EXPERIMENT NO 9

Identification of various diodes.

Aim To study the symbols & V-I cha.-acteristics of various diodes.

Apparatus Schottky diode. Tunnel diode Light Emitting Diodes, LASER

Jiodes,constant current diodes

Theory
Schottky diodes

) Schottky diodes are constructed of a metal-to-N junction rather than a P-N semiconductor
junction. Also known as hot-carrier diodes. Schottky diodes are characterized by fast switching
) times (:0\'1 reverse-recovery time). low forward vo!18ge drop (typically 0.25 to 0.4 volts for a metal-
silicon junction), and low junction capacitance

The schematic symbol for a Schc·ttky dioc:e IS sho\'m here:

Sc:hottky diode
Anode
I

) *
Cathode

In terms of forvvard voltage drop (VF). reverse-recovery time (irr), and junction capaci~nce (CJ).
Schottky diodes are closer'to ideal than thp average "rectifying" diode. This makes them well suited
far high-frequency aoplications. Unfortunately. though, Schottky diodes typicaliy have lower forward
current (IF) and reverse voltage (Vo..R!.t and Vocl ratings than rectifying diodes and are thus unsuitable
for applications involVing substantlai amounts 0: power

Schot'..ky dic-de technolJ9Y bds t.road ap~licatjon in high-spee~ computer circuits, where the
fast switching time equates to high speea capability, and the low forward voltage drop equates to
.•.
if
less power dissipation when conducting .

Tunnel diodes

Tunnel diodes exploit a strange quantum phenomenon called resonant tunneling to provide
interesting forward-bias characteristics. When a small forward-bias voltage is applied across a
tunr.el diode, it begins to conduct current. As the voltage is increased, the current increases and
reaches a peak value called the peak current (Ip). If the voltage is increased a little more, Ule current
actually begins to decrease until it reaches a low point called the valley current (Iv). If the voltage is
increased further yet. the current begins to increase again, this time without decreasing into another
"valley." Both the schematic symbol and a current/voltage plot for the tunnel diode are shown in the
following illustration:
 Tunl.l~el rie•
. 0".JIOu .I

Anode Forward I ,II

current I .
I i
'f
y,d I,'v'j e
t
I~ !
i
r·· r ,1,,'_" I II . _
'rip 'J,

Forward voltage

The forward ...•.

oltages necessC'lry to drive a tunnel diode to its pea'< and valley currents are known
as peak voltage (\/p) and valley voltage (Vv), respectively. Trle ;egion on the graph where cu~ent is
decreasing while ap;::,lied voltage is increasing (between Vp and Vv on tr,e Mrizonta! scale) is known
as the regi'Jn of n9gative resistance. -'or

Tunnel diodes, also known as Esaki diodes In honor of their Japan~s~ inventor Leo Esaki. are
able to transition between peak and valley current levels v:=ry quick!,', "switching" betNeen high and
low states of conduction muc:il fc:ster than even Schottky diodes Tunnel diode characteristics are
2!SO i'elatively unaffected by changes in tem::;.e.ature

Unfortunately, tunnel diodes are not g000 rE.'Ctlfisrs, as t~ey hav·£: reiah'ely high "leakage"
c~ -rent ·,·.'~len:EverS8-0ii3<.:.e,j Consequently. Uley find Clpphcatlon only in speciol circuits where their
ur.,que tunnel effect has ValL:E' In orrjer to eXr;loit the tunnel effect. tl)e::;e dk'des are maintained at a
bias vorlage somewhere between the peak ane.!'1aiiey voltage levels, always In a iorward··biased
pC"arity (anode ~ositjve, and cathode ·negati'te).

F-erhaps the most CClrTlrnOnapplication of ::1 tunnel diode is in simple (iigh-frequency oscillator
circuits. "",here they allow 2 DC v:)ltage source to contribute power to an LC "tank" circL:it, the diode
conducting when the voltage across rt reaches the peak (tunnel) level and effectively ins~lating at all
other voltages.

Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in quaritum
physics. Or,e of these principles is the err:issio~ ofspel.:itic-frequency radiant energy whenever
electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level. Tilis is the same principle at work in
a neon lamp the chc.racter:stic pink-orange glow of ionized neon due tc. the speCific energy
transitions of its electrons in t18 <nidst of an electric current The unique color of a neon lamp's glow
IS due to the fact that it's neon gas insid'3 the ~Ub8, and not due to the ~··artic..Jlaramou'nt of current
through the tub'? or voltagr:: between the ~".IO e:ec{,rodes. Neon gas glows J:'inkish-orange over a wide
range of ionizing vojta~1€s and currents. Each chemical element has its own "signature" emission of
radiant energy wilen its ele:::trons "jump" bet-.-veen different, quantized t:tlergy levels. Hydrogen ga:;,
l'or exmnp!e, glows red whe:'l il'niz.f:d; mercl;ry vapor glows blue This is what makes spectrographic
identifiC<ltlor: of elements possible.

