End

APPENDIXES
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APPENDIX A
UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS
A.1 PLANE ANGLE
r x
x [L]
= r =
r [L]
TABLE A.1
Plane angle conversion factors (Reference)
rad rev
1 degree 1 60 3600 p/180 1/360

1 minute 1/60 1 60 p/10,800 1/21,600
1 second 1/3600 1/60 1 p/648,000 1/1,296,000
1 radian 180/p 10,800/p 648,000/p 1 1/(2p)
1 revolution 360 21,600 1,296,000 2p 1
90 100 grade [a] 100g 100 gon 90 1000 angular mil [b]
[a] All grade subdivisions are indicated with decimals, so there are no equivalent units of minutes or seconds. This system is not widely
used except in France.
[b] During World War II, the U.S. artillery divided a right angle into 1000 parts called angular mil.
An angle u is defined by
x
u (A-1)
r
where the angle is measured in radians. Because the perimeter around a circle is 2pr, one
complete revolution is
605

606 APPENDIX A UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS
2p a b 2p rad
2pr r
u (A-2)
r r
The perimeter may also be divided into 360 equally spaced divisions called degrees.
Therefore,
2p rad 360 (A-3)
The degree may be further subdivided into 60 divisions called minutes, and the minutes
may be subdivided into 60 divisions called seconds. This is a fractional system of mea-
suring angles that dates back to the Babylonians.
A.2 SOLID ANGLE

A [L2 ]
= =
r2 [L]2
A
r r
TABLE A.2
Solid angle conversion factors (Reference)
Square Degree Square Minute Square Second Steradian Sphere
1 square degree 1 (60)2 (3600)2 (p/180)2 (p/4)(180)2

1 square minute (1/60)2 1 (60)2 (p/10,800)2 (p/4)(10,800)2
1 square second (1/3600)2 (1/60)2 1 (p/648,000)2 (p/4)(648,000)2
1 steradian (180/p)2 (10,800/p)2 (648,000/p)2 1 (4p)1
1 sphere (4/p)(180)2 (4/p)(10,800)2 (4/p)(648,000)2 4p 1
1 sphere 2 hemisphere 1 sphere 8 spherical right angles
A solid angle b is defined as the surface area on the sphere A divided by the radius r
squared:
A
b (A-4)
r2
The surface can be defined by projecting four radii from the center of a sphere and con-
necting the ends of adjacent radii with circumference segments. If the angle between adja-
cent radii is one radian, then a square is defined on the sphere surface that has circumfer-
ence segments of length r. This solid angle is a steradian, given by the formula
A r2
b 2
2 1 steradian (A-5)
r r

APPENDIX A UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS 607
If the angle between adjacent radii is one degree, then the solid angle is a square
degree; if the angle between adjacent radii is one minute, then the solid angle is a square
minute; and if the angle between adjacent radii is one second, then the solid angle is a
square second. Table A.2 shows the relationship between these various solid angle mea-
surements.
If a sphere is divided into two parts, then the solid angle is a hemisphere. If a hemi-
sphere is divided into four equal parts, the solid angle formed is a spherical right angle.
A.3 LENGTH
d = [L]
d
TABLE A.3
Length conversion factors (Reference)
cm m km in ft mi [e]
1 centimeter 1 0.01 1.0000 E05 0.3937 0.03281 6.214 E06

1 meter 100 1 0.001 39.37 3.281 6.214 E04
1 kilometer 1.00 E05 1000 1 3.937 E04 3281 0.6214
1 inch [b] 2.54000 0.02540 2.540 E05 1 0.08333 1.578 E05
1 foot [a] 30.48000 0.304800 3.048 E04 12 1 1.894 E04
1 U.S. statute mile 1.609 E05 1609 1.609 6.336 E04 5280 1
1 nautical mile (n. mile) [f] 1852 m 1.151 mi 6076 ft 1 rod (rd) 1 pole 1 perch 16.5 ft 1 fermi (fm) [j] 1.00 E15 m
1 ngstrm () [k] 1.00 E10 m 1 yard (yd) 3 ft 1 micron (m) [l] 1.00 E06 m
1 light-year (ly) [g] 9.4606 E12 km 1 bolt of cloth 120 ft 1 printers pica 0.16604 in
1 parsec (pc) [h] 3.086 E13 km 1 mil [d] 1 thou 0.001 in 1 printers pica 12 points
1 astronomical unit (i) 1.496 E08 km 1 pace 30 in 1 fathom (fath) [c] 6 ft
1 statute league 2640 fathoms 1 cable [m] 120 fathoms 1 cubit 18 in
1 chain (ch) 66 ft 100 Gunters links (li) 1 palm 3 in 1 span 9 in
1 furlong (fur) 660 ft 1/8 mi 1 hand 4 in 1 skein 360 ft
[a] The foot has been used in England for over 1000 years and is approximately equal to the length of a mans foot.
[b] The inch is derived from ynce, the Anglo-Saxon word for twelfth part.
[c] A fathom is used to describe the depth of the sea. It is approximately the distance between the hands when the arms are
outstretched; its name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word for embrace.
[d] The mil is equal to one thousandth of an inch and is not to be confused with the millimeter. It is commonly used in metal machining.
[e] The mile traces to the Romans and is about equal to 1000 double paces (about 5 ft).
[f] The nautical mile is the average meridian length of one minute of latitude, a definition that makes navigation easier.
[g] The light-year is the distance light travels in one year.
[h] The parsec is the height of an isosceles triangle of which the base is equal to the diameter of the earths orbit around the sun, and the
angle opposite that base is 1.
[i] An astonomical unit is approximately equal to the mean distance from the earth to the sun.
[j] The fermi is used to measure nuclear distances.
[k] The ngstrm is used to measure atomic distances (a hydrogen atom is approximately 1 ).
[l] The micron is slang for micrometer and is not SI.
[m] The cable is used to measure lengths at sea and dates back to the middle of the 16th century.

A.4 AREA
d1 A = d1 d 2 = [L][L] = [L2 ]
d2
TABLE A.4
Area conversion factors (Reference)
m2 cm2 ft2 in2
1 square meter 1 1.000 E04 10.76 1550

1 square centimeter 1.000 E04 1 0.001076 0.1550
1 square foot 0.09290 929.0 1 144
1 square inch 6.452 E04 6.452 0.006944 1
1 square mile 2.788 E07 ft2 640 acres 1 are (a) [a] 100 m2
1 yd2 9 ft2 1 hectare (ha) [a] 100 are 1000 m2 2.471 acres
1 square rod 30.25 yd2 272.25 ft2 1 barn (b) [d] 1.0000 E28 m2
1 rood 40 square rod 1 circular mil (cir mils) [c] (0.001 in)2p/4 7.854 E07 in2
1 acre [b] 4 roods 160 square rods 43,560 ft2 1 U.S. township 36 mi2 36 sections
[a] An area 10 m on a side is an are and an area 100 m on a side is a hectare (i.e., 100 are). Both the are and hectare are used in
international agriculture to measure land area.
[b] The acre, which has been in existence since about 1300, is the approximate area that a yoke of oxen could plow in a day.
[c] A circular mil is the cross-sectional area of a circle that is one mil (0.001 in) in diameter. It was first used to measure the cross-sectional
area of wire.
[d] The barn is used to measure the effective target area of atomic nuclei when bombarded with particles. The unit was invented in 1942
as Manhattan Project code; it probably derives from the expression I bet you couldnt hit the broadside of a barn.
A.5 VOLUME
V = d1 d 2 d3 = [L][L][L] = [L3]
d1
d3
d2

TABLE A.5
Volume conversion factors (Reference)
m3 cm3 L ft3 in3
1 cubic meter 1 1.000 E06 1000 35.31 6.102 E04

1 cubic centimeter 1.000 E06 1 0.001 3.531 E05 0.06102
1 liter 0.001000 1000 1 0.03531 61.02
1 cubic foot 0.02832 2.832 E04 28.32 1 1728
1 cubic inch 1.639 E05 16.39 1.639 E02 5.787 E04 1
1 acre-foot [d] 43,560 ft3 1 stere (st) [a] 1 m3 1 l 1 mL [b]

1 board-foot (fbm or bd-ft) [e] 144 in 3 1 yd3 27 ft3 1 cord (wood) [f] 128 ft3
1 barrel (bbl) [h] 42 gal 1 masonry perch 24.75 ft3 1 cord-foot [g] 16 ft3
1 U.K. gallon 1 Imperial gallon 1.2009 U.S gallon [c] 1 ft3 7.4805195 U.S. gallon (liq)
[a] The stere is no longer recommended.

[b] 1 mL is sometimes called 1 l, but the use of this unit is not recommended.
[c] The gallon was first mentioned in 1342 and was given legal status in 1602. The U.S. gallon originated with the old English wine
gallon in Colonial times. The Imperial gallon (which is about 20% larger than the U.S. gallon) is defined by a 1963 British law as the
volume occupied by 10 lbm of distilled water provided the water has a density of 0.998859 g/mL weighed in air with a density of
0.001217 g/mL against weights with a density of 8.136 g/mL.
[d] An acre-foot is the volume when one acre is covered by water with 1 ft depth. This unit is commonly used in agricultural irrigation.
[e] A board-foot corresponds to the volume occupied by a board that is 1 ft 1 ft 1 in.
[f] The cord describes the volume of a wood stack that measures 4 ft 4 ft 8 ft.
[g] A cord-foot describes the volume of a wood stack that measures 4 ft 4 ft 1 ft.
[h] U.S. petroleum barrel.
TABLE A.6
Customary units of volume (Reference)
United Kingdom (liquids and solids) United States (liquid)
20 minims (min) 1 scruple 1.1838 E06 m3 60 minims (min) 1 fluid dram (fl dr) 3.6967 E06 m3
3 scruples 1 fluid drachm 3.5515 E06 m3 3 teaspoons (t or tsp) 1 tablespoon (T or Tbsp) 1.4787 E05 m3
8 fluid drachms 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) 2.8413 E05 m3 2 tablespoons 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) 2.9574 E05 m3
5 fluid ounces 1 gill or noggin 1.4207 E04 m3 8 fluid drams 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) 2.9574 E05 m3
4 gills 1 pint (pt) 5.6825 E04 m3 4 fluid ounces 1 gill 1.1829 E04 m3
2 pints 1 quart (qt) 1.1365 E03 m3 2 gills 1 cup 2.3659 E04 m3
2 quarts 1 pottle or 2.2730 E03 m3 2 cups 1 liquid pint (pt) 4.7318 E04 m3
quartern (dry)
2 quarterns (dry) 1 gallon (gal) 4.5461 E03 m3 2 liquid pints 1 liquid quart (qt) 9.4635 E04 m3
2 gallons 1 peck (pk) 9.0919 E03 m3 4 liquid quarts 1 gallon (gal) 3.7854 E03 m3
4 pecks 1 bushel (bu) 3.6368 E02 m3 9 gallons 1 firkin 3.4068 E02 m3
9 gallons 1 firkin 4.0914 E02 m3 31.5 gallons 1 barrel (bbl)* 1.1924 E01 m3
9 pecks 1 kilderkins 8.1830 E02 m3 63 gallons 1 hogshead (hhd) 2.3847 E01 m3
3 bushels 1 sack or bag 1.0910 E01 m3 84 gallons 1 puncheon 3.1797 E01 m3
36 gallons 1 barrel (bbl) 1.6365 E01 m3 126 gallons 1 U.K. butt 4.7696 E01 m3
8 bushels 1 quarter or seam 2.9094 E01 m3 252 gallons 1 tun 9.5392 E01 m3
640 gallons 1 lasts 2.9094 m3
United States (dry)
2 dry pints 1 dry quart (qt) 1.1012 E03 m3

4 dry quarts 1 dry gallon (gal) 4.4049 E03 m3
2 dry gallons 1 peck (pk) 8.8098 E03 m3
4 pecks 1 bushel (bu) 3.5239 E02 m3
105 dry quarts 1 dry barrel (bbl)* 1.1563 E01 m3
*Not to be confused with a U.S. petroleum barrel.


