Evolution of Karyotype Megalomorphae

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Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, , . With 14 figures
Evolution of karyotype, sex chromosomes,

and meiosis in mygalomorph spiders
(Araneae: Mygalomorphae)
JIR KRL1*, TEREZA KORNKOV1, LENKA KRKAVCOV1, JANA MUSILOV1,
MARTIN FORMAN1, IVAL M. VILA HERRERA1, CHARLES R. HADDAD2,
MAGDA VTKOV3,4, SERGIO HENRIQUES5, JOS G. PALACIOS VARGAS6 and
MARSHAL HEDIN7
1
Laboratory of Arachnid Cytogenetics, Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science,
Charles University in Prague, CZ-128 44, Prague 2, Czech Republic
2
Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South
Africa
3
Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, CZ-370 05, Cesk Budejovice, Czech Republic
4
Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre ASCR,
CZ-370 05, Cesk Budejovice, Czech Republic
5
Centro de Investigao em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genticos, Campus Agrrio de Vairo,
P-4485-661 Vila do Conde, Portugal
6
Departamento de Ecologa y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico,
Facultad de Ciencias, Ciudad Universitaria, C. P. 04510 Mxico
7
Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182-4614, USA
Received 19 August 2012; revised 2 January 2013; accepted for publication 2 January 2013
Spider diversity is partitioned into three primary clades, namely Mesothelae, Mygalomorphae, and Araneomorphae.
Mygalomorph cytogenetics is largely unknown. Our study revealed a remarkable karyotype diversity of mygalo-
morphs. Unlike araneomorphs, they show no general trend towards a decrease of 2n, as the chromosome number was
reduced in some lineages and increased in others. A biarmed karyotype is a symplesiomorphy of mygalomorphs and
araneomorphs. Male meiosis of some mygalomorphs is achiasmatic, or includes the diffuse stage. The sex
chromosome system X1X20, which is supposedly ancestral in spiders, is uncommon in mygalomorphs. Many
mygalomorphs exhibit more than two (and up to 13) X chromosomes in males. The evolution of X chromosomes
proceeded via the duplication of chromosomes, fissions, XX, and X-autosome fusions. Spiders also exhibit a
homomorphic sex chromosome pair. In the germline of mygalomorph males these chromosomes are often deactivated;
their deactivation and pairing is initiated already at spermatogonia. Remarkably, pairing of sex chromosomes in
mygalomorph females is also initiated at gonial cells. Some mygalomorphs have two sex chromosome pairs. The
second pair presumably arose in early-diverging mygalomorphs, probably via genome duplication. The unique
behaviour of spider sex chromosomes in the germline may promote meiotic pairing of homologous sex chromosomes
and structural differentiation of their duplicates, as well as the establishment of polyploid genomes. 2013 The
Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, , .
ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS: achiasmatic chromosome pairing deactivation duplication heterochro-

matinization NOR polyploidy.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: spider@natur.cuni.cz

Present address: Laboratory of Fish Genetics, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics AS CR, CZ-277 21, Libechov, Czech
Republic.
Present address: GENvia Ltd., CZ-198 00, Prague 9, Czech Republic.
Present address: Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom.
2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, , 1
2 J. KRL ET AL.
INTRODUCTION mosome systems include the X0 system, probably

resulting from a fusion of the X chromosomes
Spiders are one of the most diverse animal orders. (Bole-Gowda, 1950), and systems originated by
They are divided into three primary lineages, includ- X-autosome fusions (Maddison, 1982; Rowell, 1985;
ing the suborder Mesothelae and two infraorders, Krl et al., 2006; Rezc et al., 2006). X-autosome
Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, which together fusions may possibly also have produced the X1X2Y
form the suborder Opisthothelae. Mesotheles and system found in the early-diverging araneomorph
mygalomorphs show more plesiomorphic characters family Hypochilidae, as well as in the haplogyne
than derived araneomorphs, which are much more families Drymusidae, Filistatidae, Pholcidae, and
diverse in species number and morphology. Sicariidae. Specific features of the X1X2Y system
Karyotypes of nearly 700 spiders belonging to 64 suggest that these families form a monophyletic group
families have been reported so far (Kornkov & Krl, (Krl et al., 2006).
2013). In spite of this progress, almost all chromo- Recent studies of male meiosis in spiders have
some data refer to araneomorphs only. Spiders show revealed a considerable complexity in their sex chro-
considerable karyotype diversity, reflecting their high mosome systems. Besides multiple X chromosomes, or
species diversity and deep evolutionary history. Male their derivatives, spider karyotypes also include a sex
diploid numbers range from seven (haplogyne araneo- chromosome pair (SCP) in which chromosomes lack
morph Ariadna lateralis Karsch, 1881, Segestriidae; morphological differentiation. In entelegynes, the
Suzuki, 1954) to 110 (mygalomorph Poecilotheria SCP has been found in families Agelenidae and
formosa Pocock, 1899, Theraphosidae; Krl et al., Lycosidae, being only detectable by transmission elec-
2011). Most entelegyne araneomorphs and the only tron microscopy (TEM) (Krl, 2007). Ultrastructural
representative of Mesothelae studied so far exhibit data on male meiosis in other spider lineages are
acrocentric karyotypes. In contrast, most haplogyne lacking; however, the SCP has been detected in two
araneomorphs (Krl et al., 2006) possess biarmed haplogyne and two mygalomorph families by light
(metacentric/submetacentric) chromosomes. Finally, microscopy, based on specific behaviour in the male
the haplogyne superfamily Dysderoidea displays holo- germline (Krl et al., 2006, 2011).
centric chromosomes (Krl et al., 2006). In this article we investigate karyotypes, sex chro-
An unusual feature of spider karyotypes is the mosomes, and meiosis of a representative sample of
predominance of multiple sex chromosome systems. mygalomorph spiders. This infraorder includes more
The ancestral system is assumed to be X1X2/ than 2700 species, classified into 16 families (Bond
X1X1X2X2 (Suzuki, 1954). This formula is defined as et al., 2012; Platnick, 2013). In spite of this diversity,
X1X20, where 0 indicates the absence of a Y chromo- karyotypes of only six species from three families,
some. The X1X20 system is common in entelegynes namely Atypidae (Suzuki, 1954; Rezc et al., 2006),
(Krl et al., 2006) and has been found in other major Dipluridae, and Theraphosidae (Krl et al., 2011),
clades of spiders (Suzuki, 1954). At male prophase I, have been comprehensively described. Fragmentary
X chromosomes show heterochromatinization; conse- data on 13 other species have been reported (see Rezc
quently, they stain more intensively than autosomes et al., 2006 for a review). Our study includes 31 species
(so-called positive heteropycnosis; Krl, 2007). The belonging to 13 families, nine of which are studied for
origin of this system is unresolved. Both X chromo- the first time (Table S1). Our data suggest non-
somes are supposedly non-homologous, based on their disjunctions of mygalomorph sex chromosomes. Fur-
achiasmatic pairing during male meiosis. One group thermore, they indicate an ancient duplication of the
of hypotheses suggests the origin of the X1X20 system mygalomorph genome, including the sex chromo-
by fission of a single X chromosome (Bole-Gowda, somes. These events probably contributed to the
1950; Suzuki, 1954; White, 1973). An alternative considerable karyotype diversity of mygalomorphs
explanation suggests non-disjunction of an X chromo- demonstrated in this study.
some and differentiation of the newly formed sex
chromosome (Postiglioni & Brum-Zorrilla, 1981). The
same scenario is hypothesized for the derived systems
MATERIAL AND METHODS
with three or four X chromosomes found in some
entelegynes and mygalomorphs (Kornkov & Krl, MATERIAL
2013). The hypothesis of multiple X chromosomes Collection data are presented in Table S1. Some taxa
originating from duplications has recently been sup- were only determined to genus level because the
ported by an unique behaviour of these chromosomes available specimens were juveniles, females (reported
in female meiosis, which includes the deactivation and features are sometimes not sufficient to distinguish
association of sex chromosome pairs during prophase I congeneric females), or undescribed species. Speci-
(Krl, 2007; Krl et al., 2011). Other derived sex chro- mens are preserved in 96% ethanol. All cytogenetic
2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, ,
KARYOTYPE EVOLUTION OF MYGALOMORPHS 3
data are reported for the first time, except for 2n of Coolscan 5000 ED scanner (Nikon) and Nikon
Brachypelma albopilosum Valerio, 1980 (Vtkov SCAN 4 software. Alternatively, preparations were
et al., 2005). observed under an Olympus BX 50 microscope and
The testes of subadult males were found to be black and white images were recorded using an
optimal for study. Testes contained dividing cells such Olympus DP 71 CCD camera. In both cases an oil
as spermatogonial mitoses, as well as meiotic cells. immersion lens was used (100). For most species,
Juveniles were thus reared until preferably the sub- chromosomes of five mitotic metaphases or met-
adult stage, and then dissected; however, subadult aphases II were measured to construct the karyotype
males were not easily distinguishable from the pre- (Table S1). In the latter case, the plates containing
ceding instars. Therefore, adult males were also often both sister metaphases were used except for Paratro-
used, although their testes contained relatively fewer pis species. Relative chromosome lengths were calcu-
dividing cells. Male meiosis of some mygalomorphs lated as a percentage of the total chromosome length
was almost (Cyphonisia; Macrothele yaginumai Shi- of the diploid set, including the sex chromosomes
mojana & Haupt, 1998) or fully completed (Ancylo- (%TCL). Measurements were carried out using
trypa cf. fossor Simon, 1889; Antrodiaetus; Iberesia) IMAGE TOOL 3.0 (University of Texas, San Antonio,
just after the final molt. The pair of long testes TX, USA). Karyotypes were constructed using Corel
usually showed a convoluted or tortuous morphology; PHOTO-PAINT X3.
deferent ducts were reduced or absent. A different
organization of testes was found in microstigmatids DETECTION OF NORs BY FLUORESCENT IN SITU
(rod-like testes), and in Idiothele, Paratropis, and HYBRIDIZATION (FISH)
Psalmopoeus (ends of testes fused at the posterior Genomic DNA (gDNA) of Brachypelma was extracted
part of the abdomen). Our studies revealed convo- using the DNeasy Blood & Tissue kit (Qiagen GmbH,
luted testes also in mesotheles, some haplogynes, and Hilden, Germany), or phenol-chloroform DNA extrac-
basal entelegynes. This pattern indicates that this tion, for 18S rDNA probe amplification. The gDNA
morphology is likely to be ancestral in spiders. was used as a template for PCR; conditions and probe
Female chromosomes were obtained from the ovaries biotin labelling were performed according to the
or intestines of juveniles or adults. Concerning female method described by Novotn et al. (2011). FISH was
meiosis, only prophases I or complete sequences of the performed following the method described by Sahara,
first meiotic division were found. Marec & Traut (1999), with some modifications
(Novotn et al., 2011). Slides were observed under a
CHROMOSOME PREPARATIONS AND EVALUATION Zeiss Axioplan 2 microscope using a 100 oil immer-
OF KARYOTYPE
sion lens. Black and white images were captured with
an F-View CCD camera and AnalySIS 3.2 (Soft
Chromosome preparation was based on Dolej et al. Imaging System GmbH, Mnster, Germany). Images
(2011), with two modifications. First, as mygalomorph were obtained separately for each fluorochrome, pseu-
cells proved to be relatively resistant to hypotoniza- docoloured, and superimposed with Adobe PHO-
tion, they were accordingly hypotonized for 25 min. In TOSHOP 5.0.
some cases, hypotonization was reduced to 10 min to
preserve sex chromosome association. Second, the
PLACEMENT OF DATA INTO A
voluminous tissues of large species were fixed in three
PHYLOGENETIC CONTEXT
changes (6, 10, and 30 min) of fixative. C-banding was
conducted following the method described by Krl Our proposed scheme of mygalomorph karyotype evo-
et al. (2008). The detection of nucleolar organizer lution is based mostly on the phylogenetic hypothesis
regions (NORs) by silver followed Dolej et al. (2011), of Bond et al. (2012), who recognized two primary
except for the prolonged time of staining (7 min). mygalomorph lineages: the superfamilies Atypoidea
Silver detects the NORs transcribed in the previous and Avicularioidea. Most mygalomorph species diver-
cell cycle only (Miller et al., 1976). This technique sity is contained within the latter group, which con-
often visualized the kinetochores and meiotic sex sists of several early-diverging groups and two
chromosomes as well. Slides were stained with 5% diverse sister clades: Crassitarsae and Domiothelina.
Giemsa solution in Srensen buffer (pH 6.8) for
25 min (for standard preparations), 75 min (for RESULTS
C-banding), or were left unstained (for the detection ATYPOIDEA
of NORs).
Slides were inspected under a Zeiss Jenaval micro- Antrodiaetidae
scope. Images were photographed on Kodak Technical In Aliatypus californicus (Banks, 1896) (2n = 27,
Pan black and white film and digitized using a Super X0), most chromosomes were metacentric except for
4 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 1. Male karyotypes of antrodiaetids (A, B) and mecicobothriids (C) (based on spermatogonial metaphases). Open
arrowheads indicate secondary constrictions. A, Aliatypus californicus. B, Antrodiaetus riversi. C, Megahexura fulva. Scale
bars: 10 mm (A, C); 5 mm (B).
two submetacentric pairs (nos 2 and 5). The first were probably biarmed (Fig. 1B). The metacentric sex
autosome pair was much longer than the second pair chromosome was nearly twice as long as the chromo-
(17.6 versus 11.2% of TCL), and the size of the somes of the first pair (5.5 versus 3.2% of TCL). The
remaining pairs decreased gradually. The X chromo- longest and one medium-sized pair contained a ter-
some was medium sized (Fig. 1A), and its reliable minal NOR (Fig. 2C). The NOR of the longest pair
determination was possible only during meiosis corresponded to a conspicuous secondary constric-
(Fig. 2D). Two small pairs (nos 8 and 11) included a tion (Figs 1B and 2B), and was remarkable for its
terminal NOR, and one chromosome contained two large size (Fig. 2C). The antrodiaetid gonosomes
terminal NORs (Fig. 2A). Autosomes of Antrodiaetus showed common features in the germ, namely the
riversi (O.P.-Cambridge, 1883) (2n = 47, X0) were positive heteropycnosis and parallel attachment of
mostly acrocentric; only three pairs (nos 3, 17, and 22) X-chromosome arms in early prophase I (i.e. leptotene
Figure 2. Atypoidea, nucleolar organizer regions (NORs) and chromosome behaviour in the germline. Unless otherwise
indicated, based on male plates; arrow, X chromosome; open arrowhead, secondary constriction/NOR. A, Aliatypus
californicus, mitotic metaphase, silver staining (*chromosome with two terminal NORs; 1, chromosomes of the largest pair).
B, C, Antrodiaetus riversi, female, oogonial metaphase containing the association of chromosomes of the X pair, Giemsa (B),
and silver staining (C). B, one pair includes a large secondary constriction at one end. C, two pairs (1, 2) bear terminal NORs.
D, Aliatypus californicus, pachytene: the arms of the metacentric X chromosome are positively heteropycnotic and arranged
in parallel. E, Antrodiaetus riversi, diffuse stage, the X chromosome is positively heteropycnotic. F, Megahexura fulva,
mitotic metaphase, silver staining. Note the ample terminal NOR of one pair. Scale bars: 10 mm.
to pachytene) in males (Fig. 2D), and the parallel AVICULARIOIDEA

