbon fibers are not disposed in composite in parallel;
electrical contact might be among fibers that form a lamina and between different
lamina, schematically presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Possibilities of carbon fibers disposition in CFRP

This situation modifies the electrical conductivity local and completely randomly
both in the plane of the fibers and perpendicularly on fibers.
Another possibility for electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation of CFRP consist
in considering the CFRP slab as a lattice of conductive threads and illumination of
the slab with a plane wave [11]. The scattered field can give information about fibers
layout. It must be mentioned that this model has only principle value, the situation
presented in Figure 1 limiting the application possibilities.
This paper proposes the nondestructive electromagnetic evaluation of CFRP
reinforced with carbon fibers woven fabric using an absolute send-receive transducer
working at hundreds of MHz frequency. The layout of fibers in woven, respectively the
uniformity of arrangement becomes visible using Fourier optics methods.
B. Serghiac et al. / Detection of CFRPs Degradation Through Electromagnetic Procedures 449
1. The field scattered by a conductive wire illuminated by a electromagnetic plane

wave
Let be an electromagnetic plane wave that illuminates a conductive wire, having

diameter 2a, under an incident angle D, situation presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. An electromagnetic wave encounters a conductive wire of diameter 2a and length L at angle D
According to boundary condition on the conductive surface
E inc E scat 0 (1)
An expression is required to relate the current induced on a wire by an incident

electric field to the scattered field it is produced. For a wire along Z-axis with a radius a
of length L, the relation is [12]
d 2 A z
2
k 2 A z j 4SH 0Z Ez z (2)
dz
L /2
A z I zcG z, zc dzc
z (3)
L /2
2S
e jkR
G z, zc dI ' (4)
0
R
I'
2
z zc 2a sin
2
R (5)
2
where A is the vector potential, H0 is dielectric permittivity of vacuum, Iz is the

amplitude of current induced in wire, G is the Greens function of free space, k is the
wave number.
The incident electric field along the conductor from a plane wave at angle D is
Ez e jk cosD sin D (6)

This plane wave will drive the current in a symmetrical manner
I z I z ; A z A z
The final form of the integral equation of the wire current is
4SZH 0 jkz cosD

L /2
I zc G z, zc dzc
L /2
z C1 cos kz j
k 2 sin D
e (7)
The eq.(7) is a Fredholm integral equation of the first kind and C1 is an unknown
coefficient that must be determined using, for example, block-pulse functions methods
[13]. The radiation pattern of this wire is obtained as
L /2
f D I zce
z
jkz c cos D
dzc (8)
L /2
and
F 20log10 f [dB] (9)
We consider an electromagnetic wave with the wavelength in vacuum 1m and the

conductive wire has 0.8mm diameter, the same order of magnitude as of the carbon
fibers and 1m length. The radiation pattern, F, is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Radiation pattern for a conductive wire with 2a 0.8mm, L 1, O 1m

The radiation pattern from Figure 3 indicates the presence of a lobe for D=900 as
well as a multitude of secondary lobes, with smaller amplitudes. A simple
measurement of the scattered field might deliver very less information to made
evaluation over some lattice of conductive fibers different oriented, as in the case of
CFRP with reinforcement of carbon fibers woven.
A possibility to enrich the quantity of information delivered by the electromagnetic

examination of CFRP shall consist in the using of the evanescent waves diffraction, the
waves that attenuate rapidly and can exist only in the immediate proximity of the
material to be examined. The theoretical results presented in Figure 3 show thatthe
optimal value for the angle D is S/2.
2. Studied samples
Plates of CFRP made by TenCate-Netherlands, having 1.91mm and respective 4.2mm

thickness have been taken into study. The plates have 6 and respective 12 layers of bi-
directional 5Harness Satin fabrics (0,90,45) S as reinforcement, the matrix being from
Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS). The examined plates are presented in Figure 4a. In
Figure 4b is schematically presented the layout of the fibers in the carbon fibers woven,
5H satin type.
a b
Figure 4. a) The examined CFRP plates; b) the layout of fibers in 5H satin.

The volume ratio of carbon fibers, warranted by the producer is 0.5r0.02. Some of
the plates were impacted using a spherical bump-head, 22.5mm diameter, the impact
energy varying from 0.5 to 4J.
3. Measurement equipment
For electromagnetic evaluation of the studied composites, an absolute send receive

transducer was used. The emission coil has 2 turns with 11.2 mm diameter, made from
CuEm wire, 1mm diameter. The reception coil has also 2 turns, the average diameter
being 3mm. The reception coil is placed coaxially with the emission one. The
transducer is coupled with Network/Spectrum/Impedance Analyzer 4395A Agilent
USA. The transducer is mounted on a fixed support, the plate being displaced on two
orthogonal directions with a displacing system, Newmark USA. The 4395A equipment
is coupled with a PC through IEEE 488.2 interface. The displacing system is
commanded by PC through RS 232 interface. The program for the command and
acquisition is written in Matlab 2009a.
In Figure 5a and b is presented the measurement equipment and respective, the
transducer.
The lift-off has been maintained constant at 0.2mm. A region of 20x20mm has
been scanned, the scanning step on both direction being 0.2mm.
The examination had place at 100MHz, 200MHz, 300MHz and respective
400MHz, the real and imaginary component of the signal induced in the reception coil
of the transducer being measured. After that, the same zones have been scanned with
the same transducer but, a shield made from cooper sheet, connected to ground, has
been placed in front of the reception coil, obstructing it completely. The shield has a
circularly aperture of 0.25mm diameter.
a b
Figure 5. The experimental set up: a) the equipment; b) the electromagnetic transducer
4. Results
In Figure 6a is presented the dependency by position of the real component of the

