Vol 2 No 1 - February 2014

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VOLUME 2 NUMBER 1 February 2014
Table of Contents
The Impact of Culture and Language Sensitive Physics on Concept Attainment ......................................................... 1
Marie Paz E. Morales
The Effect of Explicit and Recast Feedback on the Intermediate EFL Learners Listening Self-efficacy ................... 30
Samane Naderi
The Role of Community-Based Information Centers in Development: Lessons for Rural Zimbabwe ..................... 44
Shadreck Ndinde and Webster Kadodo
Influential Factors and Their Correlation on Student Imagination ................................................................................ 54

Chao-Tung Liang and Chaoyun Liang
Investigating the Relationship between English Language Anxiety and the Achievement of School based Oral
English Test among Malaysian Form Four Students ....................................................................................................... 67
Lim Hooi Lian and Mardziah Bt Budin
Influencing Tax Compliance in SMEs through the Use of ICTs .................................................................................... 80

Edison Wazoel Lubua (PhD)
Strategic Intervention Material-Based Instruction, Learning Approach and Students Performance in Chemistry
................................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Edwin I. Salviejo, Fidela Q. Aranes and Allen A. Espinosa
The Perceived Influence of Learning Environment on Design Student Imagination ................................................ 124
Ju-Sen Lin and Chaoyun Liang
1
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 2, No.1, pp. 1-29, February 2014
The Impact of Culture and Language Sensitive

Physics on Concept Attainment
Marie Paz E. Morales

Educational Policy Research and Development Center
Philippine Normal University
1000 Manila, Philippines
Abstract. The study was designed to determine gains in student concept

attainment using culture and language sensitive physics. Pangasinan
learners of the Philippines were culturally profiled by determining the
cultural dimensions, epistemological beliefs and students views on
integration of culture and language in the teaching and learning process.
The unique cultural profile of the learners was used to design culture
and language sensitive curriculum materials in physics. The designed
culture and language sensitive curriculum materials presented physics
lessons and activities using the traditions, beliefs, practices, artifacts and
the native language. Implementation of culture and language sensitive
curriculum materials was done to determine if integration of culture and
language would result to better attainment of physics concepts of the
experimental participants. Pre-test and post-test comparisons of the
concept attainment of the experimental participants showed significant
statistical differences in favor of the experimental participants. The
group showed better concept development with greater percentages of
correct responses in the concept tests administered. Qualitative data
deduced from interviews, focus-group-discussions, journal logs, and
classroom observations showed the same trend in favor of the
experimental participants. Insights deduced from the study included the
idea that the use of native language must be complemented by the use
of culture of the learner to achieve better concept attainment in physics.
Keywords: Cultural Profiling; Culture Sensitivity; Language Sensitivity;

Concept Attainment
Introduction
Education is believed to play a fundamental role in human, social and economic
development. It has been identified by UNESCO (2012) as one of the principal
activity to contribute to peace building, poverty eradication, lasting
development and inter-cultural dialogue. These aims are global in perspective
but localized in approach. The localization approach is known to bring
significant effects to sustainability. In consonance to the decade of education for
sustainable education by UNESCO, preservation of indigenous knowledge
2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2
highlights the education of the young. These and other thematic sustainable
development priorities of the organization are extensions of their initial projects
that include Literacy for All (LFA) in 2000 which highlights scientific and
technological literacy for all (Torres, 2000). The cultural pillar will be able to
achieve its goal to integrate the principles, values, and practices of sustainable
development into all aspects of education to address the social, economic,
cultural and environmental issues the world has to face in the 21st century. This
is the current theme known as life-long learning and learning for life. Literacy,
accordingly, is the foundation of life-long learning and is considered as the key
element of inter- and cross-generational learning (Torres, 2000).
The Philippines new basic education curriculum envisions education as going