E!i:~ctfOns f!(;,v'.'in9 thlOugi-1 a PI\1lu:l~tionexperience similar transitions in energy level, and emit
radiant energj' as if-ley do so The frequency o~ this radiant energy l'S (ieter'Tlined by the crystal
structure::-! ~h8 semicondlJctur material, and the elements compnsing it. Some semiconcJuctor
 junctIons. composed of special cnemlcal comoinations, emit radiant energy within the spectrum of
visible light as the eiectrons t;-ansinon In energy levels. Simply put. these junctions glow when
forward biased A dIOde Ir,~e~t.or.a> de<.:igned to glow like: a lamp IScalled a fight-emiNing diode, or
LED

Diodes made from a com:;)fna!,o'" Q'the elements gallium. arsenic, and phosphorus (called
gallium-arsenide-~.~osphlde) g:ow bnght red, and are some of the most common LEOs
manufactured By a:tenng me cr<err.t-::<3' constituency of the PN junction, different colors may be
obtained. Some c~ t7I€ c,-,~entiy avail.abie colors other than red are green, blue, and infra-red
(invisible light a~a freque~:y lower t~ar: red). Other colors may be obtained by combining t•••• o or
more primary-coior (red. green. an~ blue) LEOs together in the same package, sharing the same
optical lens For ir,s!ance a ye:!ow LED may be made by merging a red LED with a green LED.

The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode sha;:>e inside of a circle, with two small
arrows pointing away (indIcating emrtted light):

) Light-emitting diode (LED)

Anode

4',
9(2
Cathode

This r,o~ation of ha'oIing tw:: small ar,ows pOinting away from the device is commo~ to the
schern2~~: s:r·~~~:Y.;.~s
of at~L':;~!-£~:"T1jrti~g
&errHc()~duc~or-jevices. CQnverse~y, :f a devi~ is hght-
acUvated (meaning that incoming light stimulates it). then the symbol will have two small arrows
) pointing toward it It is interf=stin£, to note. though. that LEOs are capable of acting as light-sensing
devICeS: they wili generate c; sma!1 voltage 'Nhen exposed to light. much like a solar eel! on a small
scale Thls property can be gainfully appliec ir; a variety of light-sensing circuits

Because LED;; are mad.e of different chemical substances than normal rectifying diodes, their
for"'arc voltage drops .••.•.
ill be different Typicaily. LEOs have much larger fOfvv'ardvoltage drops than
rectifylrg diodes, anywhere from about 1_6volts to over 3 volts, depending on the color. Typical
operating current for a standard-sized LED is around 20 mA When operating an LED from a DC
voitage sOU'ce greater tha.n the LEO's forward voltage. a series-connected "drop;:>ing' resistor must
be induded to preven~ fur' so~r-::e vof:og€ from damaging the LED Consider this example circuit

Rdropp.ng

NV'~-~I Red LED,

6V
220 Q ~\ V F = 1.6 V typical
,, -r-
~~
.I
If = 20 m A typIcal

With the LED dropping 1.6 volts, there will be 4.4 volts dr()pped across the resistor. Sizing the
resistor for an LED current of 20 mA is as simple as taking its voltage drop (4.4 volts) and dividing
by circuit current (20 mAl. in accordance with Ohm's Law (R=E1I). This gives us a figure of 2200
Calculating power dissipation for this resistor we take f.3 \'0It2;e drop and multiply by its currerlt
(P=IE). and end up witil 88 mW. well within the dUrS of a - f8 watt resistor Higher battery voitages
, .

32.
will require larger-value dropping resistors, and possibly higher-power rating resistors as well.
Consider this example for a supply voltage of 24 volts

RdroP~'I!"~

Nt I Red LEO,
'T,\"c =
-r
Ll2 kQ

r 1.6 V typical
\-~/':.I - 20 mA tYPical
f - -

Here, the dropping resistor must be increased to a size of 1.12 kO 'n order to drop 22.4 voits at
20 mA so that the LED still receives only 1 6 veas This also makes for a higher resistor power
dissipation: 448 mW, nearly one-half a watt of power1 ObvIously, a resIstor rated for 1/8 watt power
dissipation or even 1/4 watt dissipation will overheat if used here.

Dropping resistor values need not be ~reclse for LEO cIrcuits. Suppose ." we were to use a 1 kO
i
resistor instead of a .12 kO resistor In the circuit shown above The result would be a slight:y
greater circuit current and LEO voltage drop, resulting III a bnghter lig~from the LEO and slightly
reauced service life A dropping resistor with too much resistance (say, 1 5 kO instead of 1.12 kO)
will result in less circuit current, less LED volt3g\? 2!1d a dimmer light. LEOs are quite tolerant of
va;iation if I applied power, so you neej not stnve for perfect~on in sizin~ the dro!)ping resistor.

Also bE-cause of their unlCUE che-mca! ma;"'eu~ LEOs have m~ch, r1'luch lower pea!<-inverse
voltage (PIV) ratings than ordinar; rectifyIng diodes A typical LEO might only be rated at 5 volts in
reverse-bias mode. Therefore. when using alternating current to poio'er an LED, Yo'J snowO connect
a protective rectifying diode in series with the LED to prevent reverse breakdown every other half-
cycle

Rdropping

IN
1.12 kQ~,
I Red LED,
V f = 1.6V typical

~. 'l.'" vIfR == 4-.0

~,.,
j .
5 VmA ty.plca
' I
rnaxlmum
~ I . I

rectifying diode

As lamps, LEDs are superior to incandescent bulbs in many ways. First and forem,0st is
efficiency: LEOs output far more light power per watt than an incandescent lamp This is a
significant advantage if the circuit in question is battery-powered, efficiency ~ranslating to longer
battery life. Second is the fact that LEDs are far more reliable, havin£ a much greater service life
than an incandescent lamp. This advantage is primarily due to the fact that LEOs are "cold" devices:
they operate at much cooler. temperatures than an incandescent lamp with a white-hot metal
filament, susceptible to breakage from mechanicai and thennal ~hock. Third is the high speed at
which LEOs may be turned on and off. This advantage is also due to the "cold" operation of LEOs:
they don't have to overcome thernal inertia in transitioning from off to on or visa-versa. FOi this
reason, LEOs are used to trarlsmit digital (on/off) information as pulses of light, conducted in empty
space or through fiber ..optic cable, at ver)' high rates of speed (millions of pulses per second).
 "~.:..~~~~~;t~F~~{~""·;
•.•,..t':'~~_..•' .~
.~.).:;:~~rj,~1