arrangement of chromosomes of the X pair at oogonial Early-diverging Avicularioidea
mitosis in females (Fig. 2B, C). The following stage of
Dipluridae
prophase I was only observed in male A. riversi,
The karyotype of Euagrus lynceus Brignoli, 1974
where autosomes were partially despiralized, and the
(2n = 59, X1X2X3X4X50) was biarmed (Fig. 3C). Male
X chromosome retained its heteropycnosis (the
meiosis was modified as a result of the absence of
so-called diffuse stage; Fig. 2E).
chiasmata. One or two bivalents contained a hetero-
pycnotic NOR knob (Fig. 3A, B). These knobs were
Mecicobothriidae also observed during the second meiotic division
In Megahexura fulva (Chamberlin, 1919) (2n = 43, (Fig. 3C). At the beginning of meiosis, the X chromo-
X0) all autosomes were biarmed (Fig. 1C). The meta- somes formed a peripheral sex chromosome body
centric X chromosome (4.5% of TCL) was somewhat (SCB; Fig. 3A), which exhibited a curious migration
longer than the autosomes of the first pair (3.7% of into the middle of the plate at prometaphase I.
TCL). Two pairs (nos 2 and 4) contained terminal A similar migration of X chromosomes was also
achromatic segments (Fig. 1C), which corresponded to observed in other representatives of the superfamily
a large NOR in the case of one pair (Fig. 2F). Avicularioidea for which male meiosis was available.
6 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 3. Detection of nucleolar organizer regions (NORs) and male meiosis of diplurids (AJ) and hexathelids (KN);
arrows, sex chromosomes; open arrows, chromosomes of the sex chromosome pair (SCP); arrowheads, centromeric knobs;
open arrowheads, NORs. AC, Euagrus lynceus. A, postpachytene, containing a peripheral sex chromosome body (SCB).
Two medium-sized bivalents include an NOR knob: one knob is terminal and the other is subterminal. B, metaphase I
composed of achiasmatic bivalents maintaining the parallel arrangement of homologues and five loop X univalents
clustered by their ends in the middle of the plate (inset: scheme of the cluster). The middle part of most bivalents bears
a centromeric knob, which suggests their metacentric morphology. Non-metacentric bivalents show an excentric position
of the knob (1). Some bivalents display initial separation of homologues, namely in the centromeric area. In this way, they
resemble chiasmatic bivalents including intercalar chiasma (2). C, metaphase II, containing gonosomes (n = 32). All
chromosomes are biarmed. Note there are two chromosomes each of which bears one NOR knob. DH, Ischnothele
caudata. D, late pachytene, heteropycnotic sex chromosomes (arrows) exhibit an end-to-end pairing (asterisk) at the
nuclear periphery. Inset: scheme of sex chromosome pair. E, F, diffuse stage. E, the sex chromosomes form a heteropycnotic
mass in the middle of the plate; F, silver staining (1, 2 NORs). G, diakinesis, all bivalents are chiasmatic. The X
chromosome is slightly heteropycnotic, except for the region containing chiasma; H, prophase II. Long arms of the X
chromosome (*) are heteropycnotic, except for the pericentric region. I, J, Linothele megatheloides, silver staining. I,
spermatogonial metaphase, detection of kinetochores and NORs. Note one metacentric (m) and one acrocentric (a)
element, each with a terminal NOR as well as a group of two SCP chromosomes (one shows precocious chromatid
separation). J, diplotene, detection of kinetochores, NORs, and X chromosomes. The rod-like X chromosomes form a
cluster in the middle of the plate. The smallest X chromosome bears an intercalar NOR. K, Macrothele yaginumai,
diplotene containing the cluster of nine X chromosomes (delimited by a dotted line) in the middle of the plate. LN,
Macrothele gigas. L, part of diplotene. Note the association of the two heteropycnotic SCPs of similar size and an
enormous body (delimited by a dotted line). Inset: diffuse stage, association of the body and two heteropycnotic SCPs. M,
incomplete late diplotene including a peripheral cluster of 13 loop X chromosomes. Inset: scheme of the cluster (b
bivalent). N, C-banded diplotene. The heterochromatin of all chromosomes is mostly centromeric, including X chromo-
somes. Scale bars: 10 mm.
This event was followed by the disintegration of the biarmed, except for five short pairs (nos 28 and
SCB (not shown). At metaphase I, loop gonosomes 3639). Conversely, among X chromosomes only the
composed a cluster. Ends of gonosomes were directed two longest were biarmed. The X chromosomes were
towards the centre of the cluster (Fig. 3B). among the smallest elements at metaphase II (1.2
The karyotype of Ischnothele caudata Ausserer, 0.5% of TCL). In contrast to other diplurids, an SCP
1875 (2n = 14, XY) was metacentric, except for was detected in the male germline of Linothele.
the two submetacentric pairs (nos 3 and 4). The These metacentric chromosomes were the largest
gonosomes were medium sized and exhibited a elements of the set (Fig. 4B). One metacentric
similar size (Fig. 4A). Three metacentric pairs (nos 1, (no. 29) and one acrocentric (no. 35) autosome pair
2, and XY) contained a subterminal NOR (Fig. S1A). bore a terminal NOR (Fig. 3I). Moreover, one small
The autosome and gonosome NORs differed by their X chromosome included an interstitial NOR
pattern of activity. Silver staining revealed that the (Fig. 3J). The SCP showed a precocious chromatid
autosome NORs were active mostly at spermatogonia. separation at the spermatogonial metaphase
Despite the heterochromatinization of gonosomes at (Fig. 3I). Early meiotic cells contained two SCBs
premeiotic interphase and prophase I, their NORs (Fig. S2A). At early diplotene, one body was trans-
were also active during this period (Fig. 3F). Gono- formed into a cluster of X univalents. In the course
somes paired only at one end at pachytene (Fig. 3D). of diplotene, these elements condensed considerably,
After pachytene, nuclei entered the diffuse stage: adopting a rod-like morphology (Figs 3J and S2B).
autosomes despiralized considerably and gonosomes The second body evolved into the SCP (Fig. S2B).
formed a heteropycnotic body in the middle of the At metaphase II, the gonosomes could be identified
plate (Fig. 3E). Following autosome recondensation at by their delayed chromatid separation (X univalents)
the onset of diakinesis, all bivalents were chiasmatic. or slight underspiralization (SCP), respectively
At diakinesis the heteropycnosis of the gonosomes (Fig. 4B).
was restricted to the putative X chromosome, except
for the part forming the chiasma (Fig. 3G). The het-
eropycnotic segment of the X chromosome reappeared Hexathelidae
at prophase II: this region was formed by the major The chromosomes of Macrothele gigas Shimojana &
part of the long arm (Fig. 3H). Haupt, 1998 (2n = 85, X1X2X3X4X5X6X7X8X9X10X11
The autosomes of Linothele megatheloides Paz X12X130) were biarmed, except for three pairs (nos 12,
& Raven, 1990 (2n = 86, X1X2X3X4X5X60) were 23, and 33; Fig. 4C). The set of M. yaginumai
8 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 4. Male sets of diplurids (A, B) and hexathelids (C). The open arrowheads indicate secondary constrictions. A,
Ischnothele caudata (metaphase II). B, Linothele megatheloides (metaphase II). The sex chromosome pair (SCP) is less
condensed than the other pairs. The X chromosomes show a delayed chromatid separation. C, Macrothele gigas (mitotic
metaphase). Scale bars: 10 mm.
(2n = 77, X1X2X3X4X5X6X7X8X90) was biarmed (not The SCP showed the same meiotic behaviour as in the
shown). Besides being mostly biarmed, the Mac- previous paratropidid species, except for the absence
rothele species also exhibited other common features. of heteropycnosis during late prophase I and the
The chromosome pairs, as well as the multiple X chro- second meiotic division.
mosomes, decreased gradually in size. One pair bore
an ample terminal secondary constriction (Fig. 4C).
The constitutive heterochromatin (CH) was mostly Crassitarsae
restricted to the centromeric regions (Fig. 3N). Male Theraphosidae
meiosis included a short diffuse stage. During this Karyotypes: Members of five theraphosid subfamilies
period, SCBs migrated from the periphery to the were studied. The chromosome set of Psalmopoeus
centre of the nucleus. The diffuse stage contained an cambridgei Pocock, 1895 (2n = 84, X1X20) (Psalmo-
enormous SCB associated with two lesser positively poeinae) contained biarmed pairs, except nine
heteropycnotic SCBs (Fig. 3L, inset) that were trans- medium-sized and small acrocentric pairs. The meta-
formed into two SCPs of similar size at early diplo- centric sex chromosomes differed considerably in size
tene (Fig. 3L). The enormous body disintegrated into (X1 2.3% and X2 1.6% of TCL; Fig. 6A); each of them
a group of loop X univalents at late diplotene; their contained a centromeric block of CH. Moreover, one
ends were directed to the centre of the cluster arm of the X1 chromosome included a block of interca-
(Fig. 3M). In contrast to other Avicularioidea, includ- lar CH (Fig. 8A). The set of Pelinobius muticus Karsch,
ing M. yaginumai (Fig. 3K), the X univalents of 1885 (2n = 67, X1X2X30) (Eumenophorinae) was acro-
M. gigas returned to the periphery of the nucleus at centric, except for two long X chromosomes and nine
diplotene (Fig. 3LN). long biarmed pairs. The gonosomes showed metacen-
tric (X1, 2.2% of TCL), subtelocentric (X2, 1.7% of TCL),
and acrocentric (X3, 1.2% of TCL) morphologies
Paratropididae (Fig. 6B).
Karyotypes of the two Paratropis species studied con- One ischnocoline was investigated, Ischnocolus jick-
tained approximately the same portion of biarmed elii L. Koch, 1875 (2n = 85, X1X2X30), as well as
and monoarmed pairs. Almost all small pairs were three theraphosines, Brachypelma albopilosum
monoarmed (subtelocentric/acrocentric) (Figs 5A and (2n = 74, X1X2X3X40), Holothele cf. longipes
S1B). At the beginning of meiosis, the male nuclei (L. Koch, 1875) (2n = 73, X1X2X30), and Grammos-
of Paratropis sp. from Colombia (2n = 115, tola rosea (Walckenaer, 1837) (2n = 72, X1X20)
X1X2X3X4X5X6X70) contained two positively heteropyc- (Figs 7A, S3, and S4). The karyotype of Ischnocolus
notic SCBs. At transition to diplotene, one body was consisted only of biarmed chromosomes (Fig. S3); the
transformed into a cluster of loop X chromosomes, remaining species exhibited between one and three
whereas the second body evolved into a heteropyc- monoarmed chromosome pairs (Figs 7A and S4).
notic SCP. Both groups of gonosomes displayed a loose X chromosomes were biarmed, large or medium-sized
association (Fig. 5B). The X univalents adopted a chromosomes (Figs 7A, S3, and S4). The FISH tech-
rod-like morphology at late prophase I (i.e. diplotene nique revealed one metacentric pair with a large
and diakinesis; Fig. 5C). The metacentric SCP terminal NOR in Brachypelma (Fig. 8K).
belonged to the largest pairs, being also heteropyc- Our study included two harpactirines that showed
notic at prophase and metaphase II (Fig. 5A). Male a reduced number of chromosomes, particularly gono-
diplotene of Paratropis sp. from Mexico (2n = 112, somes, compared with the other subfamilies studied.
X1X2X3X4X5X6X7Y) contained a cluster of six loop Both species display an X0 system; the metacentric X
X univalents and a chain associated at one end with was the largest element of the set (Fig. 7B, C). Chro-
the univalents (Fig. 5D, E). The comparison of male mosomes of Pterinochilus murinus Pocock, 1897
and female (118) diploid number, as well as segrega- (2n = 43, X0) were metacentric, except for three
tion at male metaphase II (Fig. S1B), revealed that large submetacentric pairs (nos 8, 9, and 10). The
the chain was composed of two chromosomes, X and Y, chromosome pairs can be divided into three size
which exhibited biarmed morphology (Fig. 5E, inset). groups: ten large, four medium-sized, and seven small
10 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 5. Paratropidid karyotype and meiosis, male; arrows, X chromosome(s); open arrow, positively heteropycnotic sex
chromosome pair (SCP); arrowheads, centromeric knobs. AC, Paratropis sp. (Colombia). A, haploid karyotype without sex
chromosomes (metaphase II). Note the monoarmed chromosomes (nos 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 2629, 33, 35, 3739, and 4154).
B, transition to diplotene, the loose association of the SCP and the cluster of loop X chromosomes. C, diakinesis composed
of 54 autosome bivalents, the SCP, and the cluster of seven X univalents placed in the middle of the plate. D, E
Paratropis sp. (Mexico), diplotene containing X chromosome cluster in the middle of the plate. Note the association of the
cluster with a chain (c). D, early diplotene. E, late diplotene (52 bivalents, cluster of the six X univalents, and a chain).
Inset: diakinesis, the chain consisting of two biarmed chromosomes joined by terminal chiasma (ch). Scale bars: 10 mm,
except the inset of E (5 mm).
Figure 6. Male karyotypes of psalmopoeine (A) and eumenophorine (B) theraphosids (based on metaphases II). A,
Psalmopoeus cambridgei. B, Pelinobius muticus. Scale bars: 5 mm.
12 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 7. Male karyotypes of theraphosine (A) and harpactirine (B, C) theraphosids (based on metaphases II). A,
Brachypelma albopilosum. The pairs 28, 33, and 35 are subtelocentric. Three X chromosomes (X1, X3, and X4) show a
slightly delayed chromatid separation. B, Pterinochilus murinus, the X chromosome is positively heteropycnotic. C,
Idiothele mira, the X chromosome exhibits negative heteropycnosis. Scale bars: 10 mm.
pairs (Fig. 7B). The second pair bore a terminal NOR middle-sized submetacentrics (Fig. 9D, I). The SCPs
(Fig. 8B). Idiothele mira Gallon, 2010 (2n = 25, X0) did not differ from the other chromosomes in the
also exhibited a metacentric set, except for one sub- distribution and low level of CH (Fig. 9I).
telocentric (no. 5), one submetacentric (no. 8), and The SCPs displayed a specific behaviour in the
one acrocentric (no. 9) pair. The chromosome pairs germline. These chromosomes were associated with
decreased gradually in size, except for the last pair each other at spermatogonial prophase, forming a
(Fig. 7C). The seventh pair contained a pericentric positively heteropycnotic body in the middle of the
NOR (Fig. 8C). nucleus (Fig. 9A). During the disintegration of the
body at late prophase and prometaphase, the SCP