global by being local. This theme conforms to those pursued by the basic
education sector through its basic education sector reform agenda - BESRA
(2006-2010). Congruent with the directions of the reform agenda is the major
plan of the new curriculum to integrate culture and language sensitivity into the
curriculum through the inclusion of the mother tongue based multilingual
education and localized senior high school curriculum (DepEd Order No. 74,
s.2010). Our education sector recognized that Filipino culture is highly identified
with languages and language diversity. House bill 3719 known as the
multilingual education and literacy bill was crafted by legislators to promote
literacy and learning by making the native language as the medium of
instruction during the formative years of basic education. This was a
consequence of the success of the mother tongue based instruction through the
Lubuagan first language component multilingual education in 1998 (Castillo-
Llaneta, 2010). In response to this progress, the Department of Education
(DepEd) mandated the use of the native language through DepEd Order No. 74
(s. 2009). The agency aimed to promote the use of more than two languages for
literacy and instruction as a fundamental policy in the whole stretch of formal
education including pre-school years. Part of the agencys plan was full scale
implementation where the native language will be taught as a separate subject
from pre-school to Grade 3 and one of the media of instruction in the whole
stretch of formal education. Mother tongue based instruction emphasizes the
ethnic groups native language as the mode of communication, mode of
instruction and the language of the curriculum materials used by the students.
The same objectives were revealed in several researches (Agnihotri, 2008;
Collier, 2004; Fafunwa&Soyinka,1989; and Benson, 2002) which gave evidences
that the longer a child is taught in his or her home language, the higher is his or
her academic achievement in school.
Jordan, Carlile, & Stack (2008) argued that formal education reproduces culture.
Students cultural perspectives influence how they construct knowledge while
cultural background influences cognitive style and motivation. Aikenhead (2001)
believed that cross-cultural strategies or cultural integration provides
opportunities for students to learn western science content taught in the context
of local communitys traditions. They adhere to autonomous acculturation
that emphasizes learning western science content but still adhering to ones
culture and tradition. In the Philippines, the science education institute, a

3
government agency managing science education in the country has started to

look at new tracks to better scientifically literate learners. The agency foresees a
new theme focused on learning according to cultural background to promote
sustainability and preservation of indigenous knowledge This attempt conforms
to the major goals and aims of the 21stcentury skills framework (P21) which
included three key elements to learning: 21st Century Interdisciplinary Themes:
Global awareness, financial, economic, business and entrepreneurial literacy,
civic literacy, health literacy, and environmental literacy; Learning and Innovation
Skills: Communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity; and
Information Media and Technology Skills: Information literacy, media literacy, and
ICT literacy. Each one of these skills implementation requires the development
of the core academic subject knowledge and understanding among all students.
Within the context of core knowledge instruction, students must also learn the
essential skills for success in todays world, such as critical thinking, problem
solving, communication and collaboration (P21-Framework, 2008). The new
curriculum envisions attaining these skills through localization of senior high
school. Localization includes a curriculum emphasizing the communitys
practices, traditions, source of living and livelihood as the major focus of
learning. Learners from the Ilocos region for example would promote weaving
and other traditions as part of their curriculum. Students of Batangas will be
trained to cultivate their traditions in coffee making and Ifugao for terracing.
The aim of the study is to determine the impact of culture and language
sensitive curriculum materials in physics to the concept attainment of the
students. Specifically, the objectives of the study are as follows:
1. Determine the cultural dimensions, epistemological beliefs and learners
views on culture and language integration which will serve as bases in
the development of culture and language sensitive curriculum materials
in physics.
2. Describe how effective are the culture and language sensitive curriculum
materials in physics in the concept attainment of learners.
Framework and Literature

The cultural or indigenous preferences of the learners were the bases of
development of culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in physics.
This included their unique cultural dimension, epistemological beliefs, and
student beliefs and views on the use of culture and language sensitive
curriculum materials in learning physics concepts. Existing frameworks used in
the development of the culturally-sensitive curriculum materials in physics (CS-
CMIP) included instructional congruence framework, cross-cultural strategy,
P21 or 21st Century Framework, technological-pedagogical-content-knowledge,
and understanding by design frameworks.
Cultural Profile of Learners