One major disadvantage of ..Ising LEOs as sources of illumination is their monochromatic (single-
color) emission. No one war,;s to read a book under the light of a red, green, or blue LED. Hov:ever,
if used in mrnbination, LED colors may be mixed fOi a more broad-spectrum glow

Laser diodes

The laser diode is a further development upon the regular light-emitting diode. or LED. The term
"laser" itself is actually an acronym, despite the fact it's often written in lower-case letters. "Laser"
stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, and refers to another strange.
quantum process whereby characteristic light emitted by electrons transitioning from high-level to
low-level energy states in a material stimulate o~her electrons in a substance to make similar
"jumps," the result being a synchronized output of light from the material. This synchronization
extends to the actual phase of the emitted light. so that all light waves emitted from a "lasing"
material are not just the same frequency (color). but also the same phase as each other, so that
they reinforce one another and ere able to travel in a very tightly-confined. nondispersing beam.
This is why laser light stays S0 remarkably focused over long distances: each and every light wave
coming from the laser is in step with each other:

,
.,
~
II (,-ht
I~ ..
j

~
 Incandescent lamps produce "white" (mixed-frequency, or mixed-color) light. Regular LEOs
produce monochromatic light: same frequency (culer), but different phases. resulting in similar beam
dispersioll. Laser LED'S ploduce coherent light light that is both monochromatic (single-color) a'1d
monophasic (single-phase), it:;sulting in pred~e beam confin~me:1t.

Laser light finds wide application in the moderl1 world: everything from sLweying, where a
strlight and nondispersing light beam is very useful for precise sighting of measurement markers, to
the reading and writing of optical disks, where only the narrowness of a focused laser beam is abl~
to resolve the microscopic "pits" in the disk's surface comprising the binary 1'soand O's of digital
information.

Some laser diodes require special high-power "pulsing" circuits tt:: deliver large quantities of
voltage and current in short bursts. Other laser diodes may be operated continuously at :ower
power. In the latter case, laser action occurs only within a certain range of diode current,
necessitating some form of current-regulator circuit. As laser diodes 3Sje, their power requirements
may change (more current required for less output power), but it should bt.: remembered that low-
power laser diodes, like LEOs, are fairly long-lived devices, with typ;cal service lives in the tens of
thousands of tlOurs.

Constant-current diodes '/'

A constant-current diode;, also known as a current-Jimiting diode, or current-regulating diode,

does exactly what Its name Implies: it regulates current through it to some maximum level. If you try
:0 force more current rnrough a constant-current dIode than its current-regulation point, it simply
"fights back" by dropping more voltage. If we were to build the following circuit ar.d plot diode current
ever diode curren~. we'c get a gr;;ph that rises normally at first and then levels off at the current
regulation point .

~opp:ng

y~
r-
/T
IN ~ constant -c,urrent
diode
L_
I

V diNe

35
 One interesting application for a constant<urrent diode is to automat:cally limit current through
an LED or laser diode over a wide range of power supply voltages, like this:

constant -current
diode
T

LED or laser
'),'), diode

Of course, the constant-current diode's regulation point should be chosen to match the LED or
laser diode's optimum forward current This is especially important for the laser diode, not so much
for the LED, as regular LEDs tend to be more tolerant of forward current variations.

Another applicatior. is in the chargIng of small secondary-cell batteries, where a constant

charging current leads to very predictable chargmg times Of COurse. large seccndary-cell battery
banks might also benefit from constant-currer.: charging, but constant-current diodes tend to be very
small devices, limited to ref)ulating currents in the milltamp range

,
~

')J~)»
it
Shaveta Thakral
Prepared y:--
~1~

\\I
I
a~
J

)/
Apprdved by:
Prof. D.S.Gotra (HOD)
 £XPERI~1E~T:\0 '0
Study of V-I Chal acteristics of P-.~ iJlDd~.
Aim To plot the V -I characteristics of diode'and w L.1L:ul3!\.'t~\.' <;~tiL (Rd ) & dynamic
resistance( rd )

Apparatus Breadboard, diode (11\4007). rc!;u1JteJ F"\\er ~'Jppi: \ 1.I-}0V).

multimeter. resistances (1 K, 10K). connecting win~s.

V
IO-30Vi _-r RI <" I Rs(1uYI
1
\1KI < ~~
I <:

i
I
iI

Theory:

A diode conducts in fonvard bias condition (i.e. when its anode is at higher potentia] than ih
cathode). It does not conJuct in rcwrse bias condition. When dioJe is forward biased the barrit.i·
potential at junction rcdllces. The majority carriers ditfuse a~r0SS the junction. This causes tL',,:
Curi :nt to flow through the diode. If1 rC\'c!"se bia:; the junction barrier potential increases an J
almost no current can flow through the diode.

The external battery is connected so that positi\'{' terminal goes to :he hllode and its n~gati\'('
tenninal goes to the cathode. The diode is thus in forward bias. Changing the .,:,xtl'mally applieo
\'o!tage can vary the amount of forward bias. As sho\\TI in the fig. 1 the external voltage appliu!
across the diode Celllbe varied by the potentiometer RI of the po\\'er supf-I)'. A series resistor R·~
of 1 K is connected in circuit so that excess current does not flow through the diode.