signal induced in the reception coil of the transducer at the scanning of a region of
20x20mm from a CFRP plate with 4.2mm thickness. The examination frequency was
400MHz. Although the lift-off was maintained at 0.2mm, the structure of the carbon
fibers woven is almost non visible.
To obtain a superior resolution, in front of the reception coil has been placed the
circularly aperture. At the scanning of the same region, the image delivered by the
assembly transducer-equipment is amplified. This is due to the diffraction on the
aperture of the evanescent waves generated by scattering on the carbon fibers woven.
The result is presented in Figure 6b.
Considering an object placed in the plane z=0 and described by the function f0(x,y),
at passing through an aperture, in the case of Fresnel diffraction (the aperture is closely
to the object), the image obtained at the distance z from the object will be fz(x,y) and
can be calculated using the algorithm presented in Figure 7, according to the principle
of Fourier optics [14]. To ensure that fz(x,y) might represent exactly the figure of
Fresnel diffraction through the a radius aperture, between the Fourier variables and the
spatial ones must exist the relation
2a
du (10)
Ndx0
2a
dv (11)
Mdy0
where N and M represent the maximum number of measurement points along x and y
direction and dx0 and dy0 are the scanning step along x and respective y directions.
b
Figure 6. The dependency by position of the real component of emf induced in the reception coil at the
scanning of a 20x20mm region; lift off 0.2mm, frequency 400MHz: a) without aperture; b) with circularly
aperture
The examination of data from Figure 6b shows that the structure of carbon fibers
woven is clearly visible.
F(0) (u, v) FZ (u, v)
2 D Fourier j 2S 2 2 2 Inverse 2 D
f 0 x, y o
Transform
o x exp u v o Fourier Transform o f Z x, y
k
Figure 7. The image through an aperture due Fresnel diffraction

Inverting the operation from Figure 7, the object f 0(x,y) can be determined
knowing the diffraction figure fz(x,y). The measurements effectuated with the aperture
make that the signals recorded shall represents f z(x,y). Applying the procedure
described above, the shape of the object that scatters the electromagnetic field created
by the emission coil can be determined.
In Figure 8 is presented the image of the object starting from the Fresnel
diffraction figure through a circularly aperture.
Using this procedure, a region of composite with delamination due impacts has
been examined. In Figure 9 is presented the region impacted with 2.5J energy on a
CFRP plate with 4.2mm thickness.
Figure 8. The image of the object reconstructed from the image of Fresnel diffraction through a circularly
aperture
Figure 9. The region impacted with 2.5J.

The analysis of the data from Figure 9 shows that the shape of delamination is
visible. From the mechanics of composite materials [14] is known that, due to an
impact normally on the surface of the composite, delaminations can appear, of whom
shapes are approximately conical, fact visible in figure 9. By this procedure, the area of
the delaminated surface can be determined; the method could become effective at the
examination of CFRP. C-scan ultrasound using phased array allows the visualization
only of delaminations due impacts with minimum energy of 6J, meanwhile our
proposed method has an efficiency superior to the classical ones.
5. Conclusions
Modern CFRP use more and more carbon fibers woven as reinforcement, instead of
parallel fibers layers. For evaluation of these composites, a electromagnetic method
based on absolute send receive transducer with the reception coil gathering the
evanescent waves diffracted by a circularly aperture has been developed. In this way,
the possibility to evaluate the state of the woven and the damages due to impacts with
different energies can be substantially improved.
6. Acknowledgements
This paper is partially supported by the Romanian Ministry of Education, Research,

Youth and Sports under National Plan II - project MODIS 71-016/2007, Bilateral
Project ENDE Ro-Si, and Nucleus Contract No.09430104.
References
[1]. P.Morgan, Carbon fibers and their composites, Taylor &Francis, NY, 2005
[2]. http://www.tencate.com
[3]. Z.Su, L. Ye_, Y.Lu,Guided Lamb waves for identification of damage in composite structures: A
review, Journal of Sound and Vibration 295 754 (2006) 753 780
[4]. R.Grimberg, A.Savin, R.Steigmann, A. Bruma, P.Barsanescu, Ultrasound and eddy current data fusion
for evaluation of carbon epoxy composite delaminations, INSIGHT, vol. 51, iss.1, (2009), pp.25 32.
[5]. R.Grimberg, A. Savin, R.Steigmann, A.Bruma, P Barsanescu, D.Salavastru, , Determination of
CFRPs mechanical properties using ultrasound methods, Proceedings of NDT in Progress 2009, the
5th International Workshop of NDT Experts, Oct 12 14 2009, Prague, pp. 65 74
[6]. Y.Y. Hung, Y.S. Chen, S.P. Ng, L. Liu, Y.H. Huang, B.L. Luk, R.W.L. Ip, C.M.L. Wu, P.S. Chung ,
Review and comparison of shearography and active thermography for nondestructive evaluation,
Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, Volume 64, Issues 5 6, (2009), pp. 73 112
[7]. W. Xue, L. Zeng, Y. Tan, Experimental studies on bond behavior of high strength CFRP plates,
Composites Part B: Engineering, Volume 39, Issue 4, (2008), pp. 592 603
[8]. R.Grimberg, A.Savin, C.R.Rotundu, Eddy current microscopy applied to graphite epoxy composite,
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS A PHYSICAL, 91, 2 1,( 2001), pp.73 75
[9]. R.Grimberg, D.Premel, A.Savin, Y.Le Bihan, D.Placko, Eddy current holography evaluation of
delamination in carbon epoxy composites, INSIGHT, 43, 4, ( 2001), pp.260 264
[10]. H.A.Sabbagh, L.D.Sabbagh, Inversion of eddy current data and the reconstruction of flaws using
multifrequencies, International Advances in Nondestructive Testing, vol 10, (1984), pp.307 332
[11]. J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley: New York, 1998
[12]. R. Bancroft, Understanding Electromagnetic Scattering using the Moment Method: A Practical
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IOS Press, 2011
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-750-5-456
Microwave Antenna Sensors for Fatigue