A.6 MASS
[M]
TABLE A.7
Mass unit conversions (Reference)
g kg lbm slug
1 gram-mass 1 0.001 0.002205 6.852 E05

1 kilogram-mass 1000 1 2.205 0.06852
1 pound-mass [c] 453.6 0.4536 1 0.03108
1 slug 1.4594 E04 14.594 32.174 1
1 grain [b] 6.479891 E05 kg 1 glug 980.665 g 0.980665 kg

1 short hundred weight 100 lbm 1 mug 1 metric slug 1 par 1 TME 9.80665 kg
1 short ton 2000 lbm 1 unified atomic mass unit (u) [e] 1 dalton 1.6605402 E27 kg
1 tonne (t) 1 metric ton 1000 kg 1 atomic mass unit, chem. (amu) [e] 1.66024 E27 kg
1 metric carat [d] 2.000 E04 kg 1 atomic mass unit, phys. (amu) [e] 1.65979 E27 kg
1 point 0.01 metric carat 1 eV of equivalent mass [f] 1.7827 E36 kg
1 g [a] 1 mg 1.000 E09 kg
[a] The symbol g is used to represent 1 mg, but its use is discouraged.
[b] The grain dates back to the 16th century and is thought to be equal to the weight of a wheat grain.
[c] The pound originated with the Roman Libra (327 g). The Imperial Standard Pound was defined in 1855 as the mass of platinum with
given dimensions. In 1963, the pound was defined as 0.45359237 kg exactly, a number chosen because it is evenly divided by seven to
ease the conversion from grains to grams.
[d] Precious stones are measured in metric carats, which correspond to 200 mg.
[e] The atomic mass unit was originally intended to be the mass of a single hydrogen atom, the lightest element. In 1885, it was
suggested that more elements would have integer numbers for their atomic weights if the atomic mass unit were defined using 1/16 the
mass of oxygen. Chemists used oxygen in its natural abundance (2480:5:1 16O:18O:17O) whereas physicists used isotopically pure 16O for
their standard. Thus, there was a slight discrepancy between the scales used by chemists and physics (272 parts per million). It was later
found that expressing the atomic mass unit as 1/12th the mass of a single carbon-12 atom allowed even more elements to have masses
that were integer numbers. Thus, the unified atomic mass unit was established, which had the added benefit of eliminating the
discrepancy between the chemist and physicist scales.
[f] The famous Einstein relationship E mc2 showed that when mass is destroyed, energy is produced (and vice versa). The amount of
energy E is found by multiplying the destroyed mass m by the speed of light c squared. Thus, physicists and nuclear engineers sometimes
express mass in energy units, such as electron volts (eV).

TABLE A.8
Customary units of mass (Reference)
Avoirdupois Weights Apothecaries Weights [b] Troy Weights [c]
1 pound (lb avdp) [a] 1 pound (lb ap) 1 pound (lb t)

7000 grains [d] 5760 grains [d] 5760 grains [d]
16 drams (dr avdp) 1 ounce (oz) 20 grains 1 scruple (s ap) 24 grains 1 penny weight (dwt)
16 ounces 1 pound (lb avdp) 3 scruples 1 U.K. drachm (dr ap) 20 penny weights 1 ounce (oz t)
14 pounds 1 stone 3 scruples 1 U.S. dram (dr ap) 12 ounce (oz t) 1 pound (lb t)
28 pounds 1 quarter 8 drachm or dram 1 ounce (oz ap)
112 pounds 1 long hundred 12 ounce (oz ap) 1 pound (lb ap)
weight (cwt)
252 pounds 1 wey
2240 pounds 1 long ton
[a] The common pound with which we are familiar (and the pound indicated by the symbol lbm) is the avoirdupois pound.
[b] The apothecary scale is not used anymore.
[c] The troy scale is used in the U.S. for weighing precious metals.
[d] The grain is the same in all systems.
A.7 DENSITY
m [M] [M]
= = =
d1 m d 1 d2 d3 [L][L][L] [L3 ]
d3
d2
TABLE A.9
Density conversion factors (Reference)
g/cm3 kg/m3 lbm/ft3 lbm/in3 slug/ft3
1 gram per cubic centimeter 1 1000 62.43 0.03613 1.940

1 kilogram per cubic meter 0.001 1 0.06243 3.613 E05 0.001940
1 pound-mass per cubic foot 0.01602 16.02 1 5.787 E04 0.03108
1 pound-mass per cubic inch 27.68 2.768 E04 1728 1 53.71
1 slug per cubic foot 0.5154 515.4 32.174 0.01862 1
Density can also be expressed by specific gravity SG, a dimensionless number formed by
dividing the density of Substance A rA by the density of a reference substance rR:
rA
SG (A-6)
rR
Although any reference may be used, the most common reference substance is water at its
maximum density (4oC, 1.000 g/cm3).

A.8 TIME
TABLE A.10
Time conversion factors (Reference)
yr d h min s
1 year [a] 1 365.24 8.766 E03 5.259 E05 3.1557 E07

1 day [c] 2.738 E03 1 24 1440 8.640 E04
1 hour [d] 1.141 E04 4.167 E02 1 60 3600
1 minute [e] 1.901 E06 6.944 E04 1.667 E02 1 60
1 second [e] 3.169 E08 1.157 E05 2.778 E04 1.667 E02 1
1 year 365.24 solar days [c] 1 year 366.24 sidereal days [b] 1 week 7 days
1 mean solar day [c] 86,400 s 1 sidereal day [b] 86,164 s 1 fortnight 2 weeks
[a] A year is the time required for the earth to return to a given position as it orbits the sun. Our calendar is adjusted to the tropical year, the
time it takes for the earth to orbit the sun between successive vernal equinoxes (March 21, the spring date in which light and dark are equal).
[b] A sidereal day is the mean time taken for the earth to complete one revolution as determined by comparing the earths position to distant stars.
[c] A solar day is the mean time required for the sun to return to a fixed position (e.g., overhead) in the sky. The solar day and sidereal day
differ. The solar day is slightly longer because the sun is viewed from a different position as the earth orbits the sun. In common parlance,
we refer to a solar day, not a sidereal day. It has been known since the Egyptians and Babylonians that there are 365 14 solar days per year.
[d] In ancient times, the day was divided into 24 time fractions which we call hours. Light and darkness were each divided into 12 equal
time fractions regardless of the time of year. According to the season, the length of the dark-hour differed from the light-hour. When
mechanical clocks were invented, the length of the hour was standardized. In England, each community kept its own local time; each
community was completely independent of the others. In 1880, Greenwich mean time was established as the official time throughout
England. Today, most of the world has agreed to standardize on Greenwich mean time.
[e] The minute and second of time trace to the Babylonians, who used units of 60. Efforts to decimalize time have proven unsuccessful.
A.9 SPEED/VELOCITY
d
d [L]
Speed, Velocity = = = [L/T]
t2 t1 [T]
t1 t2
TABLE A.11
Speed/velocity conversion factors (Reference)
m/s cm/s ft/s km/h mi/h (mph) knot
1 meter per second 1 100 3.281 3.6 2.237 1.944

1 centimeter per second 0.01 1 0.03281 0.036 0.02237 0.01944
1 foot per second 0.3048 30.48 1 1.097 0.6818 0.5925
1 kilometer per hour 0.2778 27.78 0.9113 1 0.6214 0.5400
1 mile per hour 0.4470 44.70 1.467 1.609 1 0.8690
1 nautical mile per hour 0.5144 51.44 1.688 1.852 1.151 1
1 knot 1 nautical mile per hour 1 mi/min 88.00 ft/s 60.00 mi/h

A.10 FORCE
1 m/s 2
1 kg Mass
Acceleration
1N F = m a = [M][L/T 2 ] = [ML/T 2]
Force
TABLE A.12
Force conversion factors (Reference)
N dyne pdl kgf gf lbf
1 newton 1 1.00 E05 7.233 0.1020 102.0 0.2248

1 dyne 1.00 E05 1 7.233 E05 1.020 E06 0.001020 2.248 E06
1 poundal 0.1383 1.383 E04 1 0.01410 14.10 0.03108
1 kilogram-force 9.807 9.807 E05 70.93 1 1000 2.205
1 gram-force 0.009807 980.7 0.07093 0.001 1 0.002205
1 pound-force 4.448 4.448 E05 32.174 0.4536 453.6 1
1 pound-force 16 ounce-force 1 kilopond [b] 1 kgf 1 kip [a] 1000 lbf
1 ton-force 2000 lbf 1 fors [c] 1 gf
[a] The kip (for Kilo Imperial Pound) is sometimes used to describe the load on a structure.
[b] The kilopond is used in Germany for kilogram-force.
[c] The fors (Latin for force) was proposed in 1956 as an alternate name for gram-force.

A.11 PRESSURE
d2
d1 F [ML/T 2]
P= d d = = [M/LT2 ]
1 2 [L][L]
TABLE A.13
Pressure conversion factors (Reference)
Pa dyne/cm2 lbf/ft2 lbf/in2 (psi) atm cm-Hg in-H2O
1 newton per square meter 1 10 0.02089 1.450 E04 9.869 E06 7.501 E04 0.004015
1 dyne per square centimeter 0.1 1 0.002089 1.450 E05 9.869 E07 7.501 E05 4.015 E04
1 pound-force per square foot 47.88 478.8 1 0.006944 4.725 E04 0.03591 0.1922
1 pound-force per square inch 6895 6.895 E04 144 1 0.06805 5.171 27.68
1 standard atmosphere [c] 1.013 E05 1.013 E06 2116 14.696 1 76 406.8
1 centimeter [d] of mercury at 0C 1333 1.333 E04 27.84 0.1934 0.01316 1 5.353
1 inch [d] of water at 4C 249.1 2491 5.202 0.03613 0.002458 0.1868 1
1 kgf/m2 9.806650 Pa 1 kip/in2 (ksi) 1000 lbf/in2

1 atm 2.493 ft-Hg 33.90 ft-H2O 27,714 ft-air (1 atm, 60F) [d] 1 technical atmosphere [c] 1 kgf/cm2
1 bar [a] 1 barye 1.00 E06 dyne/cm2 0.1 MPa 100 kPa 1 atm 1 micron pressure 1 mm-Hg [d]
1 millibar (mb) 1.00 E03 dyne/cm2 1000 microbar (mb) [b] 1 gf/cm2 980.665 dyne/cm2
1 torr [e] (101325/760) Pa 1 mm-Hg 0.1 cm-Hg
[a] The bar is most commonly employed in meteorology because it is approximately equal to the atmospheric pressure on earth.
Although the bar is not properly SI, its use is temporarily tolerated because it is so widespread. The barye was the original name given to
this unit of pressure in 1900, but it has been shortened to bar.
[b] Although there is no proper abbreviation for the bar, the millibar (mb) and microbar (mb) abbreviations are sometimes used.
[c] Because the atmospheric pressure changes (in fact, meteorologists measure it to predict weather changes), a standard atmosphere P
has been defined as 101,325.0 Pa. The technical atmosphere is defined as 1 kgf/cm2. Unless otherwise specified, an atmosphere is
generally the standard atmosphere. The use of atmosphere for pressure measurements is discouraged by SI, but its use will probably
continue because it is easily visualized.
[d] The simplest way to measure pressure is with a manometer, a U-shaped tube filled with liquid. Differences in pressure acting on each
liquid column change the liquid levels, which are then easily read using a meterstick. For accurate work, the conversion factors in Table
A.13 may be used only if the temperature of the liquid is controlled (4C for water, 0C for mercury (Hg)). (Alternately, tables listing the
liquid density as a function of temperature may be used to correct the reading, provided the manometer temperature is known.) Also, the
local acceleration due to gravity (g) affects the reading. The values given in Table A.13 use the standard acceleration due to gravity (g).
[e] The torr differs from a mm-Hg by less than one part in seven million. The use of torr is discouraged by SI.

