BCM NOTES

UNIT ONE
BUILDING:

A building can be defined as a structure broadly consisting of walls, floors & roofs
erected to provide covered space for different uses such as residence, education,
business, manufacturing, storage, hospitalization, entertainment, etc.

The method adopted for construction and choice of material to be used in the
building depends on a number of factor like:

1. Character of occupancy
2. Location of site
3. Climate
4. Load material
5. Funds available

Generally according to the mans activity he requires different types of building :

1. Houses, bungalows & flats-for living

2. Hospitals, health centres-for health
3. School, colleges, university-for education
4. Banks, shops, offices-for work
5. Railway, bus stations-for transport
6. Clubs, theatres-recreation

TYPES OF BUILDING:

National building code of India(SP:7-2005)

According to National building code of India buildings are classified based on

occupancy as follows:

Group 1: Residential building

Eg: houses, private dwellings, apartment houses(flats), hotels

Group 2: Educational building

Eg:school, college or day care purpose involving assembly for instruction,

education or recreation

Group 3: Institutional building

It ordinarily provides sleeping accommodation for the occupants.

Subdivided:

1) Hospitals and sanitary

2) Custodial institutions-used for custody &core of person. Eg. Orphanage
3) Penal institutions-eg. Jails, prison, reformities

Group 4: Assembly building

Where group of people gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious,

patriotic, civil, travel or similar purpose.

Eg. Theatre, place of worship, stations, museums, gymnasium, restaurant, club

rooms.

Group 5: Business building

Used for transaction of business. Principal function is transaction of public

business & keeping of books & records also. Eg. Town halls, city halls, courts,
libraries.

Group 6: Mercantile building

Shops, stores, for display & sale of merchandise either wholesale or retail.

Group 7: Industrial building

Refineries, gas plants, industries, etc.

Group 8: Storage building

For the storage or sheltering of goods, merchandise.

 Eg. Warehouses, cold storage, garage.

Group 9: Hazardous building

Manufacture and storage, ammunition, explosive & fireworks, storage of highly

flammable liquids.

COMPONENTS OF BUILDING:

Building has 2 basic parts:

1. Sub structure or foundation

2. Superstructure

Substructure or foundation is the lower portion of building, usually located

below ground level which transmits the load of superstructure to supporting
soil.

Superstructure is that portion above the ground level & which serves the
purpose of its intended use.

A part of super structure located between ground level & the floor level is
known as plinth.

1) Foundations
2) Plinth
3) Walls
4) Columns
5) Floors
6) Doors, windows & ventilator
7) Stairs
8) Roof
9) Building finisher
10) Building servicer

The depth of footing should be such that the rate of angle of spread of the load
from the wall base to the outer edge of ground bearing does not exceed the
permissible value.
LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE FRAME STRUCTURE
1.The load is transferred through walls 1.The load is transferred through
to the foundation. columns and beams to the foundation.

2.Thickness of wall is large. 2.Thickness of wall is very small.

3.Load bearing structures can be used 3.Frame structure can be used to make
for building upto 2 floors. multistoreyed buildings.

4.Cost of construction of this structure 4.Cost is less as compared to load

is much more. bearing structure.

5.In load bearing structure,there is very 5.In frame structure,there is complete

little freedom in planning. freedom in planning.

6.Large open space cannot be provided. 6.Large open space can be provided.

7.Speed of construction is very slow 7.Speed of construction is very fast

because the excavation is to be carried because the construction of upper
out over the entire length of wall. floors and finishing of lower floors can
be carried out simultaneously.

FOUNDATION:
Foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below
the ground level, which transmits the loads of the super-structure to
the supporting soil.A foundation is that part of the structure which is in
direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.Since
it remains below ground level, the signs of failure of foundation are not
noticeable till it has already affected the building.
 FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION:
1. Reduction of load intensity: Foundations distribute the loads of the
super structure to a larger area so that the intensity of the load at its
base does not exceed safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil. In deep
foundations, it transmits the super-imposed loads to the sub-soil both
through side friction as well as through end bearing.

2. Even distribution of load: Foundations distribute the non-uniform

load of the super-structure evenly to the sub-soil and thus minimize
unequal and differential settlements.

3. Provision of level surface: Foundations provide leveled and hard

surface over which the super-structure can be built safely.