At a gi\'en operating point \"ie can determine the static resistance (RJ) and dynamic resistance (rd I
of diode from its characteristic.

The steltic resi:jtancc is ddincd as ratio of the de \"oltage tl' de currtnt,

 The uynamic resistance is the ratio of a small change in yoltage tc a sma:! change in current
i.e.

Diode can be used as capacitance,\\'hen it is forward bi:lsed diffusion capacitance is present

and when the diode is reversed biased it acts as parallel plate capacitor and depletion
capacitance is present.

Procedure:
2
...•

-'.
.I
i
l.
-+
Connect the diode (] N4007) according to the circuit diagram as shown in fig. (a)
~ Connect the milliammeter and \oltmeter of suitable ranges say 0-~5 mA for ammeter and
0-1.5 V for voltmeter
Initially set the potentiometer of the power supply to zero (fully anti c:ock\\ise). Switch
on the power supply. With the help of potentiometer RI' increase the voltage slowly.
>':ote the readings 1.111 ammeter & \'oltmeter for each setting of the potentiometer.
Tabulate the d15t'nations .
C.mnecl the diouc in re\erse bias 0: connecting the cathode to positive suppl) and an0de
1(\ !1e;;::!~j\:c' SU~f'l:. Set the' re\cr<:e \ollage across the diode at say 5V by "a~,ing the
.:'~ p0\\cr suppiy. \:ote the rcn'rse currcnt Howing in thc diode using microampere range of
;:3 meter. Repeat [his measurement at reverse voltage of 10V. 20Y and 30V. Tabulate the
observations.
:;~ _. Plot the graph between voltage 8: current in both forward bias and reverse bias

~'.
'-\.. .•.
conditions.
6. At suitable operating point calculate the static and dynamic resistance of diode.

Observations

; S.:\o. i Forward voltaf!e VF (\') Forward current IF(mA)

h
I I ~
I I

i
f

'------------------------------------------
I
r"::'-?T- -f\)-; ~_.~:-:--~-~-;.-;~-~:!:----.
--~--;-~-:-----~~-'A--'
, ::',:\0,__
,
i ..'wvt:,S"
._1__ .• ._ ••..••
YOJtC1~.X
.••..•• ,.
\ •• z{ (Y) ,
I Re\el_~:_~~.~:.,':!lt
,. __
I_R(~~') --;
I

:__ u ! , i

r--- -------~-----. --.---.---.--------.---u-7'- ..- ..----.------, --------------1

, I
i . . . L ._.._----------------
.------.t-----.---.--.---.----,{------------------.J!
L-

I I I
1•• _ • • __ -.1. . . ..~ . . i

VR (voltS)
61r
,
II
Ir
I
I-
1-
L__I
I
~
/
(n1A)

I~-}_ / '
0=:""'-- .-----
I, ~_ - SF_ . ..

\. -, "'I .. '\0It5)
\

C~dclJiations

1. Static Resist.ance Rd - v..If ..

'1' ,!'
..••
-,
Dynamic r~s;stan~:(: (f .:~,. ri
\' J
1:., I+ .

.
;,
Comments/discussion

1. If the piotted grap:1 does not match \',iL~ the gi\::n f:~:,:8:. f:g 3. then anaiYLc the problem
and repeat the whole procedure aga:n.
2. If the calculated dynamic and static resi$tanct? d()c~ nL1! match with the datasheet, then
repeat the whole procedure again.

Precautions

1. Check for proper connections.

2. Take the readings carefully

ll ,
)
IXJ
- /
~'.~/~~i
1iJaV\t'1 Approved by:
Pr~pared b)r:
Shaveta Thakral Prof. D.S.Gotra (HOD)

'-fO
 I

EXPERiMENT NO ·.Il

Study of diode as a rectifier (half 'Nave and full wave)

Aim: To trace the wave shape of the electrical signal at the inpUt an.:! cut;'\.:: k;';·::;-:':';~ \.11h~!j-
v,'Rve and full-\\'ave rectifiers, after observing on eRG.

Apparatus: 2 pin junction diode number IN4007, breadboard. rcsiswr ( ; uK I. Lt:ntc:r-tappcj

transfOImer (220V /9-0-9V), connecting wires, eRG, Multimeter

Thcor'Y:

In most of the electronic devices c:onsw.nt voltage source is required. So. there is a need of
rectifier that converts a.c. to d.c.

An electronic device. which converts a.c. pow~r to d.c. power is called a rectifier. The two half
cycles of alternating c.m.!. l:lput provide opposite kind of bias to the junction diode.
-y

Hal:-wave Rectifier:

:\. re.:tifier. which rectifies only one halfofa.c. supply, is called a half wave rectifier.

Th~ a.c. supply is fed across the primary (P) of step down transformer. The se-,:olidary (S) ufthe
transformer is connected to the junction diode and a load resistance RL as shown in Fig 1. Tbe
a.c. voltage applied to the input of the rectifier is sho\'.11 in Fig 2(a) and the output d.c. voltage is
obtained across the IO<ldresistance Rl. as shown in Fig2 (b).
IN4007i

/
'~ /
I
,S21_0\_·r _

Fig!. Circuit diagram for Half wave rectifier

Vcutl/\
(b)
Ut
Fig 2. Waveform of Halfwave rectifier
(a). Input waveform
(b). Output waveform