Crack Monitoring Under Lap-joints
Justin ERDMANN and Haiying HUANG1
Dept. of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Texas Arlington, USA
Abstract. This paper presents a microwave antenna sensor that has the ability to
monitor fatigue crack growth between lap joints where compressive force is
present or in any other areas where a crack is hidden between two parts of a
structure. The sensor is designed to be low profile, light weight, and conformal,
making it ideal for aerospace applications and thus minimizing manual inspection
times. The design of a fatigue sample to simulate a lap joint is presented. The
antenna sensor was fabricated on the fatigue sample and tested under cyclic
loading. The experiment results indicated that the microwave antenna sensor can
monitor the crack growth as well as the crack orientation.
Keywords. Antenna sensor, fatigue crack monitoring, structural health monitoring,

Lap-joint
Introduction
The integrity of engineering structures is one of the most important subjects to consider
when designing and operating structures. In 1988, an Aloha Airlines Boeing 737
suffered substantial damage when an 18 foot section of the fuselage broke apart during
the flight. After investigations, it was discovered that fatigue damage at a lap joint was
the cause of the failure [1]. This accident highlights the importance of understanding
and monitoring fatigue cracking in engineering structures. During designing, the
engineers have limited information on the environment and the loading conditions that
a structure will be exposed to. Despite the best engineering efforts, variations in
structural loading or material decomposition due to corrosion cannot be fully accounted
for during the design phase. As a result, fatigue cracking still remains an important
safety concern. In addition, in many industries, such as aerospace, structures are being
pushed beyond their intended design life and are expected to operate safely without
losing their structural integrity. Even if the structures environment was predicted
accurately, or even conservatively, pushing structures beyond their intended life will
most certainly produce fatigue cracks. In order to ensure the continued safe operation
of these structures, the cracks must be monitored, inspected, and repaired periodically.
Visual inspection is the simplest method to monitor a structure but has many
limitations, in addition to being tedious and time-consuming. For example, cracks may
present in areas that cannot be easily viewed and may require the structure to be
dismantled. In the aerospace industry, multiple days may be required to dismantle an
aircraft, inspect it, and reassemble it, costing valuable time and money. Some lap joint
1
Corresponding Author (huang@uta.edu).
J. Erdmann and H. Huang / Microwave Antenna Sensors for Fatigue Crack Monitoring 457
cracks may not even allow for visual inspection because disassembling these structures
is usually impractical. In addition, visual inspection of these areas does not allow for
continuous monitoring while the structure is in operation.
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) provides many options for inspecting and
monitoring fatigue cracks under lap joints beyond the visual inspection method. One
method for lap joint inspection is by piezoelectric ultrasound actuators/sensors [2]. By
analyzing the reflected or transmitted propagating lamb waves within the material,
cracks can be detected. However, the interpretation of the measured signals requires
extensive signal processing [3, 4]. Acoustic Emission (AE) sensors can be used to
detect fatigue crack growth while a structure is still in service [5]. The sensors operate
by detecting the acoustic emission signals generated by a crack as it grows. Problems
with this method are that the sensors are susceptible to outside noise sources and are
unable to quantify crack size.
The use of multi-frequency Eddy Current Imaging (ECI) is another method used to
identify and monitor cracks in lap joints. An eddy current inducer was used to excite
the structure to be inspected with an in-plane magnetic field [6]. A crack induces
variations of the magnetic field distribution, which are linearly translated into
variations of intensity of a light beam that can be measured by a CCD camera. The use
of ECI requires a complicated set-up, and the presence of rivets may mask the presence
of a crack, requiring extensive image processing. Recently, developments have been
made in using Meandering Winding Magnometer (MWM) eddy current arrays for
crack detection in lap joints [7]. As a crack propagates past the sensor, a change in
conductivity is measured. In order to quantify the crack size, multiple channels must be
monitored. Each channel requires a separate cable for signal transmission, adding
unnecessary weight to an aircraft.
The antenna sensor presented in this paper can be placed in between a lap joint and
can withstand the associated compressive force. This enables the sensor to not only
directly detect a crack, but also provide quantitative information on the size and
direction of the crack.
1. Principle of Operation
The antenna sensor that can monitor cracks under a lap joint is a slight modification of
Ground Plane Substrate
Length
Width
Metallic Patch Crack in Ground Plane

Figure 1. Basic antenna sensor configuration.
458 J. Erdmann and H. Huang / Microwave Antenna Sensors for Fatigue Crack Monitoring
-2
Return Loss (dB)