4. Lateral stability: It anchors the super-structure to the ground, thus

imparting lateral stability to the super-structure. The stability of the
building, against sliding and overturning, due to horizontal forces such
as wind, earthquake etc. is increased due to foundations.

5. Safety against undermining: It provides the structural safety against

undermining and scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water.

6.Protection against soil movement: Special foundation measures

prevents or minimizes the distress or cracks in the super-structure, due
to expansion or contraction of the sub-soil because of moisture
movement in some problematic soils.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:
1.Shallow foundation 2.Deep foundation
 According to Terzaghi, foundation is shallow if the depth is equal to
or less than its width and it is deep if the depth(d) is greater than its
width(b) (Consider d>>b).

Shallow foundations are further classified into following types:

1.Spread footing 2.Combined footing

3.Eccentrically loading or Strap footing
4.Mat foundation or Raft footing
5.Grillage foundation
6.Inverted arch foundation.

Deep foundations are further classified into following types:

1.Pile foundation
2.Pier foundation
3.Well foundation.

SPREAD FOOTING
SPREAD FOOTING ARE THOSE WHICH SPREADS THE
SUPERIMPOSED LOAD OF WALL OR COLUMN OVER LARGER
AREA .SPREAD SUPPORT EITHER A WALL OR COLOUMN.
SPREAD FOOTING MAY BE OF FOLLOWING TYPES:
A. SINGLE FOOTING
B. STEPPED FOOTING
C. SLOPED FOOTING
D. WALL FOOTING WITHOUT STEPS
E. STEPPED FOOTING FOR WALL
 SINGLE FOOTING: In a single footing for column , the
loaded area (axa )of column has been spread to the size
BxB in a single spread .
STEPPED FOOTING: For heavily loaded column which
require greater spread stepped footing is used in which
two or more steps of concrete are given to the footing.
SLOPED FOOTING: In sloped footing concrete base does
not have uniform thickness ,but is made sloped with
greater thickness as its junction with the column and
smaller thickness at the ends.
WALL FOOTING WITHOUT STEPS : In this type of spread
footing ,concrete base is provided below the wall without
any steps .
STEPPED FOOTING FOR WALL : In this type steps are
provided below the wall along the concrete base.
Single footing per column: It is an independent footing
which is provided below a column to distribute
concentrated load in the form of uniformly distributed
load on the soil below. The footing maybe square, circular
or rectangular depending upon the load to be carried by
the footing and the bearing capacity of the soil.
BASE AREA= ( TOTAL LOAD / SAFE BEARING
CAPACITY OF SOIL)
 RCC COLUMN FOOTING: The depth of plain concrete
footing can be reduced appreciably by providing
reinforcement at the base to take up the tensile forces .
The footing is reinforced on both the sides by
means of mild steel bars placed at right angles to each other at
equal distance apart.

WALL FOOTING : It consist of small courses of bricks, the

lower course being usually twice the width of the wall
above. The increased base width of the wall is achieved
by providing 5cm (1/2 brick length ) on either side of wall .
The depth of each course is usually 10cm (thickness of
one brick).In some cases 20cm ( provides plain surface).
A bed of lime concrete is spread over the entire length of
the wall .
The length of the bed is normally less than 15cm and its
projection varies on either side of the wall between 10 to
15 cm .

STRAP FOOTING
If the independent footing of two columns is connected
by a beam is called strap footing . strap footing may be
used where the distance between two columns is so
large that a combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite
narrow ,with high bending moment. In that case each
column is provided its independent footing and a beam is
used to connect the footing of two column .The strap
beam dose not remain in contact with the soil and thus
does not transfer any load on the soil .
( as far as possible the foundation should be so shaped
and proportioned that the C.G of imposed load coincide
with the C.G of the supporting area )
 COMBINED FOOTING:
A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as
combined footing. It may be of following kinds:

1. Rectangular combined footing 2. Trapezoidal combined footing

3. Combined column wall footing

Combined footing for columns will be rectangular in shape if they carry

equal loads. The design of rigid rectangular combined footing should be
done in such a way that C.G of two column loads coincide with the C.G
of the footing area. If the columns carry unequal loads the footing is in
trapezoidal shape. The aim of combined footing is to get the uniform
pressure distribution under the footing.