'~ ..
~.- ......-_
.•. .•.
 During the first half input cycle the junction diode gets forward biased. The conventional current
will flow in the junction with respect to lower end. The magnitude of the output \'oltage is
proportional to m~gnitude of forward C11rrent. which depends on the v~lue ::>fa.c. input at that
time. '
During the second half cycle junction diode will get reverse biased and hence no output will be
obtained across RL. During next half cycle the junction diode will get forward biased and output
\\ill be obtained.
The discontinuous and pulsating d.c. output across RL is shown in Fig2 (b) and can be studied
using a CRG.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit diagram for half ".ave rectifier as sho\\TI in the Fig 1.
2. Giye the a.c. supply of 220V/50Hz to primary (P) of center tapped step-do\\TI transformer.
3. Measure the voltage at the secondary between Sl and S2 (center tap). of the step-do\\TI
tran:::fonner. using multimeter and confirm it is 9V.
4, Remon~ the multimeter and connect the CRG probes betwe~n points S I and S2 and obser.e
the i:1put Wayefom1 and compare with the one as sho\\TI in Fig2 (a).
5. Connect the CRG probes across the load resistor RI.. to obserye the output wa\'efonn on eRG
and compare \\i:h lh~ one as sho\\'n in Fig~ (b), If the wa\'efomls are not identical. check L~e
diode. c0nne..:::idr.:>.eRO senings and then \ eri~ the output w/f.
6, Trace the input and OUtput \\'3\'e1orm5 on eRO u<;ingtr3ce paper.

Com mentslDiscussion:

Full- Wan Rectifier:

A rectifier. which rectifies both ha!ws of the a,c. input. is called a full waye rectifier. For this
type of rectificatioll two junction diodes are used.

The a.c. supply is fed across primary (P) of a center-tapped, step-down transf~mner. The two
ends of a secondary (S) of the transformer are connected to the p-terminals of the junction diode
01 and O2. A load resistance RL is connected across the two n- terminals of the two diodes and
the center tapping of the secondary (S) as sho\\TI in Fig.3. The a.c. voltage applied 'to the input
of the rectifier as sho\\TI in Fig 4(a) and the d.c. output will be obtained across the load resistance
RL as shown in Fig 4(b).

Suppose during the first half of the input cyCle. upper end of the secondary (S) is at positive
potential and lower end is at negative potential. junction diode Dj gets forward biased \\-"bilethe
Jjode D2 is re\'erse biased, The conventional current through diode DI will flow along the path.
Since current in both the half cycles flows from left to right the output during both the cycles will
b~ of same nature. The right e:1d or RL \\ill be ~:!-y~ pctcntial until i.e. \\-itl: respect to left end.
-rhe magnitude of the output across Rl. at any time viiI! vary in accordance \\'ith amplitude I
~l:Di.i1. The ()Ulput can b~ sl'.Hiiec' by using 3. CRt)

VIl'l i
/-\ \;'
/~
i \
(.
+_._-t-.j--
I
I
\
. (a)
-\\J-/-\-/It
~/

v .'/\/~\ I1\\
,Oll'r! t iIIJ"\ \ p
.¥_.~. ._.
c;
_1L. ~' _

I
i
Fig :" Cirfuit di<li~nlfn fo,· Full \'dl.'/C Rectifier (b)

," 4. Waveforms of Full wave rcdifier

Fil?'
(a) Input. wanform
(b) (fC.!tpllt waveform

Procedure:

1. elm.lleet the circait diagram for full vvave rectifier as sho'wn in the Fig 3.
:~. Give the a.c. supply of220Vl50Hz to FrimaT)' (P) of center-tap~)i;:d, step-down t;-ansfomler.
., 1\ka:;ure the \cdrage a: the secondary bet\veen S 1 and 52 d'th.:- step-down transformer, using
mtdtimder.:md ~'~;nfirn~ it is 18 '\/.

4. Remo\'~:!hl;' muitirneter ar.d r:'onl1ect the eRO probes between poi'1ts Sl and S2 and observe
the input waveform and compzre v:ith th~ one as shown in Fig4 (a).
5. Cor:nect the CRO prolx:s acIC':S:; the load resiswr RL. to observe the output wavcfoml on eRO
2nrj compare with l:he one c.~j shuwn in Fig.4 (b). Ifthe wavetofll1S are not identical, check the
diDde. cormeclic'r1:s. CRO seT.ting:. <;na then l/-erify the output wlf. .
6. Trac~ t~.I';input ~li1G output \\'G:\'tforrns on CRO using lrace paper.

Comments!
r' rD"isc:usswn:
 Precautions:

I. The eRO should be handled ca;:efully.

2. Check for proper connections.

,
It

."

t,

~'10l)t~
Prepared "by:-- ApproVl(() by:
Shaveta Thakral
Prof. D.S.Gotra (HOD)

)
 EXPERIMENT NO.. \ 2-

Study of static characteristics of tr-:..msistcr in r::c configuration.

Ai m: To plot the Input & Output (:haracte~istics; calculate ~he input impedance (J'i). out}"_·
impedance (ro). ,oltage gain (A.v), current gain (Ai), power gain CAp) of p:,-y
transistor.
.i\pp~H·atus: l::':pr~'rim';~nl;'\:board. Regulated Pov.'er supply. (0-50 nl.'\j.,';;':
one ·11illiail1I11Cl.er
m;clo nn\nlei.er (0-50 I.u\). !WO Electronic: mu:time~ers.