A.12 ENERGY
2 2 2
F E = F d = [ML/T ][L] = [ML /T ]
Work
Heat m 2 2 2 2
Q = m Cp T = [M][L /T ][ ] = [ML /T ]
TABLE A.14
Energy conversion factors (Reference)
J erg ftlbf cal Btu kWh hph
1 joule 1 1.000 E07 0.7376 0.2390 9.485 E04 2.778 E07 3.725 E07
1 erg 1.000 E07 1 7.376 E08 2.390 E08 9.485 E11 2.778 E14 3.725 E14
1 foot poundf 1.356 1.356 E07 1 0.3240 0.001286 3.766 E07 5.051 E07
1 calorie [b] 4.184 4.184 E07 3.086 1 0.003968 1.162 E06 1.559 E06
1 Brit. thermal unit [c] 1054 1.054 E10 777.6 252.0 1 2.929 E04 3.928 E04
1 kilowatthour [d] 3.600 E06 3.600 E13 2.655 E06 8.606 E05 3414 1 1.341
1 horsepower hour [d] 2.685 E06 2.685 E13 1.980 E06 6.414 E05 2545 0.7457 1
1 electronvolt (eV) [f] 1.60217733 E19 J 1 kcal [a] 1 calorie (kg) 1 Wh 3600 J [d]
1 kgf m 9.806650 J 1 gfcm 980.6650 erg 1 Ws 1 J [d]
1 VC 1 J 1 VAs 1 J 1 Pam3 1 J [e]
1 (dyne/cm2)cm3 1 erg [e] 1 atmL 101.3 J [e] 1 atmcm3 0.1013 J [e]
1 atmft3 2116 ftlbf [e] 1 psiaft3 144 ftlbf [e] 1 barcm3 0.1 J [e]
1 ton (nuclear equivalent TNT) 4.184 E09 J
[a] Kilocalorie is the heat required to raise 1 kg water by 1 K. Because the heat capacity of water is not constant, a variety of kilocalories
are defined. This is the thermochemical kilocalorie, the most commonly used.
[b] Calorie is the heat required to raise 1 g water by 1 K. In diet books, the energy content in food is usually expressed in calories, but
actually kilocalories are meant. Sometimes dietitians use Calorie to mean kilocalorie. Because the heat capacity of water is not constant, a
variety of calories are defined. This is the thermochemical calorie, the most commonly used.
[c] British thermal unit is the heat required to raise 1 lbm water by 1 F. Because the heat capacity of water is not constant, a variety of
Btus are defined. This is the thermochemical Btu, the most commonly used.
[d] Energy Power x Time. These units can be visualized as answering the question how much energy is expended if a 1-kW (1-hp)
motor operates for one hour?
[e] Energy Pressure x Volume
[f] The energy required to move a single electron through a vacuum with 1 volt of potential is an electron volt.

A.13 POWER
t
2
Fd [ML/T ][L] 2 3
F
Power = = = [ML /T ]
t [T]
d
TABLE A.15
Power conversion factors (Reference)
W kW ftlbf/s hp cal/s Btu/h
1 watt [a] 1 0.001 0.7376 0.001341 0.2390 3.414

1 kilowatt 1000 1 737.6 1.341 239.0 3414
1 foot-poundf per second 1.356 0.001356 1 0.001818 0.3240 4.629
1 horsepower [b] 745.7 0.7457 550 1 178.2 2546
1 calorie per second 4.184 0.004184 3.086 0.005611 1 14.29
1 British thermal unit per hour 0.2929 2.929 E04 0.2160 3.928 E04 0.07000 1
1 W 1.00 E07 erg/s 1 ftlbf/s 60 ftlbf/min 3600 ftlbf/h 1 hp 33,000 ftlbf/min 550 ftlbf/s
1 hp (electric) 746 W 1 ton of refrigeration [d] 12,000 Btu/h
1 hp 0.0760181 hp (boiler) 0.999598 hp (electric) 1.01387 hp (metric) 0.999540 hp (water) [c]
[a] A watt is a J/s.

[b] In 1782, James Watt (17361819) devised the horsepower to help him sell steam engines. He assumed a horse could pull with a force
of 180 lbf and, when harnessed to a capstan, would walk a 24-ft diameter circle 2 12 times each minute. This was a work expenditure of
32,400 ftlbf/min, which he rounded to 33,000 ftlbf/min (550 ftlbf/s). Engines are often rated in brake horsepower (bhp) or shaft
horsepower, which is the power available at the turning drive shaft.
[c] A boiler horsepower (bhp) is the amount of heat needed to evaporate 34.5 lbm /h of water at 212F. A metric horsepower is the power
required to raise 75 kg one meter per second.
[d] A ton of refrigeration is a U.S. term that describes the amount of refrigeration required to freeze 1 ton (2000 lbm) per day of water at 32F.

A.14 AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE

The mole is the number of atoms in 0.012 kg (12 g) of carbon-12. This number is given
special recognition as Avogadros constant NA, which is
NA 6.0221367 10 23 atoms>mol (A-7)
The coulomb C is the number of electrons that flow in a one-ampere current in one sec-
ond. The number of electrons in a coulomb NC is
NC 6.24150636 10 18 electrons>C (A-8)
The ratio of Avogadros number to the coulomb is called the Faraday constant F
NA
F 96,485.309 C>mol (A-9)
NC
The mol is sometimes called the gram-mole. The kilogram-mole (kmol) is the num-
ber of atoms in 12 kg of carbon-12, the pound-mole (lbmol) is the number of atoms in 12
lbm of carbon-12, and the ton-mole is the number of atoms in 12 tons of carbon-12. The
number of atoms in each of these units is calculated as:
6.022 10 23 atoms 1000 mol atoms

6.022 10 26
mol kmol kmol
6.022 10 23 atoms 453.6 mol atoms

2.732 10 26
mol lbmol lbmol
6.022 10 23 atoms 453.6 mol 2000 lbmol atoms

5.463 10 29
mol lbmol ton-mole ton-mol
Further Readings
Jerrard, H. G., and D. B. McNeill. A Dictionary of Scientific Units. Englewood, NJ: Franklin
Publishing, Inc., 1964.
Klein, H. A. The World of Measurements. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. The International System of Units (SI). NIST
Special Publication 330, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1991.
Weast, R. C. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 58th ed. West Palm Beach: CRC Press,
1978.

APPENDIX B
NATIONAL SOCIETY OF
PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS
Code of Ethics for Engineers
Preamble
Engineering is an important and learned profession. The members of the profession rec-
ognize that their work has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people.
Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness and
equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety and welfare. In
the practice of their profession, engineers must perform under a standard of professional
behavior which requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct on behalf
of the public, clients, employers and the profession.
I. Fundamental Canons
Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:
1. Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance
of their professional duties.
2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
4. Act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or
trustees.
5. Avoid deceptive acts in the solicitation of professional employment.
II. Rules of Practice
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in
the performance of their professional duties.
a. Engineers shall at all times recognize that their primary obligation is to pro-
tect the safety, health, property and welfare of the public. If their profes-
sional judgement is overruled under circumstances where the safety, health,
property or welfare of the public are endangered, they shall notify their
employer or client and such other authorities as may be appropriate.
618

APPENDIX B NSPE CODE OF ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS 619
b. Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents which are safe
for public health, property and welfare in conformity with accepted stan-
dards.
c. Engineers shall not reveal facts, data or information obtained in a profes-
sional capacity without the prior consent of the client or employer except as
authorized or required by law or this Code.
d. Engineers shall not permit the use of their name or firm name nor associate
in business ventures with any person or firm which they have reason to
believe is engaging in fraudulent or dishonest business or professional prac-
tices.
e. Engineers having knowledge of any alleged violation of this Code shall
cooperate with the proper authorities in furnishing such information or assis-
tance as may be required.
2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.
a. Engineers shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or
experience in the specific technical fields involved.
b. Engineers shall not affix their signatures to any plans or documents dealing
with subject matter in which they lack competence, nor to any plan or doc-
ument not prepared under their direction and control.
c. Engineers may accept assignments and assume responsibility for coordina-
tion of an entire project and sign and seal the engineering documents for the
entire project, provided that each technical segment is signed and sealed
only by the qualified engineers who prepared the segment.
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
a. Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements
or testimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent information in
such reports, statements and testimony.
b. Engineers may express publicly a professional opinion on technical subjects
only when that opinion is founded upon adequate knowledge of the facts and
competence in the subject matter.
c. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms or arguments on technical
matters which are inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless they have
prefaced their comments by explicitly identifying the interested parties on
whose behalf they are speaking, and by revealing the existence of any inter-
est the engineers may have in the matters.
4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faith-
ful agents or trustees.
a. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of interest to their
employers or clients by promptly informing them of any business associa-
tion, interest, or other circumstances which could influence or appear to
influence their judgment or the quality of their services.
b. Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more
than one party for services on the same project, or for services pertaining to
the same project, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed to, and agreed
to by, all interested parties.

620 APPENDIX B NSPE CODE OF ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS
c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable consideration

directly or indirectly, from contractors, their agents, or other parties in con-
nection with work for employers or clients for which they are responsible.
d. Engineers in public service as members, advisors or employees of a govern-
mental or quasi-governmental body or department shall not participate in
decisions with respect to professional services solicited or provided by them
or their organizations in private or public engineering practice.
e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept a professional contract from a government
body on which a principal or officer of their organization serves as a member.
5. Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts in the solicitation of professional employment.
a. Engineers shall not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their, or their asso-
ciates, academic or professional qualifications. They shall not misrepresent
or exaggerate their degree of responsibility in or for the subject matter of
prior assignments. Brochures or other presentations incident to the solicita-
tion of employment shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning
employers, employees, associates, joint ventures or past accomplishments
with the intent and purpose of enhancing their qualifications and their work.
b. Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit or receive, either directly or indirectly,
any political contribution in an amount intended to influence the award of a
contract by public authority, or which may be reasonably construed by the
public of having the effect or intent to influence the award of a contract.
They shall not offer any gift, or other valuable consideration in order to
secure work. They shall not pay a commission, percentage or brokerage fee
in order to secure work except to a bona fide employee or bona fide estab-
lished commercial or marketing agencies retained by them.
III. Professional Obligations
1. Engineers shall be guided in all their professional relations by the highest stan-
dards of integrity.
a. Engineers shall admit and accept their own errors when proven wrong and
refrain from distorting or altering the facts in an attempt to justify their deci-
sions.
b. Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they believe a proj-
ect will not be successful.
c. Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment of their reg-
ular work or interest. Before accepting any outside employment they will
notify their employers.
d. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another employer by
false or misleading pretenses.
e. Engineers shall not actively participate in strikes, picket lines, or other col-
lective coercive action.
f. Engineers shall avoid any act tending to promote their own interest at the
expense of the dignity and integrity of the profession.
2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.
a. Engineers shall seek opportunities to be of constructive service in civic
affairs and work for the advancement of the safety, health and well-being of
their community.

b. Engineers shall not complete, sign or seal plans and/or specifications that are
not of a design safe to the public health and welfare and in conformity with
accepted engineering standards. If the client or employer insists on such
unprofessional conduct, they shall notify the proper authorities and with-
draw from further service on the project.
c. Engineers shall endeavor to extend public knowledge and appreciation of
engineering and its achievements and to protect the engineering profession
from misrepresentation and misunderstanding.
3. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice which is likely to discredit the pro-
fession or deceive the public.
a. Engineers shall avoid the use of statements containing a material misrepre-
sentation of fact or omitting a material fact necessary to keep statements
from being misleading or intended or likely to create an unjustified expec-
tation, or statements containing prediction of future success.
b. Consistent with the foregoing, Engineers may advertise for recruitment of
personnel.
c. Consistent with the foregoing, Engineers may prepare articles for the lay or
technical press, but such articles shall not imply credit to the author for work
performed by others.
4. Engineers shall not disclose confidential information concerning the business
affairs or technical processes of any present of former client or employer with-
out his consent.
a. Engineers in the employ of others shall not without the consent of all inter-
ested parties enter promotional efforts or negotiations for work or make
arrangements for other employment as a principal or to practice in connec-
tion with a specific project for which the Engineer has gained particular and
specialized knowledge.
b. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, participate
in or represent an adversary interest in connection with a specific project or
proceeding in which the Engineer has gained particular specialized knowl-
edge on behalf of a former client or employer.
5. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by conflicting
interests.
a. Engineers shall not accept financial or other considerations, including free
engineering designs, from material or equipment suppliers for specifying
their product.
b. Engineers shall not accept commissions or allowances, directly or indirectly,
from contractors or other parties dealing with clients or employers of the
Engineer in connection with work for which the Engineer is responsible.
6. Engineers shall uphold the principle of appropriate and adequate compensation
for those engaged in engineering work.
a. Engineers shall not accept remuneration from either an employee or employ-
ment agency for giving employment.
b. Engineers, when employing other engineers, shall offer a salary according to
professional qualifications.