Sex chromosomes in the male germline: X chromo- chromosomes retained heteropycnosis, also showing
somes: The X chromosomes of theraphosids formed a a delayed condensation (Fig. 9B, C). Their attach-
positively heteropycnotic SCB at premeiotic inter- ment was restricted to one end (Fig. 9C), which was
phase and prophase I (Fig. 8D). Silver staining sometimes also observable at metaphase (Fig. 9G).
revealed a loop morphology of the X chromosomes, In species with two SCPs, the prometaphase attach-
which were associated with each other by their ends ment included all of the chromosomes of these pairs
on the nuclear periphery (Fig. 8E). The end-to-end (Fig. 9C). In contrast, only the connection or asso-
pairing of X chromosomes was mostly retained after ciation of the homologous chromosomes was
SCB disintegration (Fig. 8F, I). The same behaviour observed at metaphase in these species, whereas
was found in theraphosids with a single X chromo- these chromosomes were often also aligned side by
some, the arms of which aligned with each other side by homologous regions (Fig. 9E, I). However, a
(Fig. 8G, J). In some theraphosids (Brachypelma, loose association of all SCP chromosomes at met-
Ischnocolus, and Psalmopoeus), the end-to-end asso- aphase was observed more frequently (Fig. 9D), but
ciation of multiple X chromosomes persisted, often up in this case the association of the homologues
to metaphase I (Fig. 8K). In contrast, the loop X chro- remained more stable. The SCP chromosomes exhib-
mosomes of Pelinobius (X1X2X30) completed pairing at ited a precocious chromatid separation at metaphase
the transition to diplotene (Fig. 8H), and adopted a (Fig. 9D, F) (in some species from prometaphase).
rod-like morphology during diakinesis (Fig. 8H, The chromatid separation of all chromosomes of the
inset). The X chromosomes of theraphosids migrated karyotype was synchronized at the late metaphase
into the middle of the nucleus at the transition to (not shown). SCP chromosomes continued clustering
diplotene (Fig. 8G, H). The X chromosomes of some at the spermatogonial anaphase (Fig. 9H). From the
species also exhibited specific behaviour at prophase premeiotic interphase they formed a single hetero-
and metaphase II, namely delayed condensation (Fig. pycnotic SCB on the nuclear periphery (Fig. 8D).
S3) and chromatid separation (Figs 7A and S3), and At the transition to diplotene, this SCB was trans-
positive (Fig. 7B) or negative (Fig. 7C) heteropycnosis. formed into chiasmatic bivalent(s) (Fig. 8H, J),
Apart from the germinal cells, the X chromosomes In some species SCP(s) retained positive heteropyc-
were also heteropycnotic and were associated with nosis up to diplotene, or even diakinesis or met-
each other in the endopolyploid cells of the testes, aphase I (Fig. 8H). The SCPs of harpactirines
namely in the genera Grammostola, Holothele, and exhibited a complicated pattern of meiotic hetero-
Psalmopoeus. The homologous chromosomes of Psal- pycnosis. In Pterinochilus, only the centromere
mopoeus were usually arranged in parallel (Fig. 8L). region and proximal parts of the arms were hetero-
SCPs and their association with X chromosomes: pycnotic (Fig. 8J). The SCP of Idiothele was com-
Analysis of the germ revealed SCPs in all thera- pletely heteropycnotic at early prophase I (Fig. 8G).
phosids, except Brachypelma. Old World species exib- At the transition to the diplotene stage, heteropyc-
ited one SCP (Figs 8G, H, J, 9F, G, and 14), whereas nosis was restricted to one arm and the proximal
New World species possessed two SCPs (Figs 8F, part of the other arm (Fig. 8G, inset). Chiasmata
9BE, H, I, and 14). These chromosomes were mostly always occurred outside the heteropycnotic region
metacentric and belonged to the largest chromosomes (Fig. 8G, inset and J).
of the complement. This pattern was found in all During the premeiotic interphase and early propha-
theraphosids with one SCP (Fig. 9F, G) and one se I, nuclei often contained an association of two
species with two SCPs (Holothele cf. longipes). Both SCBs, one formed by SCP(s) and another by X chro-
Holothele pairs possessed a similar morphology and mosomes (Fig. 8D). Details of the association were
size (Fig. 9E). Two other species with two SCPs, observable in the following genera only, namely
Grammostola rosea and Psalmopoeus cambridgei, dis- during transformation of one body into SCP biva-
played a more complicated pattern: one pair was lent(s). During this period, the SCPs of Idiothele,
metacentric and belonged to the largest chromo- Ischnocolus (one SCP), Grammostola, and Holothele
somes, whereas the second pair was formed by (two SCPs) exhibited loop morphology. Their ends
14 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 8. Theraphosids, detection of nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), constitutive heterochromatin, and gonosomes
in the male germline; arrows, X chromosomes; open arrows, the sex chromosome pairs (SCPs); arrowheads, primary
constrictions; open arrowheads, NORs. A, Psalmopoeus cambridgei, C-banded diakinesis, association of X univalents. Note
the centromeric (c) and intercalar (i) heterochromatin. B, Pterinochilus murinus, mitotic metaphase, silver staining. One
large pair bears a terminal NOR. C, Idiothele mira, mitotic metaphase, silver staining. One pair includes a pericentric
NOR. D, Holothele cf. longipes, premeiotic interphase. The X chromosome cluster on the nuclear periphery is associated
with a positively heteropycnotic body formed by the two SCPs. E, Psalmopoeus cambridgei, premeiotic interphase, silver
staining. Two loop X chromosomes are associated by their ends on the nuclear periphery (*nucleolus). F, Grammostola
rosea, transition to diplotene. The two X univalents and two SCPs show a loop morphology and positive heteropycnosis,
forming a single cluster. Inset: scheme of the cluster (black autosome bivalents). G, Idiothele mira, transition to
diplotene. The X chromosome and the heteropycnotic SCP are associated by their ends in the middle of the plate. Inset:
diakinesis, SCP. Heteropycnosis is restricted to one arm (1) and the proximal part of the other arm (2) (c, centromeric
knob; ch, chiasma). H, Pelinobius muticus, transition to diplotene. The cluster in the middle of the plate is formed by
positively heteropycnotic SCP and three loop X univalents. Inset: diakinesis, the cluster formed by the SCP and the
rod-like X univalents arranged in parallel. I, Ischnocolus jickelii, diplotene, end-to-end paring of loop X univalents. J,
Pterinochilus murinus, transition to diplotene. Note the association of the X univalent and the SCP (*). Middle part of
the SCP including centromeric knobs is positively heteropycnotic. Note the chiasmata outside of the deactivated region.
Inset: scheme of the X univalent (brown) and the SCP (blue, regions without deactivation; red, deactivated segment; ch,
chiasma); c, centromeric knob. K, Brachypelma albopilosum, metaphase I, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with
rDNA probe. Note the NOR bivalent and four loop X univalents (three form a cluster and one is separated) in the middle
of the plate. Inset: metaphase II, metacentric chromosome bearing terminal NOR. L, Psalmopoeus cambridgei (X1X20),
octoploid endomitotic nucleus containing a cluster of four X1X2 sets. Homologous X chromosomes are associated in parallel.
Scale bars: 10 mm, except for G (20 mm), J (5 mm), and the inset of K (2 mm).
were associated with the ends of the loop X univalents longer (2.6 and 2.3% of TCL, respectively) than the X3
(Fig. 8F, G). The SCPs migrated along with the X chromosome (1.3% of TCL). The silver staining of
univalents into the middle of the plate at the transi- metaphase II cells revealed extensive terminal NOR
tion to diplotene (Fig. 8G, H). The SCPs and X uni- at metacentric pairs 1 and 14 (Fig. 10B). Pachytene
valents showed only loose or no association at late nuclei contained three positively heteropycnotic
prophase I (Fig. 8H). bodies that were often associated (Fig. 11B). At tran-
sition to diplotene, two were converted into large
Barychelidae metacentric SCPs (Fig. 11C). The third body only
The karyotype of Cyphonisia sp. (2n = 40) was acro- disintegrated at diakinesis, namely into the X univa-
centric, except for four subtelocentric (nos 1, 4, 6, and lents that remained paired at one end until metapha-
7) and two submetacentric/subtelocentric pairs (nos 2 se I (Fig. 11D). They remained less spiralized than
and 3; Fig. 10A). Male meiotic segregation (showing the other chromosomes throughout meiosis (Fig. 10B).
the same chromosome number in sister met- In Iberesia machadoi Decae & Cardoso, 2006
aphases II) as well as a comparison of the sexes (the (2n = 76), only mitotic cells were available. A com-
same 2n in males and females) suggests the XY parison of male and female plates suggests an X1X20
system. However, the XY pair did not differ from the system. The autosomes were mainly subtelocentric,
autosome pairs in morphology (all pairs were com- except for five acrocentric (nos 1, 3, 30, 33, and 34),
posed by two chromosomes with the same morphol- three submetacentric (nos 9, 27, and 31), and three
ogy), pairing (all bivalents were chiasmatic), and metacentric (nos 21, 24, and 35) pairs. The presumed
pycnosis (all chromosomes were isopycnotic) at chromosomes X were monoarmed, and differed con-
available meiotic stages (diplotenemetaphase II; siderably in size. The karyotype included two SCPs.
Fig. 11A). They were the longest elements of the set, whereas
the longer metacentric pair was more than twice the
Nemesiidae size of the submetacentric pair (Fig. S5). One chro-
Acanthogonatus pissii (Simon, 1889) (2n = 61, mosome of the metacentric SCP contained terminal
X1X2X30) exhibited only metacentric pairs, except for NOR at both ends, one of which was remarkable for
two submetacentric (nos 17 and 24) and six acrocen- its large size (Fig. 11E). Chromosomes of both SCPs
tric (nos 23 and 2529) pairs. The X chromosomes were often associated separately at the metaphase
displayed a metacentric (X1 and X3) or subtelocentric (Fig. 11F), showing precocious chromatid separation
(X2) morphology. Chromosomes X1 and X2 were much (Fig. 11E).
16 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 9. Behaviour of theraphosid sex chromosome pairs (SCPs) at spermatogonial mitosis. The open arrow indicates
chromosomes of the SCP (1, long SCP; 2, short SCP). AD, Grammostola rosea. A, B, prophase, chromosomes of the two
SCPs are positively heteropycnotic, being located in the middle of the plate. At the beginning of division, they form a body
(A) that is disintegrated into a cluster of chromosomes at the late prophase (B). C, prometaphase, SCP chromosomes
persist in the middle of the plate showing association at one end (*) and delayed condensation. Insets: magnified
association of the SCP chromosomes (left) and scheme of this association (right) (black, chromosomes of long SCP; grey,
chromosomes of short SCP). D, metaphase containing a cluster of SCP chromosomes. They show a precocious chromatid
separation. Chromosomes of the two SCPs (1, 2) differ considerably in their size (arrows primary constrictions). E,
Holothele cf. longipes, transition to anaphase. The two metacentric SCPs have a similar size; chromosomes of each pair
are associated separately. Note the homologous attachment of chromosomes of the bottom pair. F, G, Idiothele mira, late
metaphase. Metacentric SCP chromosomes exhibit precocious chromatid separation. They are often associated by
homologous regions (G). H, Grammostola rosea, anaphase. Chromosomes of the SCP form a cluster in the middle of the
plate and exhibit slightly different condensation. I, Psalmopoeus cambridgei, incomplete spermatogonial metaphase
containing long SCP, C-banding (c, centromere; arrowhead, heterochromatin block). The metacentric SCP chromosomes
are associated by homologous regions in the middle of the plate. Inset: C-banded SCPs, compiled from two metaphases.
Note the considerable size difference of both pairs. They show a low content of heterochromatin. Scale bars: 10 mm, except
D (5 mm).
Figure 10. Male karyotypes of barychelids (A), nemesiids (B), and microstigmatids (C). A, Cyphonisia sp. (metaphase II),
the XY pair is unidentifiable. B, Acanthogonatus pissii (metaphase II, silver staining). Kinetochores, nucleolar organizer
regions (NORs, open arrowheads), and X chromosomes are argentophilic. The X chromosomes exhibit a delayed
condensation and separation of chromatids (arrowhead kinetochore). C, Microstigmata zuluensis (mitotic metaphase),
note monoarmed pairs (nos 23, 25, 2731, and 35). Scale bars: 10 mm.
18 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 11. Karyotype analysis and sex chromosome behaviour in germlines of barychelids (A), nemesiids (BF), and
microstigmatids (GI). Unless otherwise indicated, based on male plates; arrows, X chromosomes; open arrows, chromo-
somes of the sex chromosome pairs (SCPs); arrowheads, primary constrictions (centromeric knobs); open arrowheads,
nucleolar organizer regions (NORs); 1, metacentric SCP; 2, submetacentric SCP. A, Cyphonisia sp., diplotene composed
of 20 chiasmatic bivalents. All bivalents are without heteropycnosis, the XY bivalent is unidentifiable. BD, Acanthogo-
natus pissii. B, pachytene. The two rod-like SCPs are associated in parallel. Moreover, they are associated at one end with
a ball-shaped sex chromosome body (SCB). C, diplotene. Note the association of the SCB with the two large heteropycnotic
SCPs exhibiting metacentric morphology (ch chiasma). D, metaphase I, three X chromosomes pair at one end (*) in the
middle of the plate. E, F, Iberesia machadoi, spermatogonial mitosis. E, late metaphase, silver staining. Chromosomes of
the metacentric SCP are associated in parallel, showing a precocious chromatid separation. Note the NORs at the ends
of one SCP chromosome. F, early metaphase. Chromosomes of particular SCPs (1, 2) are associated separately. G,
Microstigmata amatola, spermatogonial metaphase. Chromosomes of the SCP are grouped at the periphery of the plate.
Inset: SCP chromosomes, magnified. Note the slightly precocious separation of chromatids. H, Microstigmata zuluensis,
part of telophase I. Note the group of five acrocentric X chromosomes showing positive heteropycnosis. I, Microstigmata
amatola, female, oogonial metaphase. Scale bars: 10 mm, except H (5 mm).
Microstigmatidae chromosome retained both heteropycnosis and