A combined footing is provided in following circumstances:

1. When the columns are very near to each other so that their footings
overlap.
2. When the bearing capacity of soil is less, requiring more area under
individual footing.

3. When the end column is near a property line so that its footing
cannot spread in that direction.
COMBINED FOOTING
RAFT FOUNDATION:A raft foundation is a combined footing that covers the
entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns.When the
allowable soil pressure is low,or the building loads are heavy , the use of spread
footings would cover more than one half the area and it may prove more
economical to use mat or raft foundation.They are also used where the soil mass
contains compressible lenses or soil is sufficiently erratic so that the differential
settlement would be difficult to control . The mat or raft tends to bridge over the
erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement. Raft foundation is
used to reduce settlement above highly compressible soils,by making the weight
of structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated.

Following are some of the advantage of raft foundation-

1.It is the most suitable foundation under conditions-when the soil at the site of
proposed structure is erratic,soft .Raft foundation bridges the erratic deposit and
eliminates the possibility of differential settlement.

2.Distribution of load on entire area of foundation is uniform.

3.Overall settlement of the structure is reduced,or the total load of the structure
is distributed over large area and thus intensity of pressure on foundation soil is
reduced to minimum.

4.Raft foundation is kept projecting outward for the distance of 300-500mm all
around the structure which provides a sort of anchorage to structure with
foundation soil.
GRILLAGE FOUNDATION:It is a special type of isolated footing generally
provided for heavily loaded steel stanchions and used in those location where the
bearing capacity of soil is poor.The depth of such foundation is limited to 1-1.5
m.The load of the stanchion is distributed or spread to a very large area by means
of two or more tiers of rolled steel joints,each layer being laid at right angles to
the layer below it.Both the tiers of the joints are then embedded in cement
concrete to keep the joints in position and to prevent their corrosion.Grillage
foundation is also contructed of timber beams and planks.
Inverted Arch footing
This type of foundation I used to be provided for multistoried b
building in olden days . However the advancement of RCC
construction practice , inverted arch construction is rarely used
these days.
DEEP FOUNDATION IS OF FOLLOWING TYPE:
1. Pile
2. Pier foundation
3. Caissons or Well foundation

Pile foundation is most commonly used in building construction.

1. Pile foundation

Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by

driving preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or
drilling-in tubes to the required depth the tubes being filled with concrete
before or during withdrawal or by drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined
boreholes which are then filled with concrete.

2. Pier foundation

A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to

support and transfer large super imposed loads to the firm strata below.

3. Well foundation
 Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the
surface and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.

Causes of Failures of FOUNDATIONS

and Remedial Measures
The foundations may fail due to the following reasons:
1.Unequal settlement of sub-soil:
Unequal settlement of the sub-soil may lead to cracks in the
structure. It may be due to
Non-uniform nature of sub-soil throughout the foundation
Unequal load distribution of the soil strata (due to unequal
hts. of different parts of building)
C.G. of load from structure doesnt coincide with C.G. of
foundation
REMEDIAL MEASURES:-
Avoiding eccentric loading
Proper compaction of soil
Proper design of base of footing so that it can resist
cracking
Resting the foundation on rigid strata, such as rock orhard
moorum
2.Unequal settlement of masonary:
Mortar used in masanory shrinks and get compressed when
loaded excessively before it has fully set which leads to
unequal settlement of masanory due to this superstructure will
also have cracks

REMEDIAL MEASURES:-
Using mortar of proper strength
Masonary work should be raised uniformly
Masonary work should be properly cured.
The progress of construction should be such that the
height of masonary is 1.5 m in a day
3.Sub soil moisture movement
This difficulty is noticed commonly in cohesive soil such as
clayey n black cotton soil. This soil undergo considerable
volumetric changes with the change in atmospheric
conditions.(they swell excessively when wet n shrinkage
excessively when dry). This alternate swelling n shrinking
results in formation of cracks in the structure.
REMEDIAL MEASURES:-
To take the foundatn to such depth where the cracks..
to extend.
To prevent intimate contact of such soil with the part of
structure below ground level
To limit the loads on the subsoil
4. Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from soil:
If somehow moisture from the soil underlying the foundation is
withdrawn , the soil particle loose cohesion n shrinkage is
caused which results in cracks.
(This can be due to suction f sub-soil moisture by the roots
specially in abnormal spells of dry weather)