622 APPENDIX B NSPE CODE OF ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS
7. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or profes-

sional engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other
improper or questionable methods.
a. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept a professional commission on
a contingent basis under circumstances in which their professional judgment
may be compromised.
b. Engineers in salaried positions shall accept part-time engineering work only
to the extent consistent with policies of the employer and in accordance with
ethical considerations.
c. Engineers shall not use equipment, supplies, laboratory, or office facilities of
an employer to carry on outside private practice without consent.
8. Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indi-
rectly, the professional reputation, prospects, practice or employment of other
engineers, nor untruthfully criticize other engineers work. Engineers who
believe others are guilty of unethical or illegal practice shall present such infor-
mation to the proper authority for action.
a. Engineers in private practice shall not review the work of another engineer
for the same client, except with the knowledge of such engineer, or unless
the connection of such engineer with the work has been terminated.
b. Engineers in governmental, industrial or educational employ are entitled to
review and evaluate the work of other engineers when so required by their
employment duties.
c. Engineers in sales or industrial employ are entitled to make engineering
comparisons of represented products with products of other suppliers.
9. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities;
provided, however, that Engineers may seek indemnification for professional
services arising out of their practice for other than gross negligence, where the
Engineers interests cannot otherwise be protected.
a. Engineers shall conform with state registration laws in the practice of engi-
neering.
b. Engineers shall not use association with a nonengineer, a corporation, or
partnership as a cloak for unethical acts, but must accept personal respon-
sibility for all professional acts.
10. Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is
due, and will recognize the proprietary interests of others.
a. Engineers shall, whenever possible, name the person or persons who may
be individually responsible for designs, inventions, writings, or other
accomplishments.
b. Engineers using designs supplied by a client recognize that the designs
remain the property of the client and may not be duplicated by the
Engineer for others without express permission.
c. Engineers, before undertaking work for others in connection with which
the Engineer may make improvements, plans, designs, inventions, or other
records which may justify copyrights or patents, should enter into a posi-
tive agreement regarding ownership.

d. Engineers designs, data, records, and notes referring exclusively to an

employers work are the employers property.
11. Engineers shall cooperate in extending the effectiveness of the profession by
interchanging information and experience with other engineers and students,
and will endeavor to provide opportunity for the professional development and
advancement of engineers under their supervision.
a. Engineers shall encourage engineering employees efforts to improve their
education.
b. Engineers shall encourage engineering employees to attend and present
papers at professional and technical society meetings.
c. Engineers shall urge engineering employees to become registered at the
earliest possible date.
d. Engineers shall assign a professional engineer duties of a nature to utilize
full training and experience, insofar as possible, and delegate lesser func-
tions to subprofessionals or to technicians.
e. Engineers shall provide a prospective engineering employee with complete
information on working conditions and proposed status of employment,
and after employment will keep employees informed of any changes.
Note: In regard to the question of application of the Code to corporations vis-a-vis real
persons, business form or type should not negate nor influence conformance of individu-
als to the Code. The Code deals with professional services, which services must be per-
formed by real persons. Real persons in turn establish and implement policies within busi-
ness structures. The Code is clearly written to apply to the Engineer and it is incumbent
on a member of NSPE to endeavor to live up to its provisions. This applies to all pertinent
sections of the Code.
Publication date as revised: July 1993.
Publication # 1102

APPENDIX C
z Table
A = 0.3749
0 z = 1.15
Areas under the Standard Normal Curve from 0 to z
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0754
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2258 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2518 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2612 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2996 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4991 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
624

APPENDIX C z TABLE 625
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
3.5 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998
3.6 0.4998 0.4998 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.7 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.8 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
625

APPENDIX D
SUMMARY OF SOME
ENGINEERING MILESTONES
Date Milestone
B.C.
6000 to People built permanent houses, cultivated plants, and domesticated animals. Irrigation systems were constructed; plows
3000 and animal yokes were used. Wind- and water-powered mills were used to grind grain. Copper ores were mined and trans-
formed into copper and bronze tools. Mathematics was used. Information was written on papyrus, parchment, or clay tablets.
ca. 3050 Earliest evidence of stone masonry in Egypt.
ca. 2930 First pyramid constructed (214 ft).
ca. 2900 Great Pyramid at Gizeh begun. At 481 ft, it was the largest stone building ever erected by ancient humans.
ca. 2000 The Egyptians built irrigation dams and canals.
ca. 1600 The first engineers handbook, the Rhind Papyrus, was created.
ca. 1500 The palace of Cnossus in Crete was built. It included the first adequate sanitary drains.
ca. 1100 Military engineering was started under the Assyrian king Tiglathpileser I.
ca. 1000 Phoenicians constructed mines.
King Solomons temple was built in Jerusalem.
691 Assyrian aqueduct of Jerwan was constructed.
ca. 600 The Egyptians built a canal connecting the Nile and Red Sea.
The Etruscans built the first arch bridge.
484 Mining was a major source of Greek taxes.
ca. 450 The Greek Empedocles of Akragas drained swamps to prevent disease.
The Greek Parthenon was constructed.
ca. 300 Appius Claudius constructed the Appian Road in Rome.
Appius Claudius constructed the Aqua Appia water supply in Rome.
Greek lighthouse near Alexandria was constructed. It lasted 16 centuries before falling.
ca. 250 Greeces Archimedes designed military machines and screw pump.
ca. 200 The Great Wall of China was completed.
ca. 150 Greeces Hero designed military machines, derricks, presses, rotary steam turbine, odometer, and the hand-pump fire engine.
142 First stone arch bridge Pons Aemilius was constructed.
140 High-level aqueduct Marcia was constructed.
ca. 15 Romes Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote De Architectura, which was used as a standard engineering reference work until the
Renaissance. The book described land-leveling devices, water supply, time measurement by sundials and water clocks,
hoists, derricks, pulleys, pumps, water organs, military engines of war (e.g., catapults), and ethics.
626

APPENDIX D SUMMARY OF SOME ENGINEERING MILESTONES 627
Date Milestone
A.D.
ca. 45 The Romans constructed a 3.5-mile tunnel to drain rich agricultural lands.
79 The Roman surveyor Frontinius described the Roman 250-mile aqueduct system, which could deliver an estimated 300
million gallons per day to Rome.
80 Roman Colossium was constructed.
ca. 200 Cast iron was used in China.
ca. 300 Romans constructed a water-powered flour mill in Arles, France, to replace scarce slave labor.
ca. 1000 The abacus calculating machine was introduced to Europe from the Orient.
ca. 1100 Construction of medieval stone fortresses began. They were obsolete by ca. 1500 when gunpowder and cannons could
destroy them.
Windmills were introduced to mill grain, pump, and grind paint and snuff.
ca. 1150 Spanish papermaking became an industry based upon imported Chinese technology.
Chimneys first appeared in European buildings.
ca. 1200 Black powder was used in Europe.
Locks for canals were developed in Italy.
ca. 1230 A notebook by Frenchman Wilars de Honecourt described surveying, stone cutting, water-powered saws, and a perpetual
motion machine.
ca. 1300 Construction of great Gothic cathedrals began in Europe.
Spinning wheels were developed to twist fibers to make thread.
Cast iron was used in Europe.
ca. 1400 Water mills were widely available in European villages.
ca. 1450 Germanys Johann Gutenberg published the first book using a combination of previously known techniques.
ca. 1500 First engineering book, Valturius De re militari, was published.
Current-driven water-wheel pumps were used in Paris and London.
Star-shaped earthen fortifications were developed to resist cannon fire.
ca. 1530 First known horse-powered railway was constructed.
1556 Georgius Agricola published De Re Metallica, which described mining methods, ore distribution, pumps, hoists, fans for
mine ventilation, mining law, mine surveying, ore processing, and the manufacture of salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulfur,
bitumen, and glass.
ca. 1600 Edmund Gunter developed the graphicall logarithmic scale, forerunner to the slide rule.
1619 Dud Dudley developed a process to convert coal into coke for cast iron production. Coke replaced charcoal, which was no
longer available because forests were decimated.
1642 Frances 19-year-old Blaise Pascal devised an adding machine consisting of 10 numbered wheels linked by gears.
1671 Germanys 25-year-old Gottfried von Leibnitz improved upon Pascals adding machine.
1672 Engineers organized as a separate unit, Corps du gnie, in the French army.
1698 Britains Thomas Savery developed the first practical steam engine used to pump water from mines.
1705 Britains Thomas Newcomen improved the steam engine used to pump water from mines.
1716 French highway department, the Corps des Ponts et Chausses, was organized.
1733 Fly-shuttle loom invented by John Kay in England.
1740 Sulfuric acid production began in England.
1742 Americas Benjamin Franklin invented the Franklin stove, which used fuel more efficiently than fireplaces.
1752 Benjamin Franklin established the similarity between lightning and static electricity in his famous kite-flying experiment.
1759 John Smeaton completed the Eddystone Lighthouse on the treacherous Eddystone Rocks of the English Channel, 14 miles
from shore.
1763 Cugnot built a steam locomotive in France.
1770 Spinning Jenny was invented by James Hargreaves for making yarn in England.
1775 Frances Nicolas LeBlanc developed a process to convert ordinary salt (sodium chloride) to soda (sodium carbonate) for use
in glass and soap manufacture. This is regarded as an important milestone in the development of the chemical industry.

628 APPENDIX D SUMMARY OF SOME ENGINEERING MILESTONES
Date Milestone
1776 First steam engine by Watt and Boulton was installed as a mine pump in England.
1779 First all-metal, cast-iron bridge was constructed in Coalbrookdale, England.
1783 Frances Montgolfier brothers flew in hot-air balloons.
1784 First large-scale use of steam for industry was located at Albion Mills in England.
1785 Englands Edward Cartwright invented the mechanical loom.
1788 Englands William Symington built the first steam-powered boat.
1792 First American canal, only five miles long, opened in South Hadley, Massachusetts.
1796 Americas Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin for separating cotton from seeds, hulls, etc.
1794 Eli Whitney demonstrated a manufacturing technique based upon interchangeable parts, rather than custom-fitted parts.
ca. 1800 Italys Volta developed the first battery.
1801 Britains Sir Humphry Davy developed the electric arc light.
1812 Englands 20-year-old Charles Babbage conceived of the mechanical Difference Engine, a calculating machine.
1817 Britains Henry Cort developed the puddling process to transform cast iron to wrought iron.
1818 British Institute of Civil Engineers was founded.
ca. 1820 Analytical mechanics and materials testing were first used for bridge building.
1824 Portland cement, made from lime and clay, was patented by Joseph Aspdin in Britain. This cement improved upon lime
mortar known to the ancients, the Greek mixture of lime and Santorin earth, and the Roman mixture of lime and
pozzuolana (volcanic ash).
1825 Erie Canal, 363 miles long, joined the Hudson River and Great Lakes.
1829 Britains George Stephenson built a locomotive called the Rocket, so named because it could travel at a record speed of
35 miles per hour.
ca. 1830 Britains William Sturgeon and Americas Joseph Henry showed that a magnet is produced when electric current passes
through a coiled wire surrounding a metal core.
1831 Britains Michael Faraday showed that an electric current is induced in a wire when it moves through a magnetic field.
1833 First practical internal combustion engine was developed in England.
Englands Charles Babbage designed the Analytical Engine, the first universal digital computer. It was designed to be
programmed using punch cards and could perform logical and arithmetic operations. Unfortunately, it was not built.
1834 Americas Cyrus Hall McCormick patented the reaper for harvesting grain.
1837 Britains William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone communicated by electric telegraph.
1836 Americas Colt invented the revolver.
1838 The first Atlantic crossing was made using steam power exclusively. The trip required 15 to 18 days.
1839 Charles Goodyear vulcanized rubber by heating rubber latex with sulfur.
1840 There were two engineering schools in the United States.
Sir William Groves demonstrated an incandescent light by flowing electricity through a platinum wire, but it soon burned out.
1842 The first underwater tunnel was constructed under the Thames River.
1843 Americas Samuel Morse commercialized the electric telegraph and sent the first message between Washington and
Baltimore.
1845 Guncotton explosive (i.e., cotton treated with nitric and sulfuric acid) was invented. It is more explosive than black powder
made of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal.
1846 Americas Elias Howe patented the sewing machine.
Britains William Thompson invented pneumatic tires.
1847 James Young patented oil refining by distillation.
ca. 1850 One of the first modern sewage systems was built in Hamburg, Germany.
1852 Henri Giffard powered a dirigible with a steam engine.
1856 Britains Henry Bessemer invented a steel-making process that allowed steel to be widely produced and ultimately replaced
cast and wrought iron in many applications.
1859 The first elevator was developed. It used a steam-powered screw to raise passengers as high as six stories. This invention
made skyscrapers possible.
Edwin Drakes 69-ft-deep oil well came into production, establishing the modern U.S. petroleum industry.
1860 Frances Jean-Joseph-tienne Lenoir made the first practical internal combustion engine.
1861 Frances Franois Coignet demonstrated reinforced concrete by embedding metal bars in concrete (Portland cement sand
stone aggregate), thus improving upon a technology first employed by the ancient Greeks.