The 1nmsj~~ol-is (l three-layc-f semiconductor device. The three electrodes are the '.::ollector. tn(
eminer am: the base. The emitter injects tl1e charge carrier into the base, which in turn controi::
the i1umber of these carriers that are gathered by the collector. Whenever a tnmsistor is to b,_'
u~:(d in electrical c\rcui:s. its electrical pcrfonnance is view-cd. The eiectricaJ perforrmmces afl~
round from the \'oh-ampere (V -1) charaCTeristics of the transistor:,-,. The transistor is biased such
th;:tt its b;lSf·emitler junction is :-l1ade forward biased and collector-emitter is made reverse
biased. ,.
'.
~
11' C!~ c(',nf':~c:;:-i~ior; \',e mak~ erniner rerrnilpl common to UP and OlP.The voltage applied 031

input ~'\:l\"el-:lj [;,,')('-,:mitkr oecomt:5 instC'.'ntaneous voltage Vbe and at output Vc<:_ app~l('j
b;:>t',\('(';1ccikr-:wr--crnitter. Simil::irly two instantaneous currents ]\:1 at input and Ie 31 outPI:'
t')i)"';n",-i
• 1•. \, ..••.~,.•••.\.,1•• ·f",-,
..J , . (.';-'.\'--1'-;._;,,-
~~., •• \I'~'" !('P
' •• " ~I ••,"'- •.•••• u
t>L""fr-i/<'1 .. _ ",.•
plTIP"11:1'i'"
.:7 \t'\·o <;.''is of C'j:'r":'~I'c,
_ •••••.. &. •• ,,-t.. .l.- a'J''-'••.. r.1j(\,df',J
;' Tl,,, r-l\"\"; ";"';
.• \.\. __ •.•.•..•
p • " •••••1

CJjcd ii~p::t:i:id C'l!tpU\ charackrislics curves as shown in Fig.2 & 3 re~:pecti\"~ly.

The Input chan;,cte-ristics:

T(l ann\ inptit ch3r::tcrcrisl1cs the input supply V be is varied aild cOITespondirl,~:
cun-ent Ih is noted with each incremental st~p, while the output supply is kept constant thrc,ugl;
~he skp. At Ie;),s!set of thr~e curves are ploned from the observations and input impedance Ii,
Vr)hagGgain Av is c\'31uated from the curves as,
Iri\Yt!! dynamic impedance. ri. :-:-.:~ \'bel !~I" IV ec = const " (1)
V oL;::g~gain, A'.' =., ~~, V e~;' ~ V be' i lb = const (2)

The Output characteristics:

To dnm output charactcristil.$ the output supply V co: is varied and corresponding
current Ie: i', noted \\'ith each increment step. while the input current Ib is kept constant throughout
the step. At least four to tive curves are plottt'd from the observations and output impedance 1'0:
cum nt gain ~ac is evaluated from the curves as:
Output dynamic impedance, ro = f:, V eel I~ Ie I 10 = const. , , .(3)
AC current gain. ~\ac = tJ. Ie· I 11 Ib I Vcr; = const (4)

The power gain can be ohtained by multipfying voltage gain and cun-ent gain as follO'.v.
p o\'.-erg311l.
. /~p =Av * A'1 (-.
\)
 eXPERIMENT NO.. \ 2-

Study of ~ta1i~ characteristics of tnmsistcr in C[ configuration.

Aim: To piat the Input & Output characteristics; ci1Iculate '.he input impedance ~ri). out~":
impedance
, (ro). \Ollage gain (Av), current gain\
(Ai), po\',:er gain CAp) of P\:;
tr3nslstor.

.'\.pp~tratlJs: l:\p('rim~~n!~\; board. Regulated I\)\,ver supply. one '11illiarnmeta (U-5\) m.-\j. ;,;';.:
m;(.Io anU;iei.er (0-50 ~lA). t\\'o electronic: mu:time\ers.

The li'ar~~,j~~o;'is a lhree-Iaytf semiconductor device. The three electrodes are the collector. tn(
erninc-r am:: the base. The emitter injects tne charge carrier into the base. which in turn controis
the number of these carriers that are gathered by th.e collector. Whenever a transistor is to bt.'
usd in e\cctrical circui:s. its electrical pcrfon!lance is view·cd. The eiectrical perforrmmces arl~
round from the \'oJh11!lpere (V -1) chari::lc:terjsli~~s of the tmnsistoJ~ The transistor is biased such
that its b;ls('·,emitler junction is :11acle forward biased and collector-emitter is made reverse
biased. P
'.
{
)r C~~ c('r;f':~t..:::iLion \\C mak,,:: l;miner lermililul common to UP and O/P.Tb~ voltage applied 3(.
inpUl t-'I:ll',Ct':I, bc",('-;:mitkT oecome5 instc.'ntaneous voltage Vbc and at output \Ie;: app~i(,.j
b;:r'\\"C;l cc ik ..:wr·crilitte r. Simi larly two instantaneous currents lb at input and at OUlp\~·. t
o:)[;:.ined. '1"," (~i:':t:T:-\::1;;: ;11(' e)e.;,;tr!cul prc)pcrties twa sets of !;r<;phs are flatted. 'r;l.:~ r;N~~ ::.c.

CJ;k,1 ir;p:.:t:ind UUlput charactdislics curves as sho\\'11 in Fig.2 &. 3 re~:pectiv':ly.