The two studied Microstigmata species had very dif- delayed segregation at the anaphase (Fig. 13D). The
ferent karyotypes. The set of Microstigmata amatola karyotype of Ancylotrypa sp. (2n = 86) was also
Griswold, 1985 (2n = 110) was monoarmed except acrocentric, except for the three longest pairs, which
for eight biarmed pairs (Fig. 11I), whereas the set exhibited a metacentric morphology (Fig. 13E).
of M. zuluensis (Lawrence, 1938) (2n = 75,
X1X2X3X4X50) contained both biarmed and mono-
Domiothelina
armed chromosomes, with the former comprising
approximately three-quarters of the karyotype Ctenizidae
(Fig. 10C). The X chromosomes were middle-sized The karyotypes of Cyrtocarenum cunicularium
acrocentrics of similar size (Figs 10C and 11H). The (Olivier, 1811) (2n = 74, X1X20) and Ummidia sp.
karyotypes of both species included a metacentric (2n = 53, X0) were mostly biarmed (Figs 12B and
SCP. These chromosomes were the largest pair of the S6A). The largest Cyrtocarenum pair was the meta-
set, exhibiting precocious chromatid separation at the centric SCP (7.7% of TCL); the remaining pairs
spermatogonial metaphase (Fig. 11G). The pachytene decreased gradually in size from 3.9 to 1.6% of TCL.
nuclei contained two SCBs. The body formed by X A comparison of male and female diploid number
chromosomes disintegrated only at diakinesis, suggested the X1X20 system; the putative X chromo-
namely into rod-like chromosomes that segregated to somes showed metacentric (X1, 2.4% of TCL) and
the same pole (Fig. 11H). submetacentric (X2, 1.2% of TCL) morphologies
(Fig. 12B). The SCP chromosomes showed precocious
chromatid separation at the spermatogonial met-
Cyrtaucheniidae
aphase (Fig. 13G). Moreover, they were often associ-
The chromosomes of Ancylotrypa cf. fossor (2n = 42)
ated at gonial mitoses of both sexes (Figs 13H and
were mostly acrocentric, with two subtelocentric pairs
S7). The comparison of Ummidia sexes suggested the
(nos 2 and 13) and submetacentric SCP. Chromo-
X0 system, with the putative X being submetacentric
somes of the SCP were the largest elements of the set
(Fig. S6A). A remarkably high chromosome number
(5.3 and 4% of TCL; Fig. 12A). Chromosomes of the
was found in Cyclocosmia siamensis Schwendinger,
remaining pairs decreased gradually in size from 3.1
2005 (2n = 128). The five longest chromosomes
to 1.8% of TCL. At the beginning of spermatogonial
displayed metacentric morphology, whereas three
mitosis, the SCP formed a positively heteropycnotic
other long chromosomes were subtelocentric. The
body at the periphery of the plate (Fig. 13A). During
karyotype included both biarmed and monoarmed
the disintegration of the body at the prometaphase,
pairs (Fig. 13F), with the former being more numer-
the SCP chromosomes showed a delayed condensa-
ous than the latter (~2 : 1).
tion, being associated with each other at one end
(Fig. 13B). At metaphase, they continued this associa-
tion or exhibited a parallel arrangement, whereas Idiopidae
their chromatids separated precociously (Fig. 12A). At The karyotype of Idiops syriacus O.P.-Cambridge,
the transition to anaphase, the SCP chromosomes 1870 (2n = 61) was mostly biarmed (Fig. S6B). The
were positively heteropycnotic, and segregation of data obtained are not sufficient to determine the sex
their chromatids was delayed (Fig. 13C). One SCP chromosome system, but the odd, largest chromosome
20 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure 12. Male sets of cyrtaucheniids (A), ctenizids (B), and migids (C) (based on spermatogonial metaphases).
Chromosomes of the first two species are arranged into pairs tentatively because their sex chromosome system is
unknown. A, Ancylotrypa cf. fossor. The original relative position of chromosomes of the sex chromosome pair (SCP) is
preserved (dashed line primary constriction). B, Cyrtocarenum cunicularium (subtelocentric pairs: nos 5, 8, and 15). C,
Poecilomigas abrahami. Scale bars: 10 mm.
Figure 13. Gonial mitoses of cyrtaucheniids (AE), ctenizids (FH), and migids (I). Unless otherwise indicated, based on
male plates; arrows, X chromosomes; open arrows, chromosomes of the sex chromosome pair (SCP); arrowheads, primary
constrictions. AD, Ancylotrypa cf. fossor, behaviour of SCP at spermatogonial mitosis. A, B, prometaphase. The body on
the periphery of the plate (A) disintegrates into SCP chromosomes (B). They are associated at one end (*). Inset: scheme
of association of SCP chromosomes. C, transition to anaphase. The SCP chromosomes show a delayed chromatid
segregation and positive heteropycnosis. D, anaphase. One SCP chromosome continues heteropycnosis and delayed
segregation. E, Ancylotrypa sp., female, oogonial metaphase. The three largest pairs are metacentric. F, Cyclocosmia
siamensis, spermatogonial metaphase. Note the five largest chromosomes showing metacentric morphology (arrowheads)
and three large subtelocentrics (st). G, H Cyrtocarenum cunicularium. G, spermatogonial metaphase. SCP chromosomes
display slightly precocious chromatid separation. H, female, oogonial metaphase. SCP chromosomes are associated with
each other (arrows 1 point to the ends of one chromosome and arrows 2 to the ends of the second chromosome). I,
Moggridgea peringueyi, female, oogonial metaphase. Metacentric X chromosomes are arranged in parallel. Arrowheads
indicate primary constrictions of another biarmed pair. Scale bars: 10 mm.
22 J. KRL ET AL.
(7.6% of TCL) showing a metacentric morphology previously indicated through morphological (Goloboff,
could be an X chromosome. Two metacentric pairs 1993) and molecular phylogenetic analyses (Hedin &
included large secondary constrictions (Fig. S6B). Bond, 2006; Bond et al., 2012). In contrast, thera-
phosids as well as the ctenizid genera studied appear
to be monophyletic (Fig. 14, Bond et al., 2012). In the
Migidae
case of congeneric mygalomorph species, their karyo-
A common feature of the analysed migids was
types always differ in one or more basic characters,
a relatively low 2n and a predominance of acrocen-
namely diploid number, chromosome morphology,
tric chromosomes. Poecilomigas abrahami (O.P.-
and/or sex chromosome system (based on Rezc et al.,
Cambridge, 1889) (2n = 33, X0) exhibited only two
2006; Krl et al., 2011; this study). Remarkably, we
biarmed autosome pairs (nos 2 and 6). The metacen-
have not found intraspecific variability of these char-
tric X chromosome was the longest element of the
acters, suggesting that karyotype data may be an
karyotype (7.1% of TCL), being 1.8 times longer than
effective method to distinguish closely related species
the chromosomes of the first pair (Fig. 12C). The
of these morphologically conservative spiders.
female set of Moggridgea peringueyi Simon, 1903
Most mygalomorphs studied so far exhibit mostly
(2n = 36) contained only two biarmed pairs. The
biarmed chromosomes (Rezc et al., 2006; Krl et al.,
first pair exhibited a metacentric morphology and
2011; this study), which also prevail in phylogeneti-
considerable length (12.8% of TCL, i.e. 1.5 times
cally early-diverging clades of the infraorder Araneo-
longer than the second pair). These patterns suggest
morphae (Krl et al., 2006). In contrast, mesotheles
that it is formed by X chromosomes. Chromosomes of
exhibit a predominance of acrocentrics (Krl et al.,
the X pair were often arranged in parallel at the
2010). This pattern indicates that the prevalence of
oogonial metaphase (Fig. 13I).
biarmed elements may be ancestral for the suborder
Opisthothelae. Interestingly, a substantial portion of
acrocentrics was found in all mygalomorphs with
DISCUSSION
male diploid numbers higher than 100, i.e. Cycloco-
DIPLOID NUMBERS AND AUTOSOME MORPHOLOGY smia siamensis (Ctenizidae), Microstigmata amatola
Although mygalomorphs exhibit less morphological (Microstigmatidae), Paratropis species (Paratropidi-
and species diversity than entelegyne araneomorphs, dae; this study), and Poecilotheria formosa (Thera-
their karyotypes are much more differentiated. phosidae; Krl et al., 2011). According to our
Considerable karyotype variability has also been hypothesis, these karyotypes have evolved independ-
found in haplogyne araneomorphs (Krl et al., 2006). ently from ancestral biarmed complements by fis-
Increased rates of chromosome evolution in haplo- sions. This view is supported by a comparison of the
gynes and mygalomorphs could be related to their two Microstigmata species (this study). The karyo-
less efficient dispersal capabilities. Specifically, the type of M. amatola (2n = 110) contains a much
ability to disperse by air, a specific spider strategy greater proportion of monoarmed chromosomes than