-4
-6
f01
-8 f10
-10
5 6 7 8 9
Frequency (GHz)
Figure 2. S11 curve of antenna sensor showing two
resonant frequencies.
a regular antenna sensor, which is essentially a microstrip antenna [8]. A regular

microstrip antenna, shown in Figure 1, has a simple configuration that consists of three
main components: a metallic patch, a conductive ground plane, and a dielectric
substrate. Together the patch and the ground plane form an electromagnetic (EM)
resonant cavity. When used as a crack sensor, the structure acts as the ground plane of
the antenna sensor. A feed line can be used to supply a radio frequency (RF) signal that
excites the EM cavity at a particular resonant mode.
The antenna sensor exhibits two fundamental modes of resonance, making up the
S11 parameters shown in Figure 2. The f01 frequency corresponds to the radiation mode
TM01, whose current flows along the length direction of the antenna patch; while the f10
frequency corresponds to the TM10 radiation mode whose current flows in the width
direction of the antenna patch [8]. Each of the frequencies will be quantified by the
return loss, with units of dB. As seen in Figure 2, both resonant frequencies are
identified as the frequencies at which the return loss has a large dip.
The resonant frequency of a regular patch antenna can be predicted using the
transmission line model [9]. Based on this model, the frequency can be calculated by
c 1
fr . (1)
2 - re e 2%L
L
where c is the speed of light, re is the effective dielectric constant, Le is the electric
length, and L the line extension. re can be calculated from the substrate thickness h,
the dielectric constant of the substrate r and the antennas electric width we by the
following equation
- r 1 -r 1
- re . (2)
2 2
1 10h / we
The line extension value is calculated by
%L 0.412h

- re 0.3
we / h 0.264 . (3)

- re 0.258
we / h 0.813
By inspection of Equation 1, we can see that the resonant frequency of the antenna
is inversely proportional to the electric length of the antenna patch, which is defined as
the length of the current path along the current flow direction. For a perfect antenna
patch and ground plane, the f01 frequency will be dependent on the geometric length of
the patch and the f10 frequency will be dependent on the geometric width of the patch
[8]. If a crack is introduced perpendicular to the electric length, however, the current
flowing in the corresponding electric length direction will be forced to flow around the
crack and the electric length will increase which reduces the resonant frequency. In
addition to the extension of the current path, the antenna frequency will also respond to
crack opening, which stretches the antenna patch and changes its dimensions.
Therefore, both the effect of current length extension and crack opening will contribute
to the decrease in the corresponding antenna resonant frequency.
To monitor cracks under lap joints, the sensors need to be placed between two
metallic pieces. A second substrate, i.e. the superstrate, can be introduced to electrically
insulate the antenna patch from the top piece, creating a shielded microstrip antenna.
The effect of the superstrate and the top ground plane on a regular microstrip antenna
does not change the characteristics of the S11 curves enough to affect its performance,
as evidenced by our results presented below. It is expected that crack presence in either
of the ground plane will shift the corresponding antenna sensor frequency to a lower
value.
Brackets
Antenna
Sensor W
Crack
Fatigue
(a) Sample
0.10
6.00
1.00 4.00 0.2
1.00
1.625
.375 3.25 1.00 3/8
2.00
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. Single lap-joint fatigue sample design; (a) exploded view. (b) fatigue sample. (c) holding
bracket.
2. Fatigue Sample Preparation
In order to simulate a lap joint for fatigue testing, a test fixture consisting of a
sample with a cracked hole and two brackets was designed and built. An exploded view
of the single lap-joint test fixture is shown in Figure 3(a). The components were
fabricated out of 7075-T6 aluminum with dimensions shown in Figure 3(b) and 3(c).
Through-holes for 3/8 inch bolts were drilled at both ends of the sample and at one end
of the holding brackets so that the brackets can be bolted to the plate.
A diamond wire of 0.32 mm diameter was used to cut a 0.125 inch long groove
starting at one hole of the sample in the direction parallel to the plates width. A 50 m
thick polyamide film (DuPont Kapton HN) was bonded next to the groove on one side
of the sample using superglue. An antenna sensor (66 m thick, 12.75 mm wide and 14
mm long, with a feed strip of 1.8 mm wide) was then made from a 0.5 inch wide
copper tape (3M 1181). The patch was bonded to the plate at a distance of 0.1 inch
from the groove tip and was oriented with its length dimension perpendicular to the
groove, as shown in Figure 4. In order to connect the antenna sensor to a Vector
Network Analyzer (VNA), an SMA connector was bonded to an aluminum spacer with
its pin facing down, pressing on the feed line of the antenna sensor. The spacer was
bonded to the sample plate with a fatigue-rated adhesive (Vishay M-Bond AE-15) and
was allowed to cure at 80 degrees Celsius for four hours. The SMA connector was
connected to the sensors feed strip with conductive epoxy. Since the patch was
covered during the test, the exact location of the patch was marked on the opposite side
of the sample. A grid was drawn using 2 mm increment markings so that the actual
crack growth can be monitored visually using a CCD camera. A Kapton film was also
bonded to one of the brackets so that a shielded antenna sensor is created when the
bracket is mounted on the sample. The final step of the antenna fabrication process
involves pre-compressing the antenna sensor with a 1250 lb force using the test frame
so that excess superglue is removed and the antenna sensor is pre-conditioned to
achieve a more consistent performance.
Groove
Antenna
sensor
SMA
connector
Spacer
Figure 4. Antenna sensor mounted on