APPENDIX D SUMMARY OF SOME ENGINEERING MILESTONES 629
Date Milestone
1865 Telegraph cable was laid across the Atlantic Ocean, establishing instant communications between America and Europe.
1866 Swedens Alfred Nobel invented dynamite (a mixture of nitroglycerin and diatomaceous earth), an explosive that is safe to handle.
1868 A compressed-air refrigeration plant was built in Paris.
1869 Suez Canal opened.
1870 There were 70 engineering schools in the United States.
ca. 1870 The electric generator was developed using numerous worldwide improvements.
1872 Americas John Hyatt opened a factory that produced celluloid (guncotton treated with camphor and alcohol), one of the
first plastics.
1873 Americas Brayton demonstrated an engine that evolved into the jet engine.
Germanys Carl von Linde developed the first practical ammonia refrigeration machine.
1876 Americas Alexander Graham Bell exhibited the telephone at the Philadelphia Centennial.
Germanys Nikolaus Otto perfected the four-stroke internal combustion engine.
1877 Americas Thomas Edison invented the phonograph.
1878 First all-steel bridge was constructed in the United States.
1879 First commercial electric railway was constructed in Berlin.
First electric power station was installed in San Francisco to power arc lights.
Thomas Edison invented the lightbulb using a carbonized thread in an evacuated bulb. It lasted almost two days.
1882 Thomas Edison started operating the worlds first electric generator/electric light system (750 kW) in New York City.
Von Schroder developed first blood oxygenator machine.
1883 John Roeblings Brooklyn Bridge was completed in New York.
Swedens Karl Gustaf Patrick de Laval developed the first practical turbine.
1884 The first American skyscraper (10 stories) was erected in Chicago.
Frances Count Hilaire de Chardonnet patented artificial silk made from nitrated cotton, an explosive.
1885 Germanys Karl Benz built a motorized tricycle.
ca. 1885 Americas Frederick Taylor introduced scientific management to improve industrial efficiency.
1886 Americas Charles Hall developed an electrolytic process to produce aluminum.
1887 Germanys Gottlieb Daimler ran the first motor car.
1888 German physicist Heinrich Hertz built an oscillating circuit that transmitted an electromagnetic wave that induced current
in a nearby antenna.
Alexandre Eiffel constructed the Eiffel Tower in Paris.
Nikola Tesla patented a multiphase, alternating current, electric motor.
1891 First automobiles were produced in France and Belgium.
1892 Germanys Rudolph Diesel patented an engine using oil as a fuel, rather than gasoline.
8,000,000 electric lightbulbs were produced.
1894 The turbine-powered (2300-hp) steamship Turbinia was launched.
1895 The first large-scale U.S. water power project was completed near Niagra Falls.
1896 Americas Samuel B. Langley flew a large steam-powered airplane model.
Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi received a patent on wireless radio.
1898 Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin studied rigid, lighter-than-air aircraft.
1900 An electrolytic process was developed to make caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and chlorine gas from salt (sodium
chloride) at Niagra Falls.
American and British engineers met in Paris to decide whether to standardize on alternating current (AC) or direct current
(DC). AC was selected because it can be easily transformed to high voltages for more efficient transmission.
1901 Peter Hewitt developed the mercury-vapor arc lamp, which evolved to the fluorescent tube about 35 years later.
1903 The Wright brothers demonstrated powered flight. In the best flight that year, the plane traveled 852 feet in slightly less
than one minute.
Oil-insulated 60,000-volt transformers were developed for efficient electricity transmission.
1904 New York Subway opened.
1905 Albert Einstein proposed the relativity theory, which concluded that E mc2, i.e., that mass and energy are interchangeable.
1906 The tungsten light filament was introduced, improving lightbulb output 4.7 times and life 27 times.
1907 Americas Lee De Forest created the thermionic vacuum tube, the forerunner to the transistor.
1910 Bakelite plastic became a commercial product. It replaced wood, glass, and rubber in many products.

630 APPENDIX D SUMMARY OF SOME ENGINEERING MILESTONES
Date Milestone
ca. 1910 Germany used the Haber process to fix nitrogen from the air. Although originally used to make explosives for World War I,
this process is now used to make fertilizers.
1913 Henry Ford adapted the moving assembly line to automobile production.
1914 The first ship passed through the Panama Canal.
Robert Goddard began his rocket studies.
1915 X-rays first used for medical imaging.
1920 Spains Juan de Cierva added an unpowered, horizontal propeller to a small-wing airplane to prevent stalling. This was
the precursor to the helicopter.
1922 Commercial radio broadcasting was initiated in the United States.
1923 Highly efficient transmission voltages of 220,000 V were used in the western United States.
1925 Electric-powered home refrigerators that used chlorofluorocarbon (Freon) refrigerants were commercially available.
Vannevar Bush constructed the Differential Analyzer, the first analog computer that mechanically solved sets of differential
equations.
1927 The first experimental television was demonstrated by transmitting images from Washington to Bell Laboratories in New York.
1930 Empire State Building (102 stories) was completed.
1931 George Washington Bridge was completed.
1932 Britains John Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton confirmed Einsteins theory by bombarding lithium with high-energy protons
and measuring the resulting changes in mass and energy.
1934 American chemist Wallace Carothers invented Nylon 66.
Italys Enrico Fermi bombarded uranium with neutrons and apparently created a new heavier element called neptunium.
DeBakey developed the roller pump, which was later used in heart-lung machines.
1936 Frances Eugene Houdry developed catalytic oil cracking.
1937 Golden Gate Bridge was completed.
1938 The first commercial fluorescent tubes were sold by General Electric.
Germanys Otto Hahn and F. Strassman split uranium by bombardment.
1944 Howard Aikens Harvard Mark I electromechanical computer was built by IBM. It performed 200 additions per minute
and worked to 23 significant figures.
1945 The United States detonated the first atomic explosion in Alamogordo, New Mexico. It was the result of the four-year, $2
billion Manhattan Project.
The ENIAC all-electronic computer was completed at the University of Pennsylvania. It used 18,000 vacuum tubes and
6000 switches to perform 5000 additions per second.
1946 Willem Kolff developed the first artificial kidney machine.
1948 The first transistor was demonstrated at Bell Laboratories.
1953 First clinical use of the heart-lung machine.
1954 The United States detonated the first fusion bomb at Bikini Island.
1956 The first full-scale nuclear power plant was completed at Calder Hall, England.
1957 The Soviet Union launched the Sputnik satellite.
1960 Theodore Maiman demonstrated a laser.
Americas Wilson Greatbatch developed the implantable heart pacemaker.
1961 The Soviet Union placed Yuri Gagarin in orbit.
1969 Americas Neil Armstrong walked on the moon.
Denton Cooley implanted an artificial heart in a patient.
1975 First CAT scanner developed for medical imaging.
1981 The first U.S. space shuttle was launched.
IBM introduced its first personal computer.
1982 Compact discs were first used to store music.
1994 The Chunnel was completed linking England with France by tunneling under the English Channel.
1998 The first components of the International Space Station were launched into orbit.
Note: ca. is an abbreviation for circa, meaning about.

INDEX

TOPIC INDEX
A Apostrophe, 178, 179

Abscissa, 203 Archimedes principle, 67, 93, 292
Absolute zero temperature, 286, 337 Area, 606 (conversion factors)
Abstracts, 164 Artisans, 6, 13
Acceleration, 248, 251, 255, 282 Astronaut, 2
average, 248 Atom, 286
average angular, 473 Atomic clock, 336
centripital, 475 Atomic mass, 293, 294 (table)
due to gravity, 275 (table) Atomic number, 286, 294 (table)
instantaneous, 248, 251, 255 Automobile differential, 576
instantaneous angular, 473, 492 Availability, 130, 150, 160
Accrediting Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), 16, 18, Avogadros number, 191, 199, 293, 339, 506, 556, 615
35, 73
Accounting, 409-427 B
angular momentum, 410, 427, 472-492 Balancing chemical equations, 436, 437
charge, 410, 427, 442-454 Battery, 151, 152, 154, 155, 158, 159, 446, 447, 451
energy, 410, 427, 496-537 lead-acid, 151, 152, 155, 158, 159, 446, 447
entropy, 410, 427, 541-573 nickel-cadmium, 151, 152, 155, 158, 159
linear momentum, 410, 427, 459-470 nickel-metal hydride, 151, 152, 155, 157-159
mass, 410, 427, 430-440 primary, 446, 535
money, 410, 427, 577-600 secondary, 446, 535
Accuracy, 192, 194, 198 sodium-sulfur, 151, 152, 155, 158, 159
Active voice, 175 Bell-shaped curve, 237, 239
Adiabatic, 546 Bernoulli equation, 530
Aesthetics, 128, 150, 160 Bionic bat, 126
Air composition, 71, 438 Blackbody, 507
Ampere, 320 Boltzmanns constant, 556
Amplitude, 399 Books, 163
Analog, 10 Bose-Einstein condensate, 289
Analysis, 21, 24, 25, 30, 62, 64, 65, 88, 94, 124, 125 Brainstorming, 132, 133
Analytical Engine, 97 Bureaucratic language, 175
Annuity, 586-591, 600
installment loan, 588-591 C
retirement plan, 591 Caloric theory, 303
sinking fund, 586-588 Capacitance, 512
Anode, 445-449 Capacitor, 451, 454, 511-514
Apollo, 2, 134, 573 Capitalized costs, 593, 594, 600
633