employed to spread over long distances, is reduced or the set of M. zuluensis (2n = 75), which is domi-
absent in haplogynes (Beatty, 1970) and mygalo- nated by biarmed chromosomes. The small size of
morphs (Coyle et al., 1985). Consequently, isolated the monoarmed chromosomes in M. zuluensis indi-
populations of these spiders might accumulate chro- cates that they have also been generated by fission.
mosome rearrangements. Some other mygalomorphs with a prevalence of
Mygalomorphs show a wide range of male diploid biarmed chromosomes are also noted for the small
numbers, ranging from 14 (Atypus affinis Eichwald, size of their monoarmed chromosomes, namely Acan-
1830, Atypidae, Rezc et al., 2006; and Ischnothele thogonatus (Nemesiidae), Linothele (Dipluridae), and
caudata, Dipluridae, this study) to 128 (Cyclocosmia Psalmopoeus (Theraphosidae) (this study). Their
siamensis, Ctenizidae, this study). Our data show monoarmed chromosomes could also have originated
that the diploid numbers in mygalomorphs are gen- by fission. We suggest that mygalomorph sets
erally much higher than in araneomorphs. The showing low diploid numbers arose by an opposite
diploid number of Cyclocosmia is the highest found in process, namely by fusions. In this context, it is
spiders so far. Considerable variability in diploid remarkable that some karyotypes showing a low 2n
numbers has also been found in many families and contain pair(s) that are much smaller than the
even in some genera of mygalomorphs. Extreme others, namely in the atypid Atypus affinis (Rezc
ranges of 2n were found in the families Ctenizidae et al., 2006) and harpactirine theraphosids (this
(2n = 53128), Dipluridae (2n = 1490), and study). These chromosomes may represent unfused
Theraphosidae (2n = 25110) (Krl et al., 2011; this relicts of the original set. The reduction of 2n is a
study). The considerable variability of 2n in the diplu- basic trend of araneomorph karyotype evolution
rids may reflect their paraphyly, which has been (Krl et al., 2006).
Some mygalomorph families also include species 2003). Male NORs of Acanthogonatus (Nemesiidae)
with a predominance of monoarmed chromosomes, are also visualized by silver during the second meiotic
namely Antrodiaetidae (Antrodiaetus riversi) (this division, which indicates transcription of rRNA genes
study), Atypidae (Atypus karschi Dnitz, 1887) at the preceding interphase and prophase nucleus, i.e.
(Suzuki, 1954), Cyrtaucheniidae (Ancylotrypa spp.) during interkinesis and prophase II. With respect to
(this study), Dipluridae [Diplura cf. petrunkevitchi other animals, such patterns of NOR activity have
(Caporiacco, 1955)] (Krl et al., 2011), Nemesiidae only been reported in other arthropod groups (Krl
(Iberesia machadoi), and Theraphosidae (Pelinobius et al., 2008).
muticus) (this study). Moreover, all of the barychelids Interestingly, NORs have also been detected on
(one species) and migids (two species) studied possess spider sex chromosomes. Location of NORs on multi-
a predominance of monoarmed chromosomes (this ple sex chromosomes and their derivatives is frequent
study). Monoarmed karyotypes could arise from the in haplogynes (Krl et al., 2006), being a possible
hypothesized original biarmed set by pericentric synapomorphy for certain clades (Krl et al., 2006;
inversions. This hypothesis conforms to the karyotype Oliveira et al., 2007). In contrast, it appears to be
pattern found in the two clades for which data from uncommon in entelegynes (Krl et al., 2011). In myga-
multiple species are available: Atypoidea and Thera- lomorphs, this NOR position has been demonstrated
phosidae. Representatives of Atypoidea and thera- only in the diplurids Ischnothele (Ischnothelinae)
phosids showing a predominance of acrocentric (chromosomes X and Y) and Linothele (Diplurinae)
chromosomes possess similar 2n values as most (one X chromosome; this study). Despite the hetero-
members with biarmed karyotype belonging to these chromatinization of the gonosomes during male
clades (Rezc et al., 2006; this study). The evolution of prophase I, their NORs were active during this
some monoarmed sets probably includes a substantial period. As morphological analysis does not support
reduction of diploid numbers, as suggested by two the placement of subfamilies Ischnothelinae and
Ancylotrypa species (Cyrtaucheniidae) that differ Diplurinae into a monophyletic family (Goloboff,
considerably in 2n and exhibit a prevalence of 1993; Fig. 14), sex chromosome-linked NORs of these
monoarmed chromosomes (this study). diplurids probably arose independently. The NORs
could also be present on the X chromosome of Aliaty-
pus (X0), as indicated by the presence of an odd
NUCLEOLAR ORGANIZER REGIONS NOR-chromosome in this species (this study). Finally,
Nucleolar organizer regions (NORs) have only been we revealed SCP-linked NORs in the nemesiid Iber-
detected in several araneomorph families so far esia, where one SCP chromosome of the males con-
(Dolej et al., 2011). To study the evolution of myga- tains NOR at both ends, whereas its homologue bears
lomorph NORs, their position has been determined in no NOR. One SCP-linked NOR exhibits large size.
representatives of the families Antrodiaetidae, Diplu- This pattern could arise by the loss of NORs from
ridae, Mecicobothriidae, Nemesiidae, and Theraphosi- one SCP chromosome, promoting an expansion of
dae. The mygalomorphs studied display one or two one remaining SCP-linked NOR. Besides the sex
pairs of NORs, usually placed at the ends of the chromosome-linked NORs, the karyotype of Iberesia
autosome arms. Notably, most araneomorphs exhibit contains only one pair of autosome NORs (J. Krl,
the same range as well as predominant position of unpubl. data).
NORs, suggesting that this pattern is a symplesio-
morphy of araneomorphs and mygalomorphs. Inter-
estingly, enormous secondary constrictions/NORs on SEX CHROMOSOME EVOLUTION
one or even two autosome pairs have been found in Multiple sex chromosomes and their derivatives
many mygalomorphs, belonging to disparate families The multiple X chromosomes of most mygalomorphs
(Rezc et al., 2006; Krl et al., 2011; this study). Less are biarmed. Except for Linothele (this study), X
pronounced expansion of NORs has also been chromosomes showing predominantly monoarmed
revealed in some entelegynes (Dolej et al., 2011). The morphology have only been reported in species in
ample mygalomorph NORs are stained completely by which autosome complements show a considerable
silver. As silver staining is confined to the active portion, or even dominance, of monoarmed chromo-
rRNA genes (Miller et al., 1976), these results indi- somes (Suzuki, 1954; Krl et al., 2011; this study).
cate transcriptional activity of the whole NOR. We This correlation suggests the operation of the same
hypothesize that in mygalomorphs the NORs have rearrangements within autosome and X chromosome
expanded independently on multiple occasions to complement of these species.
compensate for their low number. All representatives of Atypoidea are reported to
In general, meiotic activity of NORs is restricted to exhibit the X0 system (Rezc et al., 2006; this study),
the prophase and metaphase I, respectively (Sumner, except for Atypus karschi (X1X20 system; Suzuki,
24 J. KRL ET AL.
Araneomorphae
C N
Aliatypus 2 2
7A 4A ?
C M N
C 1 Antrodiaetus 2 2A 2
9 2B 5
Opisthothelae
1A
M Atypoidea C N S
2A C N S A. karschi 3
1 1 1
Atypus 9 # 1??
N 2 2 6# 2 A. muralis
6A C
P 1 3
C A. piceus
S 1 4
2
C N
3 A. affinis
Mygalomorphae
4 2
7A 5
N
Megahexura 2
5
M S
Euagrus 1A 4
1C 4A 1
C M N S
Ischnothele 5 2A 2 4!
7A 2B 4B 4D
Macrothele
Avicularioidea
M N P S M. yaginumai
C P S 2A 2 3A 4!X
1 1 1 2B 5 6# 3B 4A1 M. gigas
5 2 4
C M N P S
Diplura 5 1A 2 3B 4
9 1B 5 6# 3C 4C
C N P S
D Paratropis
Linothele 5 2 2 4 !X
8A 4A 3A 2 4A 3
C N P S P. sp. (Colombia)
5 2 4!X S
Antrodiaetidae
8B # 3A2 4A2 P. sp. (Mexico) 4A2
4E
C N
Atypidae
P S Acanthogonatus 5 2 6A
8A 5 6B
3A 4 C M N P S
Mecicobothriidae 3B 4B1 Iberesia 5 2 3B 4B 1
9 # 4C 6# 3B 1 3D 4B 2
Microstigmata C S
Dipluridae
C N P M. zuluensis 8 4!X
8A 4A 3
5 2 C S
Hexathelidae
8 # 3A M. amatola 8
8B #
N
Paratropididae
Brachypelma (T) 2
theraphosids
New World
Nemesiidae C
5 Holothele (T)
6 P S
Microstigmatidae N P S Grammostola (T)
Crassitarsae
3B 4B1
3A 4 3B1 4B2
C P S
Theraphosidae # 3B 4B1
Psalmopoeus (P) 6 3B 4B1
8A 3B1 4B2
N P S
Barychelidae
Ischnocolus (I) 2 4
# 3A 2 4B 1
C N P
theraphosids
Old World
Cyrtaucheniidae
Poecilotheria (S) 5 2
P 8B # 3A 2
CN P S
Ctenizidae 2
3A
Pelinobius (E) 5 2 4
9 # 3A2 4B1
Migidae
C P S Pterinochilus (H)
5 2 4B2 N
Idiopidae
7A 3A1 4B3 Idiothele (H) 2
3
D Supposed duplication of genome