fatigue sample.
3. Experiment Set-up and Procedure
The experiment setup for fatigue testing the shield antenna sensor is shown in
Figure 5. Both of the holding brackets were bolted to the plate using 3/8 inch UNC
bolts, washers, and nuts. After securing the entire fixture in the MTS hydraulic clamps,
the fixture was subjected to a static tension load of 100 lbs to ensure that all pieces
were aligned properly before the bolts were tightened. The bolts were tightened using
an analog torque wrench to control the applied torque at 75 in-lb. The compressive
force F due to the bolt tightening can be approximated as
F 6 T /
0.21d . (4)
where F is the compressive force, T is the torque, and d is the major diameter of the
bolt. Assuming the bolt is well-lubricated, the compressive force is calculated to be 952
lbs for a 75 in-lb torque. The actual force value is most likely lower since the bolts
were not lubricated. In addition, the torque wrench reading may have an error of up to
30% [10].
The resonant frequency of the antenna sensor was first measured using the VNA
(Rohde & Schwarz ZVA24) at low static tensile loads of 100, 200, and 300 lb. This is
to ensure that no major shifts in frequency were observed. A shift in frequency would
have indicated that the antenna sensor was not set up properly. The fatigue sample was
then subjected to cyclic loading for pre-cracking (5 Hz loading frequency, Pmax = 1200
lbs, and R = 0.3). Because of the single lap-joint configuration, the fatigue sample was
subjected to a combined tension and bending load during the fatigue loading. The VNA
was left attached to the antenna sensor for the duration of the test. A camera was placed
near the back side of the plate and focused on the grid to monitor the crack growth
during the test. A fiber optic light was used to illuminate the grid area. After
approximately 55,000 cycles, no crack was visible on the grid, so the Pmax value was
increased to 2000 lbs.
When the crack began to propagate, VNA measurements were taken when the
crack tip reached at and between each grid reference mark. The VNA took 1000 data
points per 1 GHz span, which gives a frequency resolution of 1 MHz. When the crack
Holding
bracket
Fatigue
sample
SMA
cable
Load
frame
Figure 5. Experiment setup for fatigue testing.
tip reached a measurement point, the fatigue loading was stopped and the sample was
placed under static tension loads ranging from 700 lbs to 1900 lbs with 200 lb
increments. VNA readings were obtained at each increasing tension increment. After all
measurements were taken, the fatigue loading cycle was resumed until the crack
reached the next measurement point. When the crack propagated to the edge of the
measurement grid, the test was stopped and the fatigue sample was inspected. After
inspection, the sample was placed back into the MTS tester and pulled apart so that the
internal crack features could be observed.
4. Results and Discussions
We first evaluated the effect of the top plate on the resonant frequency of a regular
antenna sensor, i.e. without the superstrate and the top ground plane. As shown in
Figure 6, the addition of a top ground plane shifted the resonant frequency by about 6%
but did not change the characteristics of the S11 curve drastically. It took approximately
72,000 cycles plus the initial 55,000 pre-cracking cycles for the crack to propagate
through the grid that marks the patch location. During the fatigue experiment, the crack
did not grow perfectly perpendicular to the patch length as desired; instead, it grew at
an angle of approximately 36 degrees at the beginning and slowly turned to be parallel
to the width direction of the antenna patch, as shown in Figure 7a. This occurred
because the groove cut by the diamond wire was not smooth, which caused the crack to
start in a direction not parallel with the patch width. The compression force exerted by
the tightened bolt may have altered the crack growth direction as well [11]. After the
crack reached the far edge of the grid, the fixture was disassembled and the antenna
patch was inspected. We discovered that the crack front and the crack surface was not
perpendicular to the plate surface, i.e. the crack path on the sensor side was different
from the crack path on the grid side. In order to compare the crack locations on both
surfaces of the plate, a grid was marked on the patch surface at the exact location as the
grid drawn on the other side, as shown in Figure 7b. When the crack had reached the
edge of the antenna patch on the sensor side of the plate, the crack was at the 8 mm
mark on the grid side. Breaking the plate and inspecting the crack surface verified that
the crack was growing further ahead on the patch side and slanted toward the patch
edge, as shown in Figure 7(c). The patch did not suffer any visible damage while
undergoing the fatigue cycling, indicating that it can withstand a combine stress
loading over multiple fatigue cycles.
0
Return Loss (dB)
-5
Uncovered
Covered
-10
6 7 8
Frequency (GHz)
Figure 6. Effect of top plate on antenna

resonant frequency.
Fatigue
Fracture crack Precrack
(a)
Fatigue
crack
(b) (c)
Figure 7. Images of fatigue crack; (a) crack on the back side of the sample. (b) crack on the sensor side
of the sample. (c) fatigue and fracture surface.
The S11 curves of the antenna sensor while the test fixture was statically loaded at
1700 lbs were analyzed at different crack lengths. The shifts of the S11 curves with the
crack growth are shown in Figure 8(a). The S11 curves show a shift in both f01 and f10
frequencies, indicating that the crack was not perfectly perpendicular to one dimension
of the antenna patch. Otherwise, the crack would have only affected either the f01 or the
f10 frequency. Therefore, the frequency shift of both resonant frequency peaks provides
an indication on the crack growth direction.
The shifts of the f01 and f10 frequency with the crack length are plotted in Figure
8(b). The crack lengths were measured based on the digital images of the crack on the
grid side of the sample. The actual crack length on the sensor side was slightly different
since the crack front was not perpendicular to the crack growth direction and the crack
surface was slanted. As shown in Figure 8(b), the f10 frequency shifts linearly with the
crack growth until the crack length reached 6 mm. The crack sensitivity of the antenna
sensor was estimated to be 28.6 MHz frequency shift for every 1 mm crack growth. As
the crack propagated beyond the edge of the antenna patch, at approximately 6 mm, the
frequency shifts were not as significant, decreasing to 2 MHz between 6 and 7 mm.
This is because the crack was outside of the antenna patch, it had very little influences
on the current flow of the TM10 mode. At approximately 8 mm, the frequency spikes to
a slightly higher value. This spike may be an indication of decreased crack opening
due to the geometry of the crack growth. After 8 mm, the f10 frequency starts to
decrease again. The crack sensitivity for the last three data points on Figure 8(b) is 18.5
MHz/mm. The decrease in the f10 frequency for crack length longer than 8 mm is likely
contributed by the stretching of the antenna patch due to crack opening. As the crack
length increases, the crack opening at the location of the antenna patch increases. As a
result, the antenna patch elongates with the crack opening, causing the f10 frequency to
decrease.
-2
Return Loss (dB)