634 TOPIC INDEX
Carnot equation, 307, 311 operating system, 109, 110

Cash flow, 599 parallel processing, 98
Cathode, 445-449 personal computers, 107
Central tendency, 230-232, 239 printers, 108, 122
mean, 231-234, 239 program counter, 105
median, 231-234, 239 programs, 112-121
mode, 231-234, 239 real numbers, 111
Challenger, 50-52 server, 109
Charts, 168 software, 109
Chemical reaction, 435-440 spaghetti code, 112, 113
China, 4, 19 structured programming, 112-114
Citations, 164 repetition structures, 113, 114
Classes, 230 selection structures, 113, 114
Code of ethics, 16, 44, 616-621 sequential structures, 113, 114
Coefficient of friction, 260 switching tree, 104
kinetic, 260 (table) top-down design, 113, 115, 122
static, 260 (table) truth table, 104, 105, 123
Coherent light, 505 virtual storage, 98
Colons, 177 Windows, 110, 111
Commas, 177, 178 Concentration, 317, 323
Communication, 124, 125, 135, 136, 141, 158, 162-187 Concurrent engineering, 127
Commutator, 322, 323 Condenser, 454
Compounding factor, 594-598, 600 Conductor, 320
Compressed air, 151, 155, 158 Conference proceedings, 163
Compressibility factor, 296 Conflict of interest, 45
Computers, 94-123 Conflicts, 39, 40, 57
address, 104 application issues, 40, 57
algorithms, 101, 115-122 conceptual issues, 40, 57
arithmetic, 104-106 factual issues, 40, 57
bit, 99 moral issues, 40, 57
bug, 98 Conservation, 425, 426, 430, 440, 442, 460, 484, 525, 541, 573, 599
byte, 99 Constant of integration, 249, 252
central processing unit (CPU), 103, 104, 107, 122 Conversion factors, 64, 71
clock, 103 Coordinate systems, 246-249, 254, 258, 376
compiler, 98 Correlation coefficient, 221-223
disks, 107, 108, 122 Cost, 130, 137, 144, 146, 150, 151, 160
equations, 111, 112 initial capital, 130
files, 109 life cycle, 130
flip-flop, 102 Coulomb, 320, 615
flowcharts, 112-114, 115-122 Couple, 384-385, 390, 404
hardware, 106 Creativity, 25-33, 73-88
history, 94-98 traits, 29, 30
icons, 110 Critical parameters, 131
integers, 111 Critical point, 292
languages, 106 Critical temperature, 326 (table)
assembly, 106 Cube-Square Law, 30-32
machine, 106 Cubit, 332
operating system, 106 Cumulative frequency, 235, 236, 239
local area network (LAN), 108-110, 122 Cumulative frequency polygon, 235
logic circuits, 105 Current, 320, 333, 336, 337
memory, 107
number systems, 98-101 D
binary, 98, 99 Dangling modifiers, 176
hexadecimal, 98, 100 Dash, 178
octal, 98, 100 Data, 208

TOPIC INDEX 635
empirical, 208 Electroplating, 449

observed, 208 Employment, 13
theoretical, 208, 209 Encyclopedia, 163
Datum, 361, 363, 372 Energy, 148, 297-304, 311, 496-537, 541, 613 (conversion factors)
Delphi Technique, 133 conversion, 531-536
Demilitarization, 6 sequential, 534-536
Density, 71 (table), 287 (table), 311, 395 (table), 609 (conversion disordered, 545
factors) heat, 301-303, 308, 311, 316, 317, 337, 497, 506
Dependent variables, 201-203, 223 blackbody, 507, 508
Depreciation, 598, 599 conduction, 506
Descriptive statistics, 230, 239 internal, 300, 310, 312, 497, 517, 526
Design, 124-161 chemical reaction, 522-524
detailed design,124 phase change, 497, 520-522
feasibility study, 124 sensible, 497, 517-520
preliminary design, 124 kinetic, 299, 300, 360, 497, 508, 509
Difference Engine, 97 macroscopic, 299, 307
Difference equation, 400 metabolic, 536
Differential equation, 398 microscopic, 299, 307
Differentiation, 249-252, 255, 473 ordered, 545
Diffusion, 323, 324 potential, 299, 300, 497, 509-517, 525
Diffusivity, 324 (table) electrical, 497, 511-514
Digital, 10 gravitational, 497, 509, 510
Dimension, 333 magnetic, 497, 514-517
Dimensional analysis, 368-370, 372 spring, 497, 510, 511
Dimensional homogeneity, 354, 355, 371 state, 497, 508-524
Dimensionless groups, 370 (table), 372 work, 302-304, 311, 316, 360, 497
drag coefficient, 63, 153 (table), 154 (table), 261 (table), 370, 371 chemical, 497, 502-505
Fanning friction factor, 370 electrical, 497, 501, 502
Mach number, 370 flow, 526-528
Nusselt number, 370 hydraulic, 497, 499-501
Prandtl number, 370 laser light, 497, 505, 506
Reynolds number, 370, 371 mechanical, 497
Discount, 585 shaft, 497, 498, 499
Discount factor, 594-598, 600 Engineer in Training, 18
Disorder, 541, 555, 556, 573 Engineering, 2-35
Displacement, 247, 253, 282 definition, 2, 73, 160
angular, 472 disciplines, 7-13
Distance, 248, 256, 282 aerospace, 8, 11, 13, 410
Diversity, 6, 7 agricultural, 8, 11, 13, 410
Drag, 22, 152, 260, 261 architectual, 12, 410
Drag coefficient, 63, 153 (table), 154 (table), 261 (table), 371 biochemical, 8, 10
Driving force, 302, 316, 317, 325, 537, 547, 573 biomedical, 8, 12, 410
Dynamics, 375, 376, 397-404 ceramic, 11
chemical, 8, 10, 13, 14, 23, 410
E civil, 7-9, 13, 14, 65, 410
Egypt, 7, 9 computer, 8, 12, 410
Einstein unit, 506 electrical, 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 410
Elastic limit, 394 geological, 11
Electric circuits, 451-454 industrial, 11, 13, 14, 410
Electrical conductivity, 321, 322 (table) marine, 13
Electricity, 320 materials, 8, 11, 14, 410
alternating current (AC), 322 materials science, 11
direct current (DC), 322 mechanical, 8, 10, 13, 14, 410
Electrolysis, 448 metallurgical, 11, 13
Electron, 285, 442, 443 military, 8, 9

636 TOPIC INDEX
Engineering (continued) Excess reactant, 437

mining, 11, 13 Exponential equations, 212, 214, 223
nuclear, 8, 12, 13, 410 Extrapolation, 217, 224
petroleum, 11, 13
plastic, 11
technicians, 12
F
Faradays constant, 446, 615
technologists, 12
Fax, 455
education, 15
Federal reserve, 426, 579, 599
ethics, 36-60
Fibonacci series, 123
functions, 14, 15
Fission, 434
construction, 14
Flow rate, 315, 316, 328
consulting, 14
Fluid, 526
design, 14
Fluid flow, 528-531
development, 14
Flux, 316-324, 328, 393
managing, 14, 15
diffusion, 323, 324, 328
operations, 14
electron, 320-323, 328
production, 14
fluid flow, 318-320, 328
research, 14
heat, 317, 318, 328
sales, 14, 15
momentum, 393
teaching, 14, 15
Flywheel, 151, 152, 488, 489, 491
testing, 14
Force, 257-283, 285, 358, 392, 404, 611 (conversion factors)
method, 20, 21, 124-161
centrifugal, 477, 478
origins, 3
centripital, 476
societies, 19, 20
drag, 22, 152, 260, 261, 282
traits for success, 23-25
electromagnetic, 258, 282, 285, 358
Engineering economics, 577
electrostatic, 258, 259
Engineers, 6
friction, 259, 260, 263, 282
ENIAC, 95, 96
gravity, 251, 258, 272, 275, 282, 285, 358
Enthalpy, 311, 519
magnetic, 258, 259
combustion, 523, 524 (table)
spring force, 261, 262, 282
fusion, 521, 522 (table)
strong force, 258, 282, 285, 358
sublimation, 521
weak force, 258, 282, 285, 358
vaporization, 521, 522 (table)
Free body connection, 386
Entropy, 309, 541, 552-573
Free body diagram, 377
chemical reaction, 561, 562
Frequency, 235, 239, 474
compression, 557, 558
Frequency polygon, 235, 239
condensation, 561
Fuel cell, 445, 446, 451
constant-pressure temp. change, 565-567
Fusion, 434, 435, 450, 451
constant-volume temp. change, 563-565
expansion, 553, 554
freezing, 559, 560 G
melting, 558, 559 gc, 358, 359 (table), 372
mixing, 562, 563 Game theory, 45, 46
vaporization, 561 Gas, 289, 290
Entry table, 230, 231, 234 ideal, 295, 296, 338, 555
Equations, 182 perfect, 295, 296, 338, 555
Equilibrium condition, 292, 293 real, 296
Eratosthenes sieve, 120, 121 Gas Laws, 295-297, 311
Error, 193, 195, 198 Boyles, 295
Error analysis, 191-194 Charles, 295
Estimating, 70-73 Guy-Lussacs, 296
Ethics, 36-58 ideal gas, 296, 297, 311, 367, 368, 413, 550
Euler number, 583 mole-proportionality, 296
Evaluation matrix, 135, 141, 144, 146, 160 perfect gas, 296, 297, 311, 338, 367, 368, 413, 550
EV1, 126 real gas, 296, 297, 311

TOPIC INDEX 637
Geosynchronous satellite, 493 Interest, 579, 600

Global economy, 5 compounded, 581-584, 600
Golden Rule, 43 simple, 580, 581, 600
Golf ball, 371 Interest period, 579, 581
Gossamer Albatross, 126 Interest rate, 580
Government reports, 163 International Space Station, 142, 143
Grade, 153, 157, 202, 540 Internet, 111, 164
Gramme machine, 322 Interpolation, 217-219, 224
Graphs, 168, 203-223 Inventors Paradox, 81, 82
log-log graph, 210, 212, 223 Inventory, 599
rectilinear, 210-212, 214, 223 Isotherm, 549
semilog, 214, 223 Italics, 182, 184
Great Wall of China, 19 Iterative, 63, 94, 124, 160
Greece, 291
Greenhouse gases, 4
K
Kansas City Hyatt, 55-57
H Keplers laws, 271
Half life, 225 first, 271
Heat capacity, 308, 312, 518, 519, 520 (table) second, 271
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, 288 third, 271
Heros odometer, 94, 95 Kirchoffs current law, 453
Histogram, 235, 239 KISS, 27, 29, 167
Hooks law, 261, 275
Hubble telescope, 194
Human factors, 130, 150, 160 L
Hydraulic lift, 412 Laminar, 318, 320
Hyperbola, 212, 213 Laser, 339, 497, 505
Hyphens, 176, 177 Law of Diminishing Returns, 32, 33
Hypothesis, 20 Lazy Susan, 494
Length, 333, 335, 605 (conversion factors)
Leyden jar, 454, 455
I Limiting reactant, 437
Impact, 126 Limits, 394
Incoherent light, 507 elastic, 394
Independent variables, 201-203, 223 proportional, 394
Inductance, 515 Linear equations, 209, 210, 215, 216, 223
Inductor, 514, 515 Linear regression, 219-224
Industrial Revolution, 10 least-squares linear regression, 220-224
Inertia, 262, 263, 265 method of selected points, 219, 220, 224
Inertial reference frame, 257 Locomotive, 257, 461, 462
Inflation, 579, 598 Logarithmic scale, 207
Informal language, 176 Logistics, 129, 130, 150, 160
Information, 557 Luminous intensity, 333, 339
Initial condition, 398
Insulator, 451
Integer, 111, 191, 192, 198 M
Integrals, 249-252, 255, 473 Macroeconomics, 578
definite, 251 Magnetic separator, 277
indefinite, 249, 253 Maintainability, 130, 150, 160
multiple, 482, 483 Maintenance, 130
Interaction rules, 36-39, 57 corrective, 130
ethics, 39, 57 preventative, 130
etiquette, 36, 37, 57 Manometer, 362, 363
law, 37, 38, 57 Manufacturability, 128
morals, 38, 57 Mark I, 96, 98