Cyphonisia
C N S
5 4!
7C # 4D
Detection of one SCP in male germline Ancylotrypa C P
C M N A. cf. fossor 9 2 2
7B 3A 3 3D
5
Detection of two SCPs in male germline 9 # # @ P
A. sp.
#
@ Data on SCP not available C S
Cyclocosmia 5
8B #
P S
Character set Cyrtocarenum 2 4B 1
Original state 3A 4B 2
Apomorphy N
@ P S
Ummidia 4B2
# 4B3
@
Domiothelina
? Possible presence of character # P

C S Moggridgea
M #
5 4B2
?? Doubtful
7C 4B3 Poecilomigas
#
# Data not available N S
Idiops 2
5 6# #
Figure 14. Summary of hypotheses on mygalomorph karyotype evolution, based on data from the present study, Suzuki
(1954; Atypus karschi), Rezc et al. (2006; European species of Atypus), and Krl et al. (2011; Diplura and Poecilotheria).
The phylogeny used to map cytogenetic characters represents a compilation of hypotheses based on different character
data, namely molecular and morphological (Bond et al., 2012; black branches), morphological (diplurids, Goloboff, 1993;
theraphosids, Raven, 1985; Smith, 1990; Samm & Schmidt, 2010; Cyrtocarenum, Raven, 1985; black dashed branches),
morphological and cytogenetic (Atypus, Suzuki, 1954; Rezc et al., 2006; grey branches), and cytogenetic (theraphosids,
Krl et al., 2011; this study; grey dashed branches). Theraphosid taxonomy follows Raven (1985), except for the restriction
of Ischnocolinae to Old World taxa (Smith, 1990) and the removal of Psalmopoeus from the subfamily Selenocosmiinae
(Samm & Schmidt, 2010). This taxonomic arrangement is in the best accordance with cytogenetic data. Theraphosid
subfamilies included: Eumenophorinae (E), Harpactirinae (H), Ischnocolinae (I), Psalmopoeinae (P), Selenocosmiinae (S),
and Theraphosinae (T).
Character sets
C, chromosome number and morphology
Ancestral male karyotypes (prevalence of biarmed chromosomes)
C1, 2n = 4050; C2, 2n = 47?; C3, 2n = 43?; C4, 2n = 41; C5, 2n = 7090 (origin by duplication of genome?); C6,
2n = 70.
Evolution of chromosome morphology
C7, considerable reduction of 2n [chromosome morphology of resulting karyotype: A, prevalence of biarmed chromosomes
retained; B, prevalence of monoarmed chromosomes retained (operation of tandem fusions or cycles of centric fusions and
subsequent pericentric inversions); C, prevalence of monoarmed chromosomes, chromosome morphology of ancestral set
unclear]; C8, chromosome fissions [A, limited operation of fissions most chromosomes remain biarmed (most
monoarmed chromosomes exhibit small size); B, frequent operation of fissions 2n > 100, substantial portion of
monoarmed chromosomes]; C9, frequent operation of pericentric inversions prevalence of monoarmed chromosomes.
M, male meiosis
M1, suppression of chiasmata (A, no suppression, chiasmate meiosis, ancestral; B, expression of chismata delayed,
cryptochiasmate meiosis; C, suppression of chiasmata, achiasmate meiosis); M2, diffuse stage (A, no, ancestral; B, yes).
N, nucleolar organizer region (NOR)
N1, low number of NORs; N2, secondary constrictions/NORs located at distal/subdistal parts of arms of chromosome pairs;
N3, pericentric NOR; N4, sex chromosome-linked NOR (location: A, X chromosome; B, neo-XY chromosomes; C, SCP); N5,
expansion of secondary constrictions/NORs of one or two chromosome pairs; N6, meiotic activity of NORs (A, restricted
to prophase and metaphase I, ancestral; B, also during interkinesis and onset of the second meiotic division).
P, sex chromosome pair (SCP)
P1, supposed ancestral homomorphic SCP without specific behaviour in male germline; P2, supposed two homomorphic
SCPs without specific behaviour in male germline (metacentric morphology and similar size of both pairs), second SCP
arose by duplication of the ancestral SCP?; P3, evolution of two SCPs [A, male germline contains one SCP exhibiting
specific behaviour and morphological changes, respectively (1, partial meiotic heterochromatinization; 2, complete meiotic
heterochromatinization; 3, submetacentric SCP); B, male germline contains two SCPs exhibiting specific behaviour and
morphological changes, respectively (1, one SCP is reduced and submetacentric); C, male germline contains one enormous
SCP exhibiting specific behaviour origin by fusion of two SCPs?; D, initial morphological differentiation of SCP
chromosomes].
S, multiple X chromosomes and their derivatives
S1, ancestral X1X20 system; S2, fusion of X1 and X2 chromosomes X0 system; S3, X-autosome(s) fusion XY system
containing neo-Y chromosome; S4, X1X2X3X40 system (origin by duplication of X1X20 system?) and its evolution [!, ancestral
sex chromosome system unclear; !X, ancestral multiple X chromosome system unclear; A, increase of X chromosome
number (supposed origin of X chromosomes: 1, non-disjunctions of X chromosomes; 2, non-disjunctions and fissions of X
chromosomes; 3, fissions of X chromosomes); B, systems originated by X chromosome fusions (1, X1X2X30; 2, X1X20; 3, X0);
C, X-autosome rearrangements without production of sex chromosome; D, XY system containing neo-Y (evolution of
system included X-autosome fusion); E, multiple sex chromosome system containing neo-Y (origin by X-autosome fusion)].
1954) and A. affinis (XY system; Rezc et al., 2006). metacentric chromosome of the X0 system probably
The X chromosome of the X0 system is always meta- arose by a centric fusion of acrocentric chromosomes
centric. Its arms are attached in parallel during the of the ancestral X1X20 system of spiders. Provided
male prophase I (Krl et al., 2011; this study), and that the X1X20 system originated by the non-
can thus be easily mistaken for two X chromosomes. disjunction of a single X chromosome, the meiotic
Therefore, the report of the X1X20 system in association of the X chromosome arms in Atypoidea
A. karschi (Suzuki, 1954) should be confirmed. The may reflect their homeology (Krl et al., 2011). The
26 J. KRL ET AL.
origin of the X0 system by fusion is also supported by gonosomes. This hypothesis is supported by the
the large size of X chromosome in most represen- small size of sex chromosomes in these genera. The
tatives of Atypoidea. The XY system of A. affinis two largest X chromosomes of Linothele are
presumably originated from the X0 system by biarmed, and may represent the original biarmed
X-autosome fusion(s) (Rezc et al., 2006). chromosomes unaffected by fission. In contrast to
Members of the superfamily Avicularioidea display Linothele and Microstigmata, sex chromosomes of
a considerable diversity of sex chromosomes. Data the two Macrothele species studied are biarmed, as
on Domiothelina are scarce: they suggest only the in most other species of Avicularioidea. This pattern
presence of X0 and X1X20 systems. Most members of does not correspond to the operation of fissions.
early-diverging Avicularioidea and Crassitarsae Another possibility to explain the increase in sex
possess multiple X chromosomes consisting of more chromosome numbers are X-autosome rearrange-
than two elements (Krl et al., 2011; this study). ments. However, this hypothesis is not consistent
Although the X1X2X30 and X1X2X3X40 systems have with: (1) the absence of Y chromosome(s); (2) a
also been found in some entelegynes (Kornkov & similar number of autosome arms in Macrothele
Krl, 2013), those composed of higher numbers of X yaginumai (nine X chromosomes, 136 arms) and
chromosomes have only been discovered in some M. gigas (13 X chromosomes, 138 arms); and (3)
early-diverging Avicularioidea (this study). The end-to-end pairing of meiotic sex chromosomes. Ter-
largest numbers of X chromosomes were found in minal sex chromosome segments formed by auto-
the genera Macrothele and Paratropis. Macrothele some material, as well as sex chromosomes of
gigas exhibits 13 X chromosomes, representing a autosome origin, do not exhibit end-to-end pairing in
multiple X system with the largest number of chro- mygalomorphs (see below). Finally, sex chromosomes
mosomes known so far. The peculiar behaviour of of Macrothele could arise by non-disjunctions, as
the X1X2X3X40 system during the female meiosis of suggested for multiple X chromosomes of entelegyne
Avicularioidea suggests that this system originated spiders composed of two, three, or four elements
by duplication of the X1X20 system: four sex chro- (Kornkov & Krl, 2013). In this context, it is
mosome pairs form two associations, each consisting interesting that the increase in the number of sex
of two pairs with a similar structure (Krl et al., chromosomes is not accompanied by an expansion of
2011). This pattern has been found in two distantly their CH. The reduction of some sex chromosomes
related families, diplurids and theraphosids, sug- may reflect the exclusion of redundant DNA.
gesting that the X1X2X3X40 system is ancestral in The Y chromosome has been found in several
the superfamily Avicularioidea. Systems with lower members of Avicularioidea, namely Cyphonisia sp.
numbers of X chromosomes have probably origi- (XY) (Barychelidae), Ischnothele caudata (XY) (Diplu-
nated by XX fusions. This hypothesis is supported ridae), and Paratropis sp. (X1X2X3X4X5X6X7Y) (Parat-
by two observations. First, the X0 system occurs ropididae) (this study). Chiasmatic pairing between
only in karyotypes with a low 2n that have been, X and Y chromosomes suggests that the origin of
with all probability, derived by fusions. Second, these systems is X-autosome rearrangement(s). In
intercalar CH found in one X chromosome of Psal- Ischnothele males, the X is partially heterochromatic
mopoeus (X1X20) could evolve from the centromeric during some meiotic stages. The heterochromatic
CH of a chromosome involved in fusion. Intercalar region probably corresponds to the original X chro-
CH is otherwise rare in mygalomorphs (J. Krl, mosome material, which retains its pycnotic behav-
unpubl. data). Our results suggest frequent fusions iour. Finally, the system of Paratropis sp. (Mexico)
of X chromosomes during the evolution of Aviculari- arose presumably from the X1X2X3X4X5X6X70 system
oidea, especially in the family Theraphosidae. In the found in Paratropis sp. (Colombia), specifically by an
subfamily Theraphosinae, the number of male X X-autosome fusion. The part of the neo-X chromosome
chromosomes decreased from a hypothesized ances- corresponding to the original sex chromosome retains
tral four (Brachypelma) to two elements (Grammo- its meiotic association with the other X chromosomes.
stola). In harpactirines, X chromosomes were Despite the overall similarity in behaviour of X
reduced even to a single element (Fig. 14). X chro- chromosomes in the male germline of all opisthothele
mosome fusions have also been frequent during ara- spiders, there are two traits that are specific for
neomorph evolution (Kornkov & Krl, 2013). mygalomorphs (this study). First, in contrast to ara-
Systems with more than four X chromosomes neomorphs, the X chromosomes of mygalomorphs are
could evolve by fissions or non-disjunctions of X never heteropycnotic at spermatogonia, and only
chromosomes, or a combination of these modes. Fis- rarely exhibit any differential behaviour at this stage.
sions are supposed to take part in the formation of Second, the X chromosomes of early-diverging Avicu-
complements comprising a high number of mostly larioidea and Crassitarsae migrate from the periph-
(Linothele) or exclusively (Microstigmata) acrocentric ery to the middle of the nucleus at the transition to
diplotene, and persist in this area until metaphase I. Sex chromosome pairs
This migration could be common to all mygalomorphs Besides X chromosomes, an SCP has previously been
or at least Avicularioidea; however, data from the detected in some opisthothele spiders (Krl et al.,
other mygalomorphs (Atypoidea, Domiothelina) are 2006; 2011; Krl, 2007). The origin of the SCP is
missing. In some taxa, X chromosome migration is unresolved. Its presence in two primary clades of
delayed (Euagrus) or completed earlier (Macrothele spiders (araneomorphs and mygalomorphs), as well
gigas). The cause of this peculiar movement is as low differentiation, suggest that it could represent
unknown. In contrast, the X chromosomes of araneo- the original spider gonosomes. This pair could
morphs are reported to be placed on the plate periph- produce multiple X chromosomes by non-disjunctions