Culture was defined in several ways by Raul Pertierra (2002). It is a framework
for organizing the world. It is a set of principles that locate and orient human
beings within their existential realities. It is an invisible lens through which we
see reality. Its categories are pre-given as language, notions of identity, gender,

4
nature and religion. Culture can also be a set of ideas, values, and practices as
well as orientation and predisposition towards the world. He claimed that
culture is consciously territorial (e.g. Ilocos for the Ilocanos). National cultures
can be ethnicized or racialized while ethnic cultures can be nationalized (e.g.
Bangsa Moro). Finally, he believed that ethnicity uses culture for organizational
purposes.
Filipino learners like other countries in Asia are culturally diverse. By ethnicity,
Filipinos have 20 major ethnic groups inclusive of the minorities. The 9 major
groups were Cebuano, Tagalog, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Central Bicolano, Waray,
Kapampangan, Albay-Bicolano, and Pangasinan. This cultural diversity among
Filipino learners suggests that cultural or indigenous preferences are unique in
each ethnic group. Distinguishing each unique cultural preference will profile
the culture and language background of the ethnic group. Hofstedes Value
Survey Module has imbedded characteristics for identifying the distinct cultural
preference of a group. The module presents five cultural dimensions as power
distance index (PDI), individualism index (IDV), masculinity index (MAS),
uncertainty avoidance index (UAI), and long-term orientation index (LTO).This
was originally designed to survey employees of different positions in
corporation. Replications of the research led to application of the model to other
fields such as education and learning. The module was used to establish the
connection between the students perception of science classroom learning
environment and teacher-student interaction within the cultural perspective in
the study conducted by Koul and Fisher (2004). Correlation study done by
Holtbruggs&Morh (2009) matched the learning preference of management
students and their cultural dimension. Other researches on cultural profiling
were able to form concrete use of VSM 08 interpretation to educational
dimensions. Power distance according to Cronje (2006) explained students lack
of self-confidence and does not take initiative. Rather, they prefer to let the
apparently more powerful professor to take the responsibility. Further, he
suggested that the high level of avoidance justifies why students require much
guidance in terms of requirement and assessment rubric. The major differences
of the cultural indices from an education perspective to describe the learning
characteristics of students were determined by Baron (2008). Low power index
was related to student-centered learning preference while high power index
highlighted teacher-centered learning preference. Low individualism index is
associated to collaboration, self-concept in terms of groups, education is learning
how to do and association of students to pre-existing ties. High individualism
was related to learners doing on their own initiative. The purpose of education is
learning how to learn and students prefer to associate according to tasks and
current needs. Low masculinity index is associated with equal treatment among
sexes or genders in the classroom while high masculinity index emphasize
gender bias in favor of the male gender.
The forms of epistemological beliefs in learning and academic development

originated from the work of Perry (1970). Perry (Schrommer, 1990) argued that
an individual navigates series of sequences or positions in developing
epistemological beliefs. This starts from being dualist, recognizing multiplicity,

5
relativist until the individual attains commitment within relativism.