-4 2
3
4
5
6
-6 7
8
9
10
End
-8
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5
(a) Frequency (GHz)
7.82
7.2
Frequency (GHz)
y = 0.0286x + 7.8554
Frequency (GHz)
7.77
R = 0.9603 7
7.72 y = 0.047x + 6.69
6.8 R = 0.9946
7.67
6.6
7.62
0 2 4 6 8 10 6.4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Crack Growth (mm) Crack Growth (mm) (c)
(b)
Figure 8. Shift of (a) S11 curve; (b) f10 frequency; (c) f01 frequency with crack growth at a crack opening load
of 1700 lbs.
The shift of the f01 frequency with the crack growth, however, was much more
complicated, as shown in Figure 8(c). It decreased at a crack sensitivity of 47 MHz/mm
for the first 4 mm of crack growth. A large upward shift in the f01 frequency as the crack
propagated to 5 mm was observed. This shift is caused by the high current density
region at the edge of the antenna patch. As the crack approaches the width edge of the
sensor, it enters a high current density region of the TM01 radiation mode, which causes
the upward shift in the f01 frequency [8]. The sudden frequency drop occurs when the
crack passes beyond this region.
The crack sensitivity of the f10 frequency at different loading levels is shown in
35
Sensitivity (MHz/mm)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700
Load (lbs)
Figure 9. Sensitivity change of f10 frequency

with increased crack opening.
Figure 9. The sensitivities are around 25 MHz/mm for loads higher than 900 lbs. This
indicates that the crack sensitivity of the antenna sensor is not sensitive to the external
loading as long as the load is sufficiently large to open the crack fully. For a smaller
load, e.g. 700 lbs, the crack may be partially closed, resulting in a substantially lower
sensitivity. The capability to monitor crack opening is another advantage of the antenna
sensor since crack closure plays an important role in determining the remaining service
life of a cracked component [8].
5. Conclusions
We have demonstrated that a shielded microstrip patch antenna is able to determine

the location, size, and orientation of a crack under a lap joint. The patch antenna was
able to withstand the combined stress environment over more than 100,000 cycles.
Acknowledgement
This project is partially supported by the National Science Foundation CAREER

award CMMI-0846074. The support and encouragement of the program manager, Dr.
Shih-Chi Liu, is greatly appreciated.
References
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[2] J.B. Ihn, and F.K. Chang Multi-crack Growth Monitoring at Riveted Lap-joints Using Piezoelectric
Patches, Smart Nondestructive Evaluation for Health Monitoring of Structural and Biological Systems,
4702 (2002), 29-40.
[3] M. Lin, X. Qing, A. Kumar, and S.J. Beard, Smart Layer and Smart Suitcase for Structural Health
Monitoring Applications, Smart Structures and Materials, 4332 (2001), 98-106.
[4] B.C. Lee and W.J. Staszewski Modelling of Lamb Waves for Damage in Metallic Structures: Part II.
Wave Interactions with Damage, Smart Materials and Structures, 12 (2003), 815-824.
[5] G. Grandhi, F. Nkrumah, M.J. Sundaresan, J. Kemerling, and D. Thomas, Monitoring Fatigue Crack
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595-602.
[6] Diraison, L. Y., Joubert, P., and Placko, D., 2009, Characterization of Subsurface Defects in
Aeronautical Riveted Lap-joints Using Multi-frequency Eddy Current Imaging, NDT&E International,
42, pp. 133-140.
[7] N. Goldfine, V. Zilberstein, A. Washabaugh, D. Schlicker, I. Shay, and D. Grundy, Eddy Current Sensor
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[8] I. Mohammad and H. Huang, Monitoring Fatigue Crack Growth and Opening Using Antenna Sensors,
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[9] C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, C. A., 2005, 816-
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IOS Press, 2011
Subject Index
3MA 322 differential exciting mode 203
acoustoelastic effect 164 discrete complex image method 96
active thermography 402 dual layer 275
air gap estimation 288 duplex stainless steel 311
AMR 211 dyadic Green functions 134
ancillary yoke pole 275 dynamical hysteresis loop 347
antenna sensor 456 ECT 211
arc simulation 425 ECT signal inversions 103
asymptotic boundary conditions 173 eddy current non destructive
Barkhausen noise 225 testing 149
behavioral inverse model 288 eddy current testing 22, 71, 96, 134,
BEM 173 241, 249, 282
BEMLAB 173 eddy current transmission mode 330
Bjrk-Shiley convexo concave eddy currents 13, 53, 103, 141, 192,
prosthetic heart valve 296 288, 296, 311
bolthole cracks 36 eddy currents inspection 183
boundary element method 96, 173 eddy-current NDE 36
carbon fiber reinforced plastics 447 electric potential difference 3
CFRP 362 electromagnetic nondestructive
comb actuators 173 evaluation 362, 447
comb capacitors 173 electromagnetic testing 44
combustion chamber 211 electromagnetic wave 111
commutation phenomenon 432, 439 electromagnetic-acoustic
complex permittivity 410 transducer 125
computed tomography 30 EMAT 164, 225, 322
concealed frescos detection 402 excitation and sensing system 233
condition monitoring 267 fast multipole method 79
conical Swiss roll 362 fatigue crack monitoring 456
control magnetic methods 339 FEM 111
corrosion protection 417 ferromagnetism 134
Cr depletion 355 FG sensor 203
crack 134, 410 film thickness 330
crack modelling 96 finite element method (FEM) 44, 432,
cracks recognition 61 439
creep damage 347 finite element model 256
Cr-Mo-V steel 347 flow-accelerated corrosion 267
CUDA 117 forward analysis 3
decision analysis 71 Galerkins method 87
defects detection algorithms 417 giant magneto-impedance sensor 149
depth estimation 53 giant magneto-resistance sensor 149
detection of small defects 22 giant magnetoresistive sensor 13
dielectric 389 GMR 217
diet pulses 183 GMR sensor 256
468
GPGPU 117 NDT by magnetic flux leakage 87