ery until metaphase I. (Krl, 2007).
During male prophase I of most Avicularioidea, The SCP of some haplogynes and mygalomorphs
each X chromosome forms a loop, with the ends of the shows specific behaviour in the male germ, including
sex chromosomes forming an achiasmatic cluster deactivation by heterochromatinization. Remarkably,
(Krl et al., 2011; this study). Interestingly, the meta- this behaviour is somewhat different in both groups
centric univalent of the X0 system also demonstrates (Krl et al., 2006; 2011; this study). Furthermore, in
a loop morphology and terminal association of the mygalomorphs it is detectable already at the sperma-
chromosome arms. Achiasmatic pairing of sex chro- togonial prophase (Krl et al., 2011; this study),
mosomes can be accomplished in various ways, whereas in haplogynes it only appears during the
including association by NORs or nucleolus (see Wolf, premeiotic interphase (Krl et al., 2006). Heterochro-
1994 for a review). Data from FISH suggest that the matinization of the SCP is much more frequent in
end-to-end pairing of X univalents in mygalomorphs mygalomorphs than in haplogynes. It has been found
is not ensured by NORs or nucleolar material (this in more than half of the mygalomorphs for which the
study; J. Krl, M. Forman, and I. M. vila Herrera, male germline has been investigated to date, namely
unpubl. data). This end-to-end pairing, also discov- in eight families of Avicularioidea. Some families
ered in some haplogynes and early-diverging entel- include both species with or without SCP (Fig. 14).
egynes, is probably ancestral in opisthothele spiders We suggest that the apparent absence of SCP in some
(so-called X1X2Y-like pairing; Krl et al., 2011). Acro- mygalomorphs results from its undifferentiated state
centric X chromosomes of most entelegynes are and the absence of specific behaviour in the male
attached in parallel and associated by their centro- germ. Consequently, it is not detectable by light
meric regions with a centrosome, as revealed by TEM microscopy, much as in entelegyne spiders. This
(Krl et al., 2011). The same association could also be hypothesis is supported by similar morphology of the
maintained by the cluster of sex chromosome ends in SCP in all mygalomorphs. This pair is always formed
spiders with X1X2Y-like pairing. by large biarmed chromosomes. In particular families
Meiotic pairing of X chromosomes is modified in the heterochromatinization of SCP is often restricted
some species of Avicularioidea. Pairing of the pre- to some species only. Therefore, one can assume that
dominantly monoarmed X chromosomes (Linothele, it has evolved independently on multiple occasions
Microstigmata, and Pelinobius) is already completed during mygalomorph evolution. Notably, the hetero-
during the disintegration of the SCB. The mode of chromatinic SCP of haplogynes shows the same
their pairing within SCB is unknown. In Acanthogo- pattern of distribution and is also formed by large
natus, following SCB disintegration, the pairing of biarmed chromosomes (Krl et al., 2006). The meiotic
two metacentric and one subtelocentric X chromo- silencing of the SCP presumably prevents the differ-
somes is restricted to one end. A similar pairing entiated chromosomes of this pair from recombining
pattern was detected in the haplogyne spider Pholcus (Krl et al., 2011). This hypothesis is corroborated by
(X1X2Y) (Krl et al., 2006). The submetacentric X2 of the morphological differentiation of the SCP chromo-
Pholcus also pairs by the end of one arm only, but somes in the mygalomorphs Ancylotrypa and Iberesia.
unlike Acanthogonatus, both ends of metacentric Besides this, SCP chromosomes of Ancylotrypa differ
chromosomes X1 and Y are involved in the pairing. from each other by the pattern of heterochromatini-
Another cause of early completion of X chromosome zation at spermatogonial mitosis, which presumably
pairing could be an addition of autosome material to also reflects their structural differentiation (this
one end of the X chromosomes (Krl et al., 2011). In study).
this context, it should be noted that Avicularioidea Unexpectedly, some members of Avicularioidea
sex chromosomes derived from autosomes do not take exhibit two SCPs, namely most New World thera-
part in end-to-end pairing (this study). These obser- phosids and all of the hexathelids and nemesiids
vations indicate that the X chromosome ends of Avicu- analysed (Fig. 14). Both SCPs exhibit standard seg-
larioidea contain specific information ensuring their regation of chromosomes to the opposite poles during
meiotic association. anaphase I, suggesting that each pair is formed by an
28 J. KRL ET AL.
X and Y chromosome. The second pair could arise Regardless of the process generating the copy of the
from fission of a single biarmed SCP; however, this SCP, duplicated chromosomes could affect meiosis by
would contradict our findings. First, both pairs are pairing with chromosomes of the original pair,
always biarmed. Second, their size is not substan- forming a multivalent. To reduce the negative conse-
tially reduced in comparison with the original single quences of chromosome duplications, polyploid plants
SCP; one or both pairs are large chromosomes. A more have evolved genetic systems promoting the meiotic
plausible explanation of this pattern is that the pairing of true homologues. They include the forma-
second pair arose by duplication. This idea is sup- tion of clusters comprised of homologous and home-
ported by the often similar size and morphology of ologous chromosomes, which evolve into homologous
both pairs, as well as by a peculiar pairing behaviour associations (Martinez-Perez et al., 2003). A similar
of the SCP chromosomes during spermatogonial structure is the unique end-to-end association of deac-
mitosis (see below). Remarkably, the families exhib- tivated X chromosome bivalents in spider females
iting two SCPs are not closely related. Provided that during the premeiotic interphase and prophase I,
Avicularioidea with none, one, or two deactivated which presumably ensures the pairing of homologous
SCPs represent various stages of the gradual differ- X chromosomes (Krl et al., 2011). Our data suggest
entiation of two SCPs, the original SCP was most that the attachment of homologous X chromosomes
probably duplicated in the common ancestor of this as well as homologous SCP chromosomes is already
superfamily (Fig. 14). This can be traced back more initiated at oogonial mitosis of spider females. A
than 200 Myr, as the first known avicularioid, a rep- similar end-to-end mechanism probably discriminates
resentative of ancient hexathelids, was found in between homologous and homeologous SCP chromo-
Middle Triassic formations (Penney & Selden, 2011). somes in spermatogonia of mygalomorph males. The
Remarkably, our data suggest that the X1X20 system association of the deactivated SCP chromosomes
has also undergone a duplication in ancient Aviculari- found at the onset of spermatogonial mitosis is
oidea (Krl et al., 2011); therefore, the most probable resolved after the prometaphase, namely into pairs
scenario of the sex chromosome evolution in Avicu- formed by homologous chromosomes (this study). The
larioidea is a simultaneous duplication of multiple X association of SCP chromosomes appears very early in
chromosomes and SCP via polyploidization of the spermatogonia of mygalomorphs. It has already been
genome. observed in the first nymphal instars of Crassitarsae
In general, sex chromosomes form a considerable and Domiothelina (J. Krl, unpubl. data). It is possi-
barrier to polyploidization. Their duplication can lead ble that spider systems ensuring meiotic pairing of
to a disruption of sex-determining mechanisms homologous sex chromosomes can also promote
(Mable, 2004); however, the data available indicate pairing of homologous autosomes. If so, they can take
frequent duplications of sex chromosomes during part in the maintenance of allopolyploid genomes,
spider evolution (Kornkov & Krl, 2013; this study). namely in ensuring the formation of autosome biva-
Tolerance of spider genomes to sex chromosome lents composed of homologous chromosomes.
duplications could facilitate the establishment of The mygalomorph SCPs show similar behaviour to
polyploidy in mygalomorphs. We hypothesize that X chromosomes during male meiosis. They exhibit a
chromosomes of the original mygalomorph SCP were species-specific pycnotic cycle and migrate into the
largely undifferentiated, as found in entelegynes, and nuclear centre, along with X chromosomes. Further-
contained few genes involved in sex determination. more, they are associated with X univalents during
These features could facilitate the integration of the the premeiotic interphase and prophase I. However,
duplicated pair into the genome. This process could be this association was not observed in all plates, which
accelerated by structural differentiation of the newly suggests its fragility. Similar to X univalents, the
formed SCP, including the loss of dispensable association of SCPs with other elements is ensured by
sequences, which could explain the reduction of one their ends. This supports the hypothesis that X chro-
SCP in two genera of South American theraphosids mosomes have originated by non-disjunctions of SCP
and nemesiid Iberesia. It is remarkable that the chromosomes (Krl, 2007).
karyotypes of these spiders contain fewer X chromo- Interestingly, the SCP of harpactirine theraphosids
somes, which is also supposed to be a derived char- is only partially heterochromatic during male meiosis:
acter of sex chromosome evolution in Avicularioidea the chiasmata are localized outside the deactivated
(Fig. 14). In spite of the reduction, the SCP does not region. We propose two hypotheses to explain this
show an increased level of CH and retains its biarmed pattern. First, it may represent an early stage of
morphology. Interestingly, biarmed morphology of the differentiation of SCP chromosomes. The heterochro-
SCP is also retained in predominantly monoarmed matic segment could undergo extensive structural
sets, and thus is probably essential for the function or differentiation that leads to its meiotic deactivation,
stability of these chromosomes in mygalomorphs. including the inhibition of recombination; however,
this hypothesis is in conflict with the fact that SCPs rothele (Hexathelidae), as well as diplurid subfamily
of other mygalomorphs are completely heterochro- Ischnothelinae (this study; J. Krl, unpubl. data). The
matic but undergo recombination. Alternatively, har- X chromosomes and SCP(s) stay silenced at the
pactirine SCP could arise by fusion of the original diffuse stage, which suggests the suppression of their
SCP, which retains deactivation, with autosome mate- transcription.
rial showing standard meiotic behaviour. This expla-
nation seems to be more probable: the frequent fusion
processes during the evolution of harpactirines are KARYOTYPE EVOLUTION OF MYGALOMORPHS
indicated by low number of autosomes and X chromo- Hypotheses on mygalomorph karyotype evolution are
somes in these spiders in comparison with other summarized in Figure 14. The remarkable karyotype
theraphosids. Rearrangements between the SCP and diversity discovered in this study supports the recog-
autosomes have already been demonstrated in the nition of two primary mygalomorph lineages: the
entelegyne genus Malthonica (Krl, 2007). A peculiar superfamilies Atypoidea and Avicularioidea. Atypoi-
meiotic behaviour of the SCP was also found in dea is characterized by relatively low diploid numbers
Diplura, the biarmed SCP of which is remarkable for (2n 47); all species probably possess the X0
its enormous size. In contrast to other spiders, the system, or its derivatives. The ancestral male karyo-
arms of the SCP are associated with each other at the type of this clade probably consisted of 4050 pre-
beginning of male meiosis (Krl et al., 2011). Accord- dominantly biarmed chromosomes, including a single
ing to our hypothesis, this pair arose by centric fusion X chromosome (Fig. 4). This condition is still common