Epistemology was defined by Phan (2006) as a branch of philosophy concerned
with the nature of knowledge and justification of beliefs. Epistemological beliefs
are held beliefs about nature, nature of science and the justification of beliefs of
the students. These were described in five dimensions of beliefs: stability of
knowledge, structure of knowledge, source of knowledge, malleability of
knowledge, and speed of learning. These five dimensions of beliefs are
categorized as epistemological beliefs on knowledge and epistemological beliefs
on learning (Schrommer, 1990). Magno (2011) mentioned that beliefs about
knowledge and learning had a great deal of influence with the learners
approach in dealing with and constructing information. Several other researches
indicated that epistemological beliefs predicted numerous constructs of
academic performance such as comprehension, meta-comprehension,
interpretation of information, higher order thinking skills, persistence in
working on different academic tasks and problem-solving approaches. Beliefs
about structures and certainty of knowledge predicted comprehension and
interpretation of information. Beliefs about speed of learning and the ability to
learn were identified to predict comprehension, valuing of education and over-
all performance (Phan, 2006). Stathopoulon and Vosniadu (2006) revealed that
epistemological beliefs may be better predictors of conceptual change in Physics
than their physics grades. Students focused exclusively on experimental
evidence, logical reasoning, practice and authority (May and Etkina, 2002). Low
conceptual gainers were more likely than others to mention learning activities
that were epistemologically less desirable learning formulas without heading
their conceptual implications, learning from authority and predicting and testing
without interpretation. High gainers were more frequently referred to
preference to reasoning and interpretation of experimental results and showed
more concern for the coherence of knowledge than their counter parts implying
that when it comes to learning physics concepts, epistemology of students
mattered (May &Etkina, 2002). There were several researches (You, Yang &
Choi, 2001; Bernardo, 2008; Chan & Elliot, 2004) on epistemological beliefs
explored through cross-cultural studies. Beliefs on the nature of knowledge and
learning were argued to be culturally-specific particularly comparing Western
and Asian educational systems.
Bernardo and Calleja (2005) found out that epistemology of learning in the
Philippines is basically guided by how educators teach subjects in schools.
Filipino instructors created simple lesson plan and taught with minimal
effort by employing simple and light forms of classroom discussion and
activities. While these teachers are said to be more effective in simple-thinking
task, findings revealed that these teachers still regarded learning as a
complicated process. Bernardo (2008) revealed that pre-service teachers
experienced difficulty in shifting to and implementing complex learning in their
classroom practices since they have always been exposed to the Philippine
educational system concentration on simple learning. Filipino pre-service
teachers according to Bernardo (2008) took into consideration their beliefs,
values, and feelings as they evaluate which options will bring about optimal
teaching-learning outcome. The state of cognitive processing of teachers may

6
influence students thinking which would result to non-critical and non-creative

science learners creating low concept gainers in science. This may be revoked if
cultural view is integrated in the teaching and learning process grounded on the
fact that learners and pre-service teachers evaluate learning through their beliefs,
values and feelings which are culturally influenced.
Instructional Congruence Framework

Learning science should be implemented in the context of students culture and
experience (Basu and Barton, 2007). Students culture as a relevant source and
strategies of teaching and learning was expected to result to more interesting
and meaningful teaching of science. Mediating the nature of academic content
with the students language and cultural experience is the highlight of
instructional congruence framework (Lee, Maerten-Rivera, Penfield, LeRoy,
&Secada, 2007 and Johnson, 2005). The framework presents an approach of
using students cultural background to enhance learning of the content. This
framework includes four major characteristics to ensure that prototype
curriculum materials would acquire the needed properties for cultural
integration. The four main features are teachers role in learning, delivery of the
content, relating learning of science content and learning literacy, and the
principles of constructivism. Many researchers believed that integrating culture
in the curriculum have a good future in the attainment of success in terms of
learning content. Cultural experiences were the knowledge that students have
obtained from their community. Students language experiences are the
languages used in their daily life. Lee &Lykx (2005) suggested that when the
knowledge of science were incorporated with students language and
experiences, students would be more engaged in the learning process and
science would be easier, meaningful and relevant to students. Learning
environment that puts emphasis on instructional congruence could make
students become bicultural, bilingual and bi-literate person not only in terms of
knowledge, values and practice in science, but also in aspects of their language
and culture.
Other Frameworks
Aikenheads (2001) cross-cultural strategy familiarized students with different
cultural ways to describe and explain nature. Students were presumed to feel
easier and more comfortable to appreciate western science knowledge without
being forced to accept and embrace the western ways of appreciating nature.
The approach provided the useful processes in developing physics lessons
guided by context-based models in cultural perspective. Looking into cultural
learning as a means to achieve the goals of physics education a close look on the
21st Century Framework (P21) was done to ensure that the developed curriculum
material are close to the preference of our students who are known as digital
natives. Refining of the coherence of goals, assessment, plan, and lesson delivery
would be the concern of Technological-Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
and Understanding by Design (UBD). These frameworks were used as guide in the
design of culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in physics
envisioned to improve student concept attainment of learners to attain higher
percentage of scientific and technological literacy.