The Input chan~cterisiics:

To draw input cha"'~cTeristlcs the input supply Vbe is varied aild correspondin:c~
cunent Ib is noted with each incremental st~p, while the output supply is kept constant thrc,ug\;
~.he skp. At lea<;t set or thr~e curves are ploned from the observations and input impedance Ii,
VI)1tag-.: gain A v is e\'31uated from the curves as,
I[;pu! dynamic impedance. ri "'. ~ Vbel Ih I Vec=const (1)
/.'1

VoL~g~ ~ain, A", =:. i~. Vee/ 6. Vbe'lIb = const (2)

The Output characteristics:

To dntw output characttristil.$ the output supply V e~is varied and corresponding
current L: ir, noted with each incn:ment step. while the input current Ib is kept constant thraughou;
the step. At least four to five curves are plort~d from the observations and output impedance ro:
cum ot gain Bac is evaluated from the curves as:
Output dynamic impedanct, ro = t. V eel !~Ie I Ib :.= const. (3)
AC current gain. ~;ac = ti rc·1 ~ Ib I Vee = const ' (4}

The power gain can be ohtained by multiplying voltage gain and cun-ent gain as foll{}\,v.
Pan ''''f bn'"' 1 ••_ 1:1 '111 •• 11\ P = Av*A'!
'"" •. ,) ( )'J
~ •••• ~ •••••••• '\~.
 Ammeter
1K (O-50j.lA)
~
A

~I VCG_
\"tlB
--r
T
2V +
1 (IV Vee (O-lJV)
I
II
I
I I
I
rig 1. Circuit Diagram for CE amplifier

Procedure:

;. \1akc: the- circuit connections as sho\>,n in Fig 1. l;se \'oltmeter and ammeter of proper ranges,

") For input characteristics. first fix the output voltage \Tee say at 6 V. Vary the input voltage Vhe
slo\';!y in steps, Note the value of current 10 and \'oitage V r': for each incrementa! step.

-' Tabulate all obser\'3tions in table 1.

4. Plot the bput characteristic curw from the observations, between Ib and V be. Find out the
slope of the curves as shO\m in Fig.2,

5. Calculate input impedance. ri and \'oltage gain. A\' by using relation (1) and (2,.

6. For output characteristics, first open the input circuit. Vary the collector voltage V IX in steps
and note the collector current. This current is the reverse saturation current Ieeo and the
magnitude will be very small.

7. Now close the input circuit and fix the base current Ib at say 10 j.lA. Slowly increase V ce \'..1th
the help of potentiometer R2 in small steps. r\ote current Ie and voltage Vee for each
incrementa! step.

8. Repeat step 7 for different values of Ib (Say 20~A. 301-1.';, 40i-lA. etc.). Be careful not to go
beyond the maximum ratings of transistor.
•
.'"
9. Tabulate all observations in table 2.
 ] O. Plot the output characteristics cur-yes from the observations, between I, gnd V C~_

1] _ Fi:\ ::~~'-'?C':-.l~ing point (Q) in the middle of the curves: find out the slope of the curve as
shown
in the Fjt~. 3.

1:. Calculate Output dynamic impedance, ro and AC current gain, ~ac by using relation (3)
and (4 ).;, '
;1.

13. Calculate PO\\ er gain Ap by using rclatio~ (5).

Observation:

Table :
T

S.No. Ve.: = (V) (V) ] -¥

i Vce =

Vt>c (V) i Ib (ll-A) l Vbe (V) I,

I
Ib(~A~ I
I
I
_~_
-T --~
I

j ----,
I
i

------ L _

LVce
-f t-
Vcc -ov -6V ·10','

~Ib
~'i~7f
Y./ If I

I~! I
- ;ji/I i I
I
r--+-L
I
"b: (V)

~Vbc I
-; 1-
6Vbe'
fig.2 Input Charncteristics
 Table 2:
I S.No. I Ib (~A) ! Ib (~A)

I
1 ivc.:(V) i Jc(mA) !Vee(V) iIe(mA)

S3twation

Re@9n I

TIc'- - If. L
L:::, L:::, "y- --l'
I -4. - --
-
It, =-30~4

1. _
~ (rl1.411 I /..-
lS::F----~/-,o r·
P.ctive region ----.j
T
-1~~~~
T
-~-
n
W

'~
f/-
•
'.f/' //
I'Ii / /
~/,-. , !')~::.~
.-- .
I
I
1; -·20~4
It. =·10~4
10 =Cf!P.

o Point - ,)~ ,.·U.·c,., ,t:g:.on ." (,,"

I /'c. ,v )

r--- L:::, V ce ---1

Fig. 3 Output Characteristics

CommentJDiscussions

Precautions:

1. Check for proper cunnections.

2. Take the readings carefully.

n
I.
I
,. i

eM '
..-'1 o:\J{ I
'r0~
i~)l'l
Preoareo b,,:
\1 <.--- Approved~':
Sha"eta Thakral Prof. D.S.Gotra (HOD)

48
 EXPERIlVfENT NO 3
VERIFICATION OF lVIAXIl\1lJl\-t PO\VER TRANSFER THEOREM

A,im: To verify maximurn PO\ver tra.nsf~r Theorem

,;:..pparatus: Bread Soard, Resistance J No betw'een 3K, to 5,5 K, 14 W, Multimeter, DC

i
power supply 0-6\1; or 6.. 2\1:, l\::lentiometer 10K, ~-;W: conn~('ting leads,
Theory: !\ resistive load c('nncc:tcd to (j ec
network receives maximum power when the
L}<.~dresistance is equal t~) the Thevcnin equivalent resistance of the network as seen from
the circuited 10~-ldterminals,

Or'cuit diagnlm:

l ,
(The resistance Rl connected in series in the network represents Ri of the source, the
resistance R, converts t;1e low -ohmic sc.Jrce 1iltO high ohmic, so that appreciable
m~asurements can be obtained.)
PnH'cdurc:

1) lvieasure the \'aluL~RI using n~u1timeter ar;d record its vabe.