GPR 381 neutron embrittlement 322
Greens dyad formalism 149 nondestructive test 3, 267
half-analytical method 183 non-destructive evaluation 53, 103,
Hall sensor array 425 125, 192, 288, 347, 355
high order basis functions 87 non-destructive inspection 296, 302
Hilbert transformation 225 non-iterative imaging algorithms 103
image processing 302 non-iterative inversion 22
image reconstruction 225, 447 nonlinear media 87
imperialist competitive algorithm 192 numerical modeling 125
Inconel 355 object recognition 157
integral formulation 134 objectivity 173
inverse problem 192 open source 173
IQI 302 outlet strut fractures 296
lap-joint 456 pancake coil 241
local wall thinning 203, 241 partially conductive cracks 53
long range ultrasonic technology 125 particle swarm optimization 71
low carbon steel 347 pipe wall thinning 3
magnetic adaptive testing 371 piping detection 111
magnetic flux leakage (MFL) 217, plastic deformation 347
256, 275 polarization 164
magnetic hysteresis curve 355 polynomial chaos 141
magnetic hysteresis pressure vessel 322
measurements 371 probabilistic collocation method 141
magneto-mechanical effect 339 pulsed ECT 203
magnetostatic regime 87 pulsed eddy currents 233
material defect 233 radiogram 302
measurement of arc movement 425 radiography 30, 157
measuring system 249 reconstruction 217
MEMS 173 reinforcing plate 275
metamaterials 362 residual magnetic field 339
metamodel-based inversion 71 residual stress 164
method of moments 79 sensitivity analysis 61
micro-electro-mechanical sensor tilt 13
systems 173 shape recognition 381
microwave frequency 410 sigma phase 311
microwave heating 402 signal and image processing 381
microwave interferometry 389 signal processing 267
monotonicity 103 singularity 79
Monte Carlo methods 355 Sommerfeld integrals 96
multi-defects analysis 183 sparking voltage 439
multi-frequency approach 288 spherical defects 44
multilayered aeronautical state function 432, 439
structure 288 stress 339
multi-layered structure 13 stress corrosion cracks 282
multiple cracks 117 structural health monitoring 456
multi-threading 173 surface integral crack model 117
MUSIC-type algorithm 22 surface integral equations 79
NDT 217, 389, 410 sweep frequency 296
469
switch gear 425 ultrasonic NDE 164

thin film technology 330 ultrasonic waves 125
thin-skin theory 36 uncertainty 53
THz imaging 417 universal motor 432, 439
time domain inspection 417 UXO 381
time-domain field analysis 61 wall thinning 111, 275
titanium alloys inspections 249 waveguide reflection method 410
track rope 256
IOS Press, 2011
Author Index
Akiyama, Y. 432, 439 Hillmann, S. 330
Aldrin, J.C. 141 Honda, S. 3
Alman, M. 53 Huang, H. 456
Altpeter, I. 322 Hbschen, G. 322
Andreescu, A. 381 Iftimie, N. 362, 381
Anheuser, M. 425 Janousek, L. 53, 233, 296
Ara, K. 275 Jayakumar, T. 256
Areiza, M.C.L. 311 Jia, J. 211
Baniukiewicz, P. 30, 157, 302 Joubert, P.Y. 288
Barsanescu, P.D. 447 Kamada, Y. 275, 347
Bisiaux, B. 87 Kikuchi, H. 275, 347
Blodgett, M.P. 141 Kiss, I. 117
Blome, M. 217 Klein, M. 330
Bonnet, M. 79 Knopp, J.S. 141
Bouali, F. 183 Kobayashi, S. 275, 347
Bruma, A. 362 Kojima, F. 267
Brykalski, A. 30 Kopp, M. 322
Burke, S.K. 36 Kosaka, D. 267
Calvano, F. 103 Kosse, S. 425
Capova, K. 233, 296 Kowalczyk, J. 249, 282
Caryk, M. 302 Kreutzbruck, M. 44, 217
Casperson, R. 44 Lambert, M. 22, 71, 134
Chady, T. v, 30, 249, 282, Leitoiu, S. 381
302, 417 Lesiecki, P. 402
Chlewicki, W. 30 Lesselier, D. 22, 71
Cung, T.L. 288 Lim, T. 79
Decitre, J.-M. 134 Little, J. 389
Demachi, K. 164 opato, P. 302, 417
Dobmann, G. 322 Mahadevan, S. 256
Douvenot, R. 71 Marchand, C. 87
Erdmann, J. 456 Michniakova, M. 233
Faktorov, D. 410 Mohellebi, H. 183, 192
Feliachi, M. 183, 192 Moriya, S. 211
Fnaiech, E.A. 87 Napieraa, L. 302
Gawrylczyk, K.M. 61 Nawos-Wysocki, L. 249
Gratkowski, S. v, 125 Neubauer, A. 217
Grimberg, R. 362, 381, 447 Nishimura, Y. 225
Gyimthy, S. 117 Nittono, O. 355
Hamel, A. 192 Niwa, Y. 432, 439
Hasizume, H. 111 Ohtani, T. 347
He, D. 211 Okazaki, H. 347
Henriksson, T. 22 Okita, K. 211
Heuer, H. 330 Pv, J. 117
472
Pei, C. 164 Suzuki, T. 225