7
The cultural aspect of the learner and the learning process is viewed as an
alternative route to achieving higher scientific and technological literacy. The
knowledge of learners values, traditions and beliefs can bring significant
contributions in instructional design. Cultural dimension of the learners could
help establish their learning characteristics in the cultural perspective.
Epistemology of knowledge also highly related to the learners cultural
background. Being aware of how students would perceive a learning
environment that injects culture and language may bring better groundwork in
the design of curriculum materials. With the indexed characteristics of the
learners, instructional designs could be anchored on models that focus on the
use of local communitys traditions, technological influence, and coherent
designs while learning the western science content. These conditions, however,
may be enhanced by gaining benefits from the use of the learners native
language.
Methodology
This study is focused on descriptive-analytical design presented in Table 1. The
first stage highlights the profiling of learners. Determination of the cultural
dimension, epistemological beliefs and beliefs & views on the cultural and
language integration were conducted in this section. The results of the first stage
were used as heart of the design and development of the culture and language
sensitive curriculum materials in Physics. The second stage was an experimental
study to determine the impact of culture and language sensitive curriculum
materials on students concept attainment.
Table 1: Summary
Data
Stages of the
Dimensions Collection/ Acronym Data Analysis
Study
Instruments
Cultural Dimensions
Power distance
Computations
index
and analysis of
Individualism index Value Survey
data were based
Masculinity Index Module 2008 VSM 08
on VSM 08
Uncertainty
administration
Avoidance Index
module
Long Term
Cultural Orientation index
Epistemological Beliefs
Profiling
Stability of
knowledge
Epistemologic Computations
Structure of
al Beliefs and analysis of
knowledge
Assessment in EBAPS data were based
Source of
Physical on EBAPS excel
knowledge
Sciences template
Malleability of
knowledge
Speed of learning

8
Student Views on
Culture and Language
Integration
Use of vernacular
and culture
Culturally-
Students views and
Sensitive
beliefs on the
Physics
integration of CS-PLES Average ratings
Learning
culture and
Environment
Language
Survey
Learning Science
and Learning
Literacy
Teachers role
Constructivism
Interview
protocol
Focus Group
Culture and Discussion
language-based protocol
principles Journal Log Transcriptions
CS-CMIP Emphasis on Coding CS-CMET Codings
Development Learning Science Culturally Averages
and Learning Sensitive
Culture, Language, Curriculum
and Literacy
Material
Evaluation
Tool
Pre Tests
Post Test Ratings
Scores
Modules for
CS-CMIP Transcriptions
Units 1 & 2
Codings
(Culturally Averages
Investigation Quantitative Sensitive Post Test
constructs Curriculum Comparison of
of Students
Qualitative Material in student concept
Concept
constructs Physics) attainment using
Attainment CCM unit test and
Journal Logs
departmental
Departmental exam (t-test)
Exam*
Paired sample t-
Current test
Curriculum
Graph of correct
Materials* responses
*adopted/adapted

9
Pre-Implementation
Pilot tests were done to determine the reliability and appropriateness of the
adopted instruments to the intended participants of the study. The Value
Survey Module 2008 (VSM 08) is a 34-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire for
comparing culturally influenced values and sentiments of similar respondents
from two or more countries or regions within countries. Twenty-eight of these
questions were content questions influenced by the nationality or ethnicity of the
respondents. Six of these are about the demography of the respondents. Next to
nationality, answers to the 28 content questions will reflect other characteristics
of the respondents such as gender, age, level of education, and the point in time
when they answered the questions.
The instrument for determination of epistemological beliefs is a thirty-item

questionnaire on a five-point Likert scale intended to measure the
epistemological beliefs of students. The instrument was intentionally designed
for high school and college students taking introductory physics, chemistry or
physical science. It is also optimized for algebra-based courses which makes it
very adapted to the Filipino physics students. The 20-item 5point-Likert scale
survey (CS-PLES) designed to determine students perceptions, views or beliefs
on the use of culture, traditions and language in the teaching and learning of
physics concepts was validated and standardized with an internal reliability
measure of =0.88. Below are sample items for CS-PLES:
In general, I think that