of two acrocentric SCPs. This idea is supported by the in Atypoidea (Rezc et al., 2006; this study). Diploid
large size of the SCP, as well as the acrocentric numbers were reduced considerably in some species
morphology of most of the other elements of the set. of the Antrodiaetidae (this study) and Atypidae
The association of the arms may reflect the homeology (Rezc et al., 2006). Most representatives of Aviculari-
of the original SCPs. oidea are distinguished by high diploid numbers
(2n > 70) and multiple X chromosomes containing
more than two elements.
MODIFICATIONS OF MEIOTIC DIVISION Furthermore, our data allow us to determine some
Males of some mygalomorphs exhibit modifications of basic features of karyotype evolution in spiders and
the first meiotic division. Suppression of chiasmata mygalomorphs. Mesotheles show a high number
has been observed in two diplurid genera. Whereas in (2n = 6996) of predominantly acrocentric chromo-
Diplura the chiasmata only exhibit delayed expres- somes (Suzuki, 1954; Krl et al., 2010). In contrast,
sion (cryptochiasmate meiosis) (Krl et al., 2011), the original complement of opisthotheles presumably
they are completely absent in Euagrus (achiasmate comprised approximately 4050 chromosomes and
meiosis; this study). Cryptochiasmate meiosis is prob- showed a prevalence of biarmed chromosomes. This
ably an evolutionary intermediate between chiasmate karyotype is suggested to be ancestral, both in
and achiasmate meiosis (White, 1973). The other mygalomorphs (this study) and araneomorphs (Krl
diplurids studied exhibit standard meiosis; however, et al., 2006). It probably arose by saturation of the
the suppression of chiasmata could be frequent in mostly monoarmed complement found in mesotheles
diplurids because the genera in which it has been by centric fusions. We hypothesize that the ances-
observed belong to different subfamilies. Suppression tral opisthothele set was duplicated in ancestral
of chiasmata has so far only been reported in two Avicularioidea. This hypothesis is in accordance
haplogyne families (Benavente & Wettstein, 1980), with high diploid numbers and the structure of sex
but these instances were only illusive. Chiasmata chromosome systems in this superfamily. Major
were present but not visible until diakinesis because trends in the subsequent evolution of avicularioid
of the considerable despiralization of the bivalents karyotypes were decreases and increases of numbers
after the pachytene (the so-called diffuse stage; Krl of autosomes and sex chromosomes, as well as con-
et al., 2006). The diffuse stage, until now observed in versions of biarmed chromosomes to monoarmed
various organisms, is characterized by enhanced tran- chromosomes by pericentric inversions. Further-
scription (Kltersk, 1977). Because of the need for more, cytogenetic data indicate a deep split within
enhanced synthesis in oocytes, it is more common in theraphosids, namely into New World and Old
females, but has occasionally been found in males as World clades (Fig. 14).
well (Benavente & Wettstein, 1980). In spiders, the Despite the determination of fundamental trends of
male diffuse stage has been reported in some entel- karyotype evolution in mygalomorphs, a cladistic
egynes (Mittal, 1966), all studied haplogynes (Krl analysis of these spiders using cytogenetic characters
et al., 2006), and three mygalomorph taxa, namely is impossible at this time. First, mygalomorphs
the genera Antrodiaetus (Antrodiaetidae) and Mac- possess many unique cytogenetic features. Our
30 J. KRL ET AL.
hypotheses explaining these traits should be consid- Benavente R, Wettstein R. 1980. Ultrastructural charac-
ered a base for future research, which would also terization of the sex chromosomes during spermatogenesis
make use of cytogenetic data for cladistic analysis. of spiders having holocentric chromosomes and a long
Second, data about some families or large mygalo- diffuse stage. Chromosoma 77: 6981.
morph clades (e.g. Domiothelina) remain limited. Bole-Gowda BN. 1950. The chromosome study in the sper-
Because of the considerable species and karyotype matogenesis of two lynx-spiders (Oxyopidae). Proceedings of
the Zoological Society of Bengal 3: 95107.
diversity of mygalomorphs, a cytogenetic-based cla-
Bond JE, Hendrixson BE, Hamilton CA, Hedin M. 2012.
distic analysis would only be effective after the inclu-
A reconsideration of the classification of the spider
sion of more species of each family. Third, data on
infraorder Mygalomorphae (Arachnida: Araneae) based on
some characters are also fragmentary in the other
three nuclear genes and morphology. PloS ONE 7: e38753.
spider clades. As a consequence, the possibility to
Coyle FA, Greenstone MH, Hultsch A-L, Morgan CE.
compare mygalomorphs and outgroup taxa is limited. 1985. Ballooning mygalomorphs: estimates of the masses of
Sphodros and Ummidia balooners (Araneae: Atypidae,
Ctenizidae). The Journal of Arachnology 13: 291296.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dolej P, Kornkov T, Musilov J, Opatov V, Kubcov
The following colleagues contributed spiders, L, Buchar J, Krl J. 2011. Karyotypes of central European
assisted with the collection of spiders, or determined spiders of the genera Arctosa, Tricca and Xerolycosa
specimens: M. Cernicka (Plzen, Czech Republic), (Araneae: Lycosidae). European Journal of Entomology 108:
B. Drolshagen (University of Koblenz-Landau, 116.
Koblenz-Landau, Germany), A.E. Decae (University of Goloboff PA. 1993. A reanalysis of mygalomorph spider
Ghent, Ghent, Belgium), L. Francek (Prague, Czech families (Araneae). American Museum Novitates 3056:
Republic), A.G. Gmez (UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico), 132.
J. Haupt (Berlin, Germany), V. Honsa (Plzen, Czech Hedin M, Bond JE. 2006. Molecular phylogenetics of the
spider infraorder Mygalomorphae using nuclear rRNA
Republic), S. Huber (Oberuhldingen, Germany),
genes (18S and 28S): conflict and agreement with the
K. Jlkov (Plzen, Czech Republic), R. Kaderka
current system of classification. Molecular Phylogenetics
(Roztoky, Czech Republic), L. Kratochvl (Charles Uni-
and Evolution 41: 454471.
versity, Prague, Czech Republic), S. Mack (Kyjov,
Kltersk I. 1977. The concept of the prophase of meiosis.
Czech Republic), M.G. Ramirez (Loyola Marymount Hereditas 86: 205210.
University, Los Angeles, USA), R.J. Raven (Queens- Kornkov T, Krl J. 2013. Karyotypes, sex chromosomes,
land Museum, Brisbane, Australia), O. Rehk (Rcany, and meiotic division in spiders. In: Nentwig W,
Czech Republic), M. Rezc (Research Institute of Crop ed. Spider ecophysiology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 159
Production, Prague, Czech Republic), P.J. Schwend- 172.
inger (Musum dhistoire naturelle, Genve, Switzer- Krl J. 2007. Evolution of multiple sex chromosomes in the
land), V. ejna (Prague, Czech Republic), A. Sember spider genus Malthonica (Araneae: Agelenidae) indicates
(Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Libe- unique structure of the spider sex chromosome systems.
chov, Czech Republic), J. Starret (University of Cali- Chromosome Research 15: 863879.
fornia, Riverside, USA), S. Thomas (San Diego State Krl J, Dulkov L, Kornkov T, Musilov J, Vtkov M,
University, San Diego, USA), G. Varo de la Rosa Hedin M, Henriques SS, Haddad CR. 2010. Evolution of
(Anenecuilco, Mexico), L.F. Villagomez Lazo de la Vega the karyotype and sex chromosome systems in mesothelid
(UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico), D. Weinmann (Fell- and mygalomorph spiders. In: Zabka M, ed. Book of
bach, Germany). Several anonymous referees are abstracts, 18th international congress of arachnology.
thanked for their valuable comments. Authors were Siedlce: University of Podlasie & International Society of
supported by projects of the Czech Science Foundation Arachnology, 227229.
(no. 206/08/0813), the Charles University (nos SVV- Krl J, Kornkov T, Forman M, Krkavcov L. 2011.
2012265202 and SVV-2013-267205), the Grant Insights into the meiotic behavior and evolution of multiple
sex chromosome systems in spiders. Cytogenetic and
Agency of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech
Genome Research 133: 4366.
Republic (no. IAA601110808), and the National
Krl J, Kovc L, thlavsk F, Lonsk P, Luptcik P.
Research Foundation of South Africa (Thuthuka
2008. The first karyotype study in palpigrades, a primitive
TTK2008050500003).
order of arachnids (Arachnida: Palpigradi). Genetica 134:
7987.
Krl J, Musilov J, thlavsk F, Rezc M, Akan Z,
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article at the publishers web-site:
Figure S1. Male sets of diplurids (A) and paratropidids (B). A, Ischnothele caudata, karyotype, silver staining
(mitotic metaphase). Three pairs (nos 1, 2, and XY) contain a subterminal NOR. B, Paratropis sp. (Mexico),
haploid set without X chromosomes (metaphase II). Note monoarmed chromosomes (nos 17, 19, 2430, 32, 33,
35, 3740, 4246, and 4853). Two chromosomes are submetacentric/subtelocentric (nos 41 and 47). Scale bars:
10 mm.
Figure S2. Linothele megatheloides (Dipluridae): prophase I of male; arrow, X chromosome(s); open arrow, SCP.
A, transition to diplotene. Note a SCB composed by X chromosomes on the nuclear periphery and a positively
heteropycnotic SCB formed by SCP; B, diakinesis. The central part of the plate contains X chromosomes and
SCP, which is the largest bivalent of the set. Scale bars: 10 mm.
Figure S3. Male set of Ischnocolus jickelii (Theraphosidae, Ischnocolinae): metaphase II. Karyotype consists of
metacentrics, except for six submetacentric pairs (nos 11, 20, 24, 32, 33, and 38). The sex chromosomes show
a slightly delayed condensation and chromatid separation. Scale bar: 10 mm.
Figure S4. Male karyotypes of the theraphosid subfamily Theraphosinae, based on metaphases II. A, Holothele
cf. longipes, chromosomes are biarmed, except for two monoarmed pairs (nos 2 and 35). B, Grammostola rosea,
chromosomes are metacentric, except for two submetacentric (nos 12 and 19) and one subtelocentric (no. 32)
pairs as well as submetacentric X2 chromosome Scale bars: 10 mm.
32 J. KRL ET AL.
Figure S5. Male karyotype of Iberesia machadoi (Nemesiidae): mitotic metaphase. Scale bar: 10 mm.
Figure S6. Male sets of ctenizids (A) and idiopids (B), based on mitotic metaphases. A, Ummidia sp.
(monoarmed pairs: nos 16 and 19). B, Idiops syriacus (submetacentric/subtelocentric pairs: nos 2325).
Chromosomes are arranged into pairs tentatively because the sex chromosome system is unknown. The odd
element is the putative X chromosome. Open arrowheads large terminal secondary constrictions. Scale bars:
10 mm.
Figure S7. Male of Cyrtocarenum cunicularium: late spermatogonial metaphase. Note association of SCP
chromosomes (open arrows). Scale bar: 10 mm.
Table S1. Basic data concerning collection (localities, sex, and instar of specimens used) and evaluation
(*families studied for the first time, 1relative chromosome lengths were not determined, 2relative lengths of X
chromosomes were not determined). aCA, California; Co., county; MX, Mexico; NR, nature reserve; RSA,
Republic of South Africa. Unless otherwise indicated, deposited in collection of J. Krl (BD, B. Drolshagen; NMP,
National Museum, Prague; RJR, R.J. Raven). bf, female; fn, female nymph; m, male; mn, male nymph; sf,
subadult female; sm, subadult male.

Evolution of Karyotype Megalomorphae

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Evolution of Karyotype Megalomorphae

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Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, , . With 14 figures

Evolution of karyotype, sex chromosomes,

ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS: achiasmatic chromosome pairing deactivation duplication heterochro-

*Corresponding author. E-mail: spider@natur.cuni.cz

INTRODUCTION mosome systems include the X0 system, probably

to pachytene) in males (Fig. 2D), and the parallel AVICULARIOIDEA

Microstigmatidae chromosome retained both heteropycnosis and

D Supposed duplication of genome

? Possible presence of character # P

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