638 TOPIC INDEX
Mass, 258, 265, 333, 335, 358, 608-609 (conversion factors) O

Mass fraction, 348 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC), 314
Mass moment of inertia, 481, 484, 485 (table) Ohm, 325
Maximum, 231, 233, 239 Oral presentations, 166-171
Mechanical advantage, 389 Orbit, 472
Microeconomics, 578 Ordinate, 203
Minimum, 231, 233, 239 Organizational strategies, 165
Missouri City television antenna collapse, 53-55 chronological, 165
Models, 21-22 debate, 165
analog computer, 22 general-to-specific, 165
digital computer, 22 motivational, 165
mathematical, 21 problem-to-solution, 165
physical, 22 spatial, 165
qualitative, 21 Optimum, 127
Modulus of elasticity, 394, 395 (table) global, 127
Mole, 293, 333, 338, 437, 615 local, 127
Molecular mass, 293 Osmotic pressure, 502, 503
Molecule, 286
Moment, 375, 383, 392, 404 P
Momentum, 262, 265, 282, 459 Paper clip, 136-142
angular, 472, 481 Parabola, 210, 211
Moral decisions, 44 Parallel constrution, 174
convergence, 44 Parentheses, 178
divergence, 44 Particles, 375, 376, 480
Moral theories, 41-44, 58 Patents, 163, 164
ethical egoism, 41, 45, 52, 58 Pavlov, 46, 60
rights analysis, 43, 44, 52, 58 Pendulum, 21, 22, 368, 455
utilitarianism, 41-43, 52, 58 Percentile, 235, 236
Motion, 246-257 Perihelion, 278
multi-dimensional, 253-257 Period, 21, 368, 399, 474
one-dimensional, 248-253 Permeability, 259
planetary, 270, 271, 278-281 Permittivity, 259
relative, 257 Perpetuity, 591-593, 600
Phase diagram, 289, 290, 292, 337
N Phlogiston, 431
Napiers bones, 94 Photon, 505
National Council for Examiners for Engineering and Surveying Pixel, 557
(NCEES), 18 Placebo, 228
Natural convection, 331 Plane angle, 603 (conversion factors)
Natural state, 262, 459 Planetary motion, 270, 271, 278-281
Neutron, 285, 442 Poiseuille equation, 318
Newtons Laws, 148, 246-283, 459 Pompous language, 176
first, 262, 263, 282, 404, 459, 470 Population, 230
second, 264-269, 282, 356, 397, 400, 404, 459, 465, 467, 470, 476, Position, 246, 247, 256, 282
508 Positron, 435, 443
third, 269, 270, 282, 459, 470, 477, 488, 489 Power, 499, 614 (conversion factors)
NIST-7, 336 Power equations, 210-212, 223
Nominal Group Technique, 133 Precision, 192, 194, 198
Normal distribution, 327, 329 Present worth, 584, 585
Nucleus, 286 Pressure, 286, 291, 311, 317, 361-363, 372, 612 (conversion factors)
Number notation, 190, 191 absolute, 286, 291, 362, 363, 372
European Decimal, 190 differential, 291, 362, 363, 372
Scientific, 191 gage, 291, 362, 363, 372
U.S. Standard Decimal, 190 gas, 361
Number of interest periods, 580 hydrostatic, 291, 361, 362
Numbers, 182, 183, 190-198 vacuum, 362, 363

TOPIC INDEX 639
Principal, 579, 599 Range, 230, 231, 233, 239

Prisoners Dilemma, 45, 59 Rate, 315, 328, 463, 470
Problem solving, 61-89 Rate processes, 315-328
approaches, 62, 63 Raw data, 230
analysis, 62 Real numbers, 111, 191, 192, 197, 198
application, 62 Reductionism, 63
comprehension, 62 Redundancy, 130
problem identification, 62 Reference frame, 257, 282
synthesis, 62 Refractive index, 348
creative, 73-88 Relative cumulative frequency, 235, 236, 238, 239
aha! experiences, 74-75 Relative frequency, 235, 237
creative leaps, 74 Reliability, 130, 144, 147, 150, 160
sideways thinking, 75 Residual, 220
error-free, 65-69, 89 Resistance, 325-328
heuristics, 78-88 parallel, 326, 327
analogies, 78, 79 series, 325, 326
argue by contradiction, 87, 88 Resistor, 224, 241, 453, 454
auxiliary elements, 80, 81 Resource allocation, 47-49
decomposing and recombining, 84 Resources, 4, 5
generalize, 81, 82 Reversibility, 304, 305, 311, 541-552
specializing, 82-84 Rights, 38
taking problem as solved, 85, 86 legal, 38
working forward/backward, 86, 87 moral, 38
process, 28 Rigid body, 375, 376, 381, 482
skills, 63-65 Risk, 47-49
strategy, 64, 77, 78 Robotic hand, 142
types, 61, 62 Rolling resistance, 153 (table)
design, 62 Roman, 17
knowledge, 61 Rood, 352
mathematics, 61 Rotate, 472
research, 61 Rounding, 196
resource, 62 Rounding error, 197
social, 62
troubleshooting, 61 S
Professional, 13, 15, 16, 18, 36 Safety, 129, 150, 160
Projected frontal area, 153 Safety factor, 151, 378, 380, 394, 396 (table)
Properties of matter, 417, 418 Salary, 16, 20
Proton, 285, 442 Sampling, 230
Pterodactyl, 126 Scalars, 249, 255, 261, 262, 459, 496
Punctuation, 176-179 Schematics, 168
Scientific method, 20
Q Scientific notation, 190, 191
Quality, 5, 130 Scientists, 6, 13
Quantities, 413-418, 425-426 Semicolon, 178
conserved, 425, 426 Sentence fragments, 174
extensive, 413, 417, 419 Sequential engineering, 127
intensive, 413, 417, 419 Serviceability, 130, 150, 160
path, 414-417, 419, 497 Sexist language, 176
state, 414-419, 459, 497, 508 SI System, 332-349
Quincunx, 237 base units, 333, 335-339, 349
Quotation marks, 179 customary units, 343, 344
derived units, 339-341, 349
R history, 332, 333
Radian, 334, 349 multipliers, 206
Radiometer, 339 named units, 340 (table)
Random error, 192, 198 prefixes, 341-343

640 TOPIC INDEX
SI System (continued) Systems, 410-413, 418-427, 465, 542

rules, 344-348 closed, 418-420, 525, 567-571
supplementary units, 334, 349 heterogeneous, 420, 421
Significant figures, 194-198 homogeneous, 420, 421
Slide rule, 95 isolated, 420, 571, 573
Solid angle, 604 (conversion factors), 605 nonisolated, 420
Sorting, 230, 231, 233, 239 open, 418-420, 525, 571, 572
Space shuttle, 50-52, 142, 143, 247 steady state, 421, 425
Space-time coordinates, 411, 416 unsteady state, 421
Specific quantities, 267, 413, 414, 571 Synthesis, 24, 25, 62, 64, 65, 88, 124, 125
enthalpy, 414, 416, 418, 571
entropy, 554, 571 T
force, 267 Tables, 168, 184, 201-203, 223
internal energy, 414, 416, 418, 571 Taxes, 599
volume, 267, 413, 414, 418, 571 Teamwork, 6
Speech anxiety, 170, 171 Technical journals, 163
Speech style, 171 Technician, 6
Speed, 248, 256, 282, 610 (conversion factors) Technologist, 6
average angular, 472 Technology team, 6
instantaneous angular, 473, 474 Television, 133, 134
Split infinitives, 176 Temperature, 286, 301, 311, 317, 333, 337, 363-367, 372
Spring, 151, 222, 261, 262, 397, 477, 511 absolute, 286, 337, 365, 372
Standard normal distribution, 237, 240 Celsius, 288, 338, 343, 364, 365, 372
Standard state, 312 Fahrenheit, 288, 364, 365, 372
States of matter, 289, 290, 311 interval, 363, 365, 366
gas, 289, 290, 310, 311 Kelvin, 288, 337, 365, 372
liquid, 289, 290, 310, 311 Rankine, 288, 365, 372
plasma, 289, 290, 311 scale, 288, 339 (table), 363-367
solid, 289, 290, 310, 311 Thermal conductivity, 317, 318 (table), 506
vapor, 289, 290, 311 Thermodynamic laws, 306, 307, 311
Statics, 375-396, 404 first, 306, 311, 541
Statistical inference, 230, 239 second, 306, 307, 311
Statistical quality control, 229 Thermodynamics, 285-312, 328
Statistics, 228-240 Thermometer, 288, 338
Steam engine, 285, 309, 310, 461, 462, 552 Thermoscope, 288
Steam tables, 219, 227 Thinkers, 26, 29
Steradian, 335, 339, 349 creative, 26, 27
Stoichiometric, 437 disorganized, 26, 27
Strain, 393 organized, 26, 27
Strain, 329, 330 Thought experiment, 262, 263, 299, 300
Strength of materials, 391-396 Tick marks, 205
ultimate, 394, 395 (table) Time, 333, 336, 610 (conversion factors)
yield, 394, 395 (table) Tit-for-tat, 46, 60
Stress, 392-394 Torque, 375, 382, 384, 484, 486, 488, 498
allowable, 394 Transcendental functions, 353, 354, 371
compression, 392, 404 Trebuchet, 4, 304
shear, 392, 393, 404 Triple point, 289, 290, 311, 337
tension, 392, 404 Turbulent, 318, 371
Sunnyracer, 126
Superconductor, 289, 321, 326, 573 U
Supercritical fluid, 292 Ultracapacitor, 151, 152
Superfluid, 289, 319, 573 Uncertainty, 193, 198
Surroundings, 411, 542 Unit conversions, 64, 351-372
Sustainable development, 4 rules, 353-355, 371
Systematic error, 192-194, 198 Unit of exchange, 298, 311, 496, 537, 541

TOPIC INDEX 641
Unit operations, 10 Vectors, 246-282, 376-398, 459

Units, 332-372 components, 249, 250, 254, 258, 376
absolute, 355, 356, 372 magnitude, 248, 254-256
coherent, 358, 372 multidimensional, 253, 254
gravitational, 355, 356, 372 resultant, 249
noncoherent, 358, 372 unit, 249, 376
UNIVAC, 96, 98 Velocity, 246, 248, 253, 282, 610 (conversion factors)
Universal accounting equation, 421-427, 430, 442, 484, 496, 525, 567, average, 248
578 instantaneous, 248
accumulation, 423 magnitude, 474
consumption, 422, 424 Venturi, 530, 531
final amount, 422 Viscosity, 318, 319 (table)
generation, 422, 424, 569 Visual aids, 167-170
initial amount, 422 Voltage, 317, 321
input, 422, 424, 569 Volume, 606, 607 (conversion factors)
net generation, 423 Voyager I, 228
net input, 423
output, 422, 424 W
Universal gas constant, 296, 556 Weight, 358
Universe, 411, 420 Weir, 373, 374
Whistle blowing, 45
V Word charts, 167, 168
Valence electrons, 286 Word demons, 179-182
Van der Waals equation, 296, 297 Work equivalent to heat, 307, 308, 360
Vapor pressure, 215, 216 Writing, 172-185
Variation, 230, 232, 233, 239
deviation, 232, 239 Z
mean absolute deviation, 232-234, 239 Z-table, 622
standard deviation, 233, 234, 238-240 Zero emission vehicle, 148-160
variance, 233-235, 239

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX
A Bush, Vannevar, 627

Adamian, 133 Byron, 97
Agricola, Georgius, 624
Aiken, Howard, 96, 627 C
al-Khowrizm, Ms, 101 Cage, John, 25
Amontons, Guillaume, 288 Carnot, Nicolas, 304, 309
Archimedes, 67, 291, 623 Carothers, Wallace, 627
Aristarchus, 270 Cartwright, Edward, 625
Aristotle, 270, 271 Caselli, Abb, 455
Armstrong, Neil, 627 Celsius, Anders, 288, 364
Aspdin, Joseph, 625 Charles, Jacques, 288
Atanasoff, John, 95 Claudius, Appius, 623
Augusta, Ada, 97 Clausius, Rudolf, 309
Axelrod, Robert, 46 Cockcroft, John, 627
Coignet, Franois, 625
B Colt, 625
Babbage, Charles, 95, 97, 625 Cooke, William, 625
Bacon, Francis, 303 Cooley, Denton, 627
Bain, Alexander, 455 Copernicus, Nicolas, 271
Bakus, John, 96 Coriolis, Gustave, 304
Becher, Johann Joachim, 431 Cornell, Eric, 289
Bell, Alexander Graham, 626 Cort, Henry, 625
Benz, Karl, 626 Crick, Francis Harry Compton, 75
Berry, Clifford, 95 Cugnot, 624
Bessemer, Henry, 625 cummings, e. e., 25
Boisjoly, Roger, 51
Boltzmann, 557 D
Bonaparte, Napolean, 334 da Vinci, Leonardo, 390
Borda, Jean Charles, 334 Daimler, Gottlieb, 626
Bose, Satyendra, 289 Davy, Humphry, 303, 625
Boulton, Matthew, 310, 625 de Bakey, 627
Boyle, Robert, 303 de Chardonnet, Hilaire, 626
Brahe, Tycho, 271 de Cierva, Juan, 627
Brayton, 626 De Forest, Lee, 626
Buridan, Jean, 270 de Honecourt, Wilars, 624
643