2) Set/v.'ire ,up the r.etwork on the breadboard , as shown in the circuit diagram.
,
3) The resistance H.] representing intemal resistance Ri must not be changed during the
experiment.

4) At the beginning set the pokntiorileter to the maximum value.

S) Apply emf E [Volts] to the series circuit. Rec.ord the voltage 'h across RL. Record the
value of ammeter reading also, '
C;)V~\r: the potentiometer RL carefuliy and "eeord the readings ofYL and h.
7) F:)r each value ofVL and 11. calculate power PL in the load and record the values.
8) Ora\\' the gr~lph rL vs RI._

: 0) C0rl;pa(l' ilw \'aiue Orr,zL ui:c!er step 9 \vith R!.

Precaution:

The value of resistance RI must not be changed during the experiment

Observation and Calculations:

S.No VL(volts)
PL=VdL
IL(amp)
E (volts)
RL(KO)
RI (KO)

I I. \',I
J

RESULT: Maximum power is obtained when RL = Rl as in step No .

Discussion/comment: -

AnUrag~·
A~+
D.o. Leena G.

I•
\:q-
 EXPERIMENT NO <1
'VER[~'ICATIO~: OF THE'VENIN'S THEOREM

:\;m: To verlfy Thcvenin Theorem.

Appar~lt!ls: DC Power supply 0-6\;'; or 0-12 V; Bread Board, resistances 3;rnultimetel';
c(wnec1.ing iead::::.

Thcor.'. :
Thcl'cuin \. Theorem: For 3. de network it may be stated as Jollows. A linear L-krminaJ
acti VL de n,~twork consi~:ljng of irdependent voitage or current sources and resisrors can
b\: l·cp:2.ced at a pair of terminals .1\.-13 by a single equivalent network cODsisting of a
·;ingle Voltage source V·.il in series v·..ith a sing.le resistance k1'l1• The source voltage, Vril ,
is ~he voltage across A-B when they are open circuited. This voltage is cailed Thcvenin
'~qLlivalent voltage. Thevenin resistar!ce 1.\.1'il is the total resistan..:e at the open circuited
terminals A- B when all Volt8ge SOlllces are replaced by their internals resistance :md the
:~oLlrc~ i:-; set to zero and current sources are repiaced by open (i)ircuit.
y
,

r:, i:\ ..\

;/ ..v....
r--..·-·-.-.-- ..- ..·--~... ----\--· ..·-·~\Af•.•V\· .._··
Ii' •••
~ ,4'" I

!' J~
rl..--- v , (:; - -'-r---- ,v,~: ~--.~-_.._. .. , f''"?
I
,
I
~I"
-:,:..:
"
..
!"'
i
__ .. I I;
f· :J:i. '~Il
1 1 .. _,.

rh--------.--
• ~<,,\1\".__
,•• v •.y 1
~
\ I.:'
;I

i :." '.j;': I •
~'-- L w. • __ u.

I ;c :;.: I ..'
~__ • _ J
C'lrcuj~s fcor vt-rification ofTI}(~~vellin's Thcorern( Fig.s a-e)

!'rnc.:du :'t:

!i \k~l:)~I!\.'(Ii\.., \~:Ii:C cd HI: R:,: NJ dnd f.::.! \vith the hdp of I11U];.il~ld·?r and record their
\.;!t!\.'~;. HI ;'o':PI\»":i\(;-; the IOc;d resis!:.lnc(~ Hi.
2) Adjust the variable DC supply to specified values of output voltage.
3) Wire up tbe network as shown in Figure (a).
4) Measure the voltage
. ~ across the two terminals A-B.
, This voltage is across ~=RL .

5) With the help of the voltage measured across A and B (~) detennine the current

(14 = rX4 ) in the resistance ~. This value of Current is the reference value and needs to
b~ verified by this theorem.

6) Remove ~=RL; then the terminals A -B will be open circuited. See figure (b).
7) Measure the voltage across open terminal A-B. This voltage is called Voc=Vth.·

8) Remove the voltage source E and replace its temlinals by a short circuit. See Figure(c)
9) Measure the resistance at the tenninals A-B using multi meter. This is the value of
Thevenin's resistance Rth

10) Adjust the variable DC supply to the output voltage equal to Vth.
I I) COlmect Rth in series \\'ith Vth. The circuit will be as shown in Figure( d).
12) Re-connect the resistance ~, which was removed, across the terminal A-B.

13) Determine the value of cun'cnt in the circuit as shown in Figure(e).

14) The value of current under step 13 must be equal to the CUITent determined bystep 5.
)n:caution:
f
) Ali the eiements used in the circuit must have linear characteristics

i) The voltage applied must not be changed.

i) The circuit of step no. 2 must not be changed because it represents the resistance Rlh
fthe equivalent source\11h
lbservation And Calculations:
rom fig.Ca):

pplied voltage, E = (volts)

oltage across ~ = V4 = (volts)

~sistance R1 = RL= ( Q)

Irrent through R4 = 14 = (amp)

om fig.(b):

Jell circuit voltaQe V "--' IJC = VI =

/1 (volts)

III fi -Q (c):. Rt'II = (Q)

111fIg_ (e ) : I I:::: ----=: J~/J ( an1p )

. CRt/J + Rj)
RESULT:

t ..
T'/-H" Ie-C).!
._"')]\ • IS
- l' 4 -.- ji 'r'j
• LVC!1dA
p ; -.' ::, 'rt,
.IJCO,edt
" " ,-', 5."nu:, _.;-'" d
'jr" ~~ VebD.e

o is (: us:;; 0 n/ C 0 III In C11is:

II
,