REMEDIAL MEASURES:-
Trees should be planted at a safe distance from the
foundation
Depth of foundation should not be less than 0.9 m
5. lateral pressure tending to overturning the structure
The horizontal thrust of a pitched roof or arch action or violent
(steems) tend superstructure walls to tilt or overturn. This
defect can cause the foundation of the wall to yield due to
entire load being concentrated near the foundation edge.
REMEDIAL MEASURES:-
Provide sufficiently wide base to the foundation
Design the foundation for worst possible condition
6.Atmospheric action
The behaviour of foundation may be adversely affected due to
atmospheric agents such as sun, wind, rain.
If the depth of foundation is shallow ,moisture movement due
to rain or drought may cause trouble.
REMEDIAL MEASURES:-
The foundation should be taken to such depth that the
adverse effect o atmosphere are nullified
These should be adequate provision for the drainage of
sub soil
To provide suitable plinth protection along the external
walls
7.Lateral movement of sub-soil
This defect is liable to occur when the building is situated on
very soft soil or near a river bank or deep cutting where there is
danger of the soil below the foundation getting distributed due
to which excessive settlement takes place or the structure may
even collapse.
REMEDIAL MEASURES:-
Sheet piler should be driven to confine the soil and avoid
the danger.

TIMBERING OF TRENCHES:
When the depth of trench is large, or when the sub-soil is
loose, the sides of the trench may cave in. The problem can be
solved by adopting a suitable method of timbering. Timbering og
trenches, sometimes also known as shoring consists of providing
timber planks or boards and struts to give temporary support to
the sides of the trench. Timbering of deep trenches can be done
with the help of the following methods:
 1. Stay bracing
2. Box sheeting
3. Vertical sheeting
4. Runner system
5. Sheet piling

1. STAY BRACING: This arrangement off preventing the slip of the earth
in foundation trenches is used when excavation is to be carried out in
moderately firm ground and when the depth of excavation does not
exceed 2 meters. The vertical sheets or poling boards are placed
opposite each other against the walls of the trench and they are held in
position by one or two rows of struts. The sheets are placed at an
interval of 3 to 4 meters and generally, they extend to the full depth of
the excavation.

2. SHEET PILING: This method is adopted when (a) soil is to be

excavated is soft or loose (b) depth of excavation is large (c) width of
trench is also large and (d) there is sub-soil water. Sheet piles are
designed to resist lateral earth pressure. These are driven in the ground
by mechanical means. They can be used for excavating to a very large
depth.

STAY BRACING:
 FOUNDATION ON BLACK COTTON SOIL:
REQUIREMENTS:

1. The safe bearing capacity should be properly determined, taking

into account the effect of sustained loading. The long term effect
 of loading results in slow consolidation. In absence of tests, the
bearing capacity of soils may be limited to 50 to 100 kN/m^2.
2. The foundation should be taken at least 50 cm lower than the
depth of moisture movement, also more than depth of tension
cracks.
3. Where this soil occurs only in top layer, and where the thickness
of layer does not exceed 1 to 1.5 m, the entire layer of black
cotton soil should be removed, and the foundation should be laid
on non-shrinkable and non-expansive soil.
4. Where the depth of clay layer is large, the footing should be
prevented from coming in contact with the soil. This can be done
by excavating wider and deeper foundation trench and
interposing layer of sand/mooram around and beneath the
footing.
5. Where the soil is highly expansive, it is very essential to have
minimum contact between the soil and footing. This can be best
achieved by transmitting the loads through deep piles or piers and
by supporting wall loads on capping beams which are kept some
distance(5 to 15 cm) above the ground surface, to permit free
expansion of the soil.
6. Where the bearing capacity of soil is poor, or soil is very soft, the
bed of thefoundation trench should be made firm or hard by
ramming mooram and ballast into it.
7. The foundations should be considered during dry season. Also
suitable plinth protection around the external wall should be
made on the ground surface, with its slope away from the wall, so
that moisture does not penetrate the foundation during rainy
season.
 Foundation in black cotton soil may be of following
types:
1. Strip or pad foundation
2. Pier foundation
3. Under-reamed pile foundation.