Pelkner, M. 44, 217 Szymanik, B. 402
Pichenot, G. 79, 149 Takagi, T. v, 203, 241, 355, 371
Pietrusewicz, T. 302 Takara, T. 355
Prmel, D. 87, 149 Takase, T. 355
Psuj, G. 249, 282, 302 Takatsubo, J. 211
Raj, B. 256 Tamburrino, A. 103
Rao, B.P.C. 256 Theodoulidis, T. 96
Rebello, J.M.A. 311, 417 Thomas, H.-M. 44, 217
Reboud, C. 134 Tom, I. 371
Reimund, V. 44, 217 Tschuncky, R. 322
Roskosz, M. 339 Tsukidate, S. 347
Rubinacci, G. 103 Uchimoto, T. 203, 241, 355, 371
Sacramento, R. 311 Udpa, L. 13
Sakai, Y. 111 Udpa, S.S. v, 13
Salavastru, D.P. 447 Ueda, S. 371
Santos de Assis, K. 311 Uetake, I. 211
Sasamoto, A. 225 Umetani, K. 267
Savin, A. 362, 381, 447 Ventre, S. 103
Schmidt, H.-P. 425 Vrtesy, G. 371
Schmidt, K. 389 Vrtesy, Z. 371
Serghiac, B. 447 Vourch, E. 288
Shimizu, I. 275 Wieleba, P. 173
Shiwa, M. 211 Xie, S. 203
Sikora, J. 173 Yamaguchi, K. 355
Sikora, R. 157, 302 Yamamoto, T. 203, 241
Singh, W.S. 256 Yamawaki, H. 211
Smetana, M. 53, 233, 296 Yang, G. 13
Spychalski, I. 249 Yusa, N. 111
Steigmann, R. 362, 447 Zeng, Z. 13
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Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation

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Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evaluation

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ELECTROMAGNETIC NONDESTRUCTIVE

ISSN 1383 7281 (print)

Amsterdam Berlin Tokyo Washington, DC

ISBN 978 1 60750 749 9 (print)

Distributor in the USA and Canada

PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

T. Chady, S. Gratkowski, T. Takagi, S.S. Udpa

ENDE 2010 Szczecin Poland

List of Referees and Scientific Committee

ENDE 2010 Szczecin Poland

Piotr Baniukiewicz B.P.C. Rao

Bilicz Sndor Hartmut Brauer

Andrzej Brykalski Stephen Burke

Flavio Calvano Juan Calzada

Klra pov Tomasz Chady

Zhenmao Chen Wojciech Chlewicki

Georgios Christofi Thanh Long Cung

Rmi Douvenot Dagmar Faktorov

Mouloud Feliachi Emna Amira Fnaiech

Bryan Foos Pawe Frankowski

Konstanty Marek Gawrylczyk Stanisaw Gratkowski

Raimond Grimberg Gyimthy Szabolcs

Ammar Hamel He Dongfeng

Tommy Henrisson Susanne Hillmann

Satoshi Honda Huang Haiying

Moayyed Hussain Ladislav Janouek

David Jiles Hiroaki Kikuchi

Kim Jungmin Kiss Imre

Jeremy Knopp Satoru Kobayashi

Fumio Kojima Eugeniusz Kornatowski

Jacek Kowalczyk Marc Kreutzbruck

Marc Lambert Brian Larson

Lee Jinyi Dominique Lesselier

Matthias Pelkner Tomasz Pietrusewicz

Denis Prmel Grzegorz Psuj

Joao Rebello Verena Reimund

Maciej Roskosz Guglielmo Rubinacci

Yasutomo Sakai Adriana Savin

Hans-Peter Schmidt Karl Schmidt

Jan Sikora Ryszard Sikora

Christian Seibold Kisu Shin

Marek Smaga Milan Smetana

Thierry Sollier Krzysztof Stawicki

Tatiana Strapov Barbara Szymanik

Toshiyuki Takagi Antonello Tamburrino

Theodoros Theodoulidis Tetsuya Uchimoto

Pipe Wall Thickness Inspection with Current Driven Thermal Method 3

Modeling and Inverse Problems

Modeling and Signal Processing Sensor Tilt in Eddy Current-GMR Inspection 13

Experimental Validation of a Fast Non-Iterative Imaging Algorithm for Eddy

Transducers and Techniques

Pulsed ECT Method for Evaluation of Pipe Wall-Thinning of Nuclear Power

Evaluation of EMAT Signals Using Magnetostrictives for Imaging 225

Application of Electromagnetic Nondestructive Techniques

Pipe Wall Thickness Measurement by Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer

Quantification of Sigma Phase Precipitation by Magnetic Non Destructive

In-Line Thin Film Characterization Using Eddy Current Techniques 330

High Frequency Techniques and Others

GPR for UXO Recognition 381

Detection of CFRPs Degradation Through Electromagnetic Procedures 447

Pipe Wall Thickness Inspection with

Abstract. Electric potential dierence(EPD) method is widely used for

Hiyoshi 3-14-1, Kohoku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan; Email: honda@appi.keio.ac.jp

1. Analysis of Wall Potential Problem for EPD Method