644 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX
de Laval, Karl Gustaf Patrick, 626 Hopper, Grace Murray, 98

De Morgan, Augustus, 97 Houdry, Eugene, 627
Di, Qin Shi Huang, 19 Howe, Elias, 625
Diesel, Rudolph, 626 Hyatt, John, 626
Disney, Walt, 134
Drake, Edwin, 625 I
Dudley, Dud, 624 Imhotep, 9
Duncan, Daniel M., 55
J
E Jobs, Steve, 98
Eckert, J. Presper, 96 Jordanus of Nemore, 304
Edison, Thomas Alva, 29, 323, 455, 456, 626 Joule, James, 307, 308
Eiffel, Alexandre, 626
Einstein, Albert, 25, 289, 433, 434, 496, 626 K
Empedocles of Akragas, 623 Kay, John, 624
Eratosthenes, 120 Kelvin (William Thompson), 288, 308, 309, 365
Euclid, 101 Kemmler, William, 323
Kennedy, John F., 2
F Kepler, Johann, 271
Fahrenheit, Gabriel D., 288, 364 Koebel, 352
Faraday, Michael, 625 Kolff, Willem, 627
Fermi, Enrico, 627 Korn, Arthur, 456
Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa), 123 Kremer, Henry, 126
Ford, Henry, 627
Frankenstein, 133 L
Franklin, Benjamin, 453, 454, 455, 624 Landon, 230
Frontinius, 624 Langley, Samuel B., 626
Lavoisier, Antoine, 303, 431
G LeBlanc, Nicolas, 624
Gagarin, Yuri, 627 Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 95, 624
Galilei, Galileo, 262, 264, 265, 271, 288 Lenoir, Jean-Joseph-tiene, 625
Gates, Bill, 235 Lloyd, Sam, 74
Giffard, Henri, 625 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 90
Gillum, Jack D., 55 Louis XVI, 334
Goddard, Robert, 627 Lovelace, Augusta Ada, 97
Goldmark, Peter, 133 Lun, Cai, 19
Goodyear, Charles, 625 Luther, Martin, 271
Greatbatch, Wilson, 627
Groves, William, 625 M
Gunter, Edmund, 624 MacAuliffe, Christie, 51
Gutenberg, Johann, 624 MacCready, Paul, 126
Maiman, Theodore, 627
H Marconi, Guglielmo, 626
Haber, Fritz, 627 Mauchly, John W., 96
Hahn, Otto, 627 Maxwell, James, 303
Hall, Charles, 626 Mayer, Julius, 308
Hargreaves, James, 624 McCormick, Cyrus Hall, 11, 625
Helmholtz, Hermann, 308 Menabrea, Luigi Federico, 97
Henry, Joseph, 625 Milbanke, Annabella, 97
Hero, 94, 309, 623 Montgolfier, 625
Hertz, Heinrich, 626 Morse, Samuel, 625
Hewitt, Peter, 626
Hipparchus, 270 N
Hollerith, Herman, 95 Napier, John, 94
Hooke, Robert, 303 Napolean, 334

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 645
Newcomen, Thomas, 309, 624 T

Newton, Isaac, 95, 246, 262, 271, 288, 344, 390, 459 Taylor, Frederick, 626
Nipkow, Paul, 133 Tertullian, 3
Nobel, Alfred, 626 Tesla, Nikola, 322, 323, 626
Nowak, Martin, 46 Thompson, Arnold, 51
Thompson, William, 625
O Thomson, J. J., 455
Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh, 326 Turing, Alan, 101
Otto, Nikolaus, 626
Oughtred, William, 94 V
Valturius, 624
P van Musschenbroek, Pieter, 454
Papin, Denys, 309 Volta, 625
Pascal, Blaise, 95, 624 von Guericke, Otto, 454
Plato, 291 von Jaworski, 133
Pollio, Marcus Vitruvius, 623 von Linde, Carl, 626
Polumordivinov, 133 von Neumann, John, 96
Polya, George, 77 von Schroder, 626
Powers, James, 95 von Zeppelin, Ferdinand, 626
Ptolemy, Claudius, 270
W
R Walton, E. T. S., 627
Rankine, J. K., 365 Watson, James Dewey, 75
Roebling, John, 626 Watt, James, 309, 625
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 230 Wellington, A. M., 2
Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), 303 Westinghouse, George, 323
Russell, Alexander Wilson, 98 Wheatstone, Charles, 625
Whitney, Eli, 625
S Wieman, Carl, 289
Sarnoff, David, 134 Wozniak, Steve, 98
Savery, Thomas, 309, 624 Wright, Orville, 626
Sigmund, Karl, 46 Wright, Wilbur, 626
Smeaton, John, 9, 624
Stephenson, George, 625 Y
Stevinus, Simon, 264 Young, James, 625
Strassman, F., 627
Sturgeon, William, 625 Z
Symington, William, 625 Zoser, 9

PHOTO CREDITS
Cover Sylvain Grandadam/Tony Stone Images Egyptian pyramids
3 NASA/NASA Media Services
9 Richard Passmore/Tony Stone Images
17 Oliver Benn/Tony Stone Images
19 Suzanne Murphy/Tony Stone Images
29 The Granger Collection Rube Goldberg cartoons
54 Photos by Lee Lowery, Jr. Texas A&M University/Lee Lowry
57 Photos by Lee Lowery, Jr. Texas A&M University/Lee Lowry
94 North Wind Picture Archives
95 Irving Newman/Archive Photos
95 Reuters/Photographer Unknown/Archive Photos
96 Earl Scott/Photo Researchers, Inc.
97 The Granger Collection
126a Courtesy of Paul MacCready/Mark Holtzapple
126b Martyn Cowley/Courtesy of Paul MacCready/Mark Holtzapple
126c Martyn Cowley/Courtesy of Paul MacCready/Mark Holtzapple
126d Courtesy of Paul MacCready/Mark Holtzapple
126e Courtesy of Paul MacCready/Mark Holtzapple
246 Archive Photos
247 World Perspectives/Tony Stone Images
264 Archive Photos
271 Archive Photos
271 The Granger Collection
291 George Grigoriou/Tony Stone Images
301 Jean Wulfson/Mark Holtzapple c/o Dept of Chemical Engineering
308 Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.
309a Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.
309b Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.
309c Archive Photos
327 Takeshi Takahara/Photo Researchers, Inc.
336 Laboratories/U.S. Department of Commerce
382 John Sohlden/Visuals Unlimited
390 Archive Photos
392 P Crowther/S Carter/Tony Stone Images
455 Archive Photos
456 Courtesy Popular Science/Los Angeles Times Syndicate
478 Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit
490 Doug Densinger/AllSport
647

Charles Stark Draper Prize
The Charles Stark Draper Prize is awarded biannually by the National Academy of Engineering to
recognize outstanding engineering achievements that contribute to human welfare and freedom. It is
the most prestigious award offered to engineers; some people consider it to be the Nobel Prize of
engineering.
Year Recipient(s) Achievement

1997 Vladimir Haensel Platforming technology used in oil refining
1995 John R. Pierce Communication satellite technology
Harold A. Rosen
1993 John Backus Development of Fortran computer language
1991 Sir Frank Whittle Turbojet engine
Hans von Ohain
1989 Jack S. Kilby Monolithic integrated circuit
Robert N. Noyce
Charles Stark Draper is the father of intertial guidance.

Fundamental Physical Constants
Quantity Symbol Value Uncertainty
(ppm)
speed of light in vacuum c 2.99792458 108 m/s exact
permeability of vacuum m0 4p 107 N/A2 exact
permittivity of vacuum e0 (m0 c2)1 8.854187817 1012 C2/(Nm2) exact
gravitational constant G 6.67259 1011 Nm2/kg2 128
Planck constant h 6.6260755 1034 Js 0.60
Avogadro constant NA 6.0221367 1023 mol1 0.59
Faraday constant F 96,485.309 C/mol 0.30
universal gas constant R 8.314510 J/(molK) 8.4
Boltzmann constant kB R/NA 1.380658 1023 J/K 8.5
Stefan-Boltzmann constant s 5.67051 108 W/(m2K4) 34
standard gravity acceleration g0 9.80665 m/s2 exact
standard atmosphere atm 101,325 Pa exact
Source: CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Physical Constants, The 1986 Adjustment of the
Fundamental Physical Constants, CODATA Bulletin Number 63, Pergamon Press, November
1986.

End

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APPENDIXES

A.1 PLANE ANGLE

1 degree 1 60 3600 p/180 1/360

A.2 SOLID ANGLE

Square Degree Square Minute Square Second Steradian Sphere

1 square degree 1 (60)2 (3600)2 (p/180)2 (p/4)(180)2

1 sphere 2 hemisphere 1 sphere 8 spherical right angles

1 centimeter 1 0.01 1.0000 E05 0.3937 0.03281 6.214 E06

m2 cm2 ft2 in2

1 square meter 1 1.000 E04 10.76 1550

m3 cm3 L ft3 in3

1 cubic meter 1 1.000 E06 1000 35.31 6.102 E04

1 acre-foot [d] 43,560 ft3 1 stere (st) [a] 1 m3 1 l 1 mL [b]

[a] The stere is no longer recommended.

United Kingdom (liquids and solids) United States (liquid)

2 dry pints 1 dry quart (qt) 1.1012 E03 m3

*Not to be confused with a U.S. petroleum barrel.

1 gram-mass 1 0.001 0.002205 6.852 E05

1 grain [b] 6.479891 E05 kg 1 glug 980.665 g 0.980665 kg

Avoirdupois Weights Apothecaries Weights [b] Troy Weights [c]

1 pound (lb avdp) [a] 1 pound (lb ap) 1 pound (lb t)

g/cm3 kg/m3 lbm/ft3 lbm/in3 slug/ft3

1 gram per cubic centimeter 1 1000 62.43 0.03613 1.940

1 year [a] 1 365.24 8.766 E03 5.259 E05 3.1557 E07

m/s cm/s ft/s km/h mi/h (mph) knot

1 meter per second 1 100 3.281 3.6 2.237 1.944

N dyne pdl kgf gf lbf

1 newton 1 1.00 E05 7.233 0.1020 102.0 0.2248

Pa dyne/cm2 lbf/ft2 lbf/in2 (psi) atm cm-Hg in-H2O

1 kgf/m2 9.806650 Pa 1 kip/in2 (ksi) 1000 lbf/in2

J erg ftlbf cal Btu kWh hph

W kW ftlbf/s hp cal/s Btu/h

1 watt [a] 1 0.001 0.7376 0.001341 0.2390 3.414

[a] A watt is a J/s.

A.14 AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE

NA 6.0221367  10 23 atoms>mol (A-7)

NC 6.24150636  10 18 electrons>C (A-8)

6.022  10 23 atoms 1000 mol atoms

6.022  10 23 atoms 453.6 mol atoms

6.022  10 23 atoms 453.6 mol 2000 lbmol atoms

c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable consideration

7. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or profes-

d. Engineers designs, data, records, and notes referring exclusively to an

Areas under the Standard Normal Curve from 0 to z

Note: ca. is an abbreviation for circa, meaning about.

A Apostrophe, 178, 179

Carnot equation, 307, 311 operating system, 109, 110

empirical, 208 Electroplating, 449

Engineering (continued) Excess reactant, 437

Geosynchronous satellite, 493 Interest, 579, 600

Mass, 258, 265, 333, 335, 358, 608-609 (conversion factors) O

Principal, 579, 599 Range, 230, 231, 233, 239

SI System (continued) Systems, 410-413, 418-427, 465, 542

Unit operations, 10 Vectors, 246-282, 376-398, 459

A Bush, Vannevar, 627

de Laval, Karl Gustaf Patrick, 626 Hopper, Grace Murray, 98

Newcomen, Thomas, 309, 624 T

Year Recipient(s) Achievement

Charles Stark Draper is the father of intertial guidance.

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NA 6.0221367 10 23 atoms>mol (A-7)

NC 6.24150636 10 18 electrons>C (A-8)

6.022 10 23 atoms 1000 mol atoms

6.022 10 23 atoms 453.6 mol atoms

6.022 10 23 atoms 453.6 mol 2000 lbmol atoms