1. Using my communitys culture and language in learning Physics concepts
can improve my language literacy in science while learning the physics
concepts.
2. Alternative Assessments like projects and actual creative outputs would
promote and preserve the culture, traditions and language of my community
while learning physics concepts.
3. Learning physics in English as well as in the vernacular also improves my
oral and writing skills which I can use when presenting science reports and
results of investigations.
The instruments were administered a week after the start of classes of the
department of education in June of 2012 before implementing the culture and
language sensitive curriculum materials. Outcomes of the pre-instruction
administration of these instruments were interpreted in education perspective.
The unique cultural characteristics and cultural preference of the learners
identified from the interpretation were made use as bases in the development of
culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in physics.
Development of culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in

physics
The culture and language sensitive curriculum materials are presented in two
sets for every unit or major theme: the student module and the teachers guide.
The first two major themes of physics subject were Energy in the Society and
Energy in the Environment. This thematic presentation of high school physics
subject is a standard implemented by the department of education.

10
The student module was developed to match the existing format of science
modules in the Philippines. Included parts of the student module are pre-test &
post-test; discussions of the topics in cultural perspective using traditions, beliefs
and practices of the learners; use of the native language (Pangasinan); activities
using indigenous materials together with worksheets; journal logs where
students can write their insights and views; summary; and references. An
example of how culture and language was integrated is shown in the discussion
on scientific method. This was presented using the native language and the
discussions highlight the use of Lingayen Gulf context. Another example is a
discussion on intensity of light using the lighting systems (petromax) used by
the fisher folks of Pangasinan.
Journal log sheets were inserted every after a major lesson of the unit. Questions
in the journal log sheets were expressed in the native language. Sample
questions from the journal log sheets are translated as follows:
What have you learned in the lesson presented?
What were your experiences in this lesson and which ones are good experiences
that brought about learning?
Which part(s) of the module were very useful to you or encouraged you to learn
physics concepts?
The last journal log sheet required the student to shift from the native language
to English. This guaranteed that students are trained to easily shift to the
standard language used in school (English) in preparation to the common
assessment (quarterly or departmental examination) given to all participants of
the study which are written in English.
Wiggins and McTighes (2005) Understanding by Design framework influenced

the design of the teachers guide. The inclusions of the teachers guide were
identified goals, enduring understanding, key questions, activity listing,
assessment, key to correction, summary, references, and teaching tips.
Assessments in the modules and teachers guide are combination of paper-and-
pencil test and performance tasks highlighting the Goal-Role-Audience-
Situation-Product-Standard model. The three major parts of the teachers guide
are Phase 1- Setting the Learning: Identified goals, enduring understanding,
&key questions; Phase 2 Assessing Learning: Assessment which included the
combination of paper-and-pencil test and performance tasks; and Phase 3-
Facilitating Learning: Activity listing and Teaching tips. Key to corrections was
included as part of the teachers guide together with summary of concepts and
some references.
Descriptive and quantitative content validation of the culture and language

sensitive curriculum materials was conducted by physics and language experts
who are also natives of Pangasinan. Revision of the materials was guided by the
suggestions and comments of the validators. Other groups of learners from the
same school where the participants are connected were interviewed to check the
readability & appropriateness of the mother-tongue words and terms used. They
were able to identify difficult words and had also helped in changing these
words or terms appropriate to the context. Twenty one high school Physics

11
teacher rated one of the curriculum materials and five Physics experts rated both
curriculum materials. Most of the evaluators rated the culture and language
sensitive curriculum materials in physics with high marks with an overall rating
of 4.65 out of 5.00 using the culture and language sensitive curriculum material
evaluation tool developed by Morales (2013). For each of the component of the
evaluation tool, averages over the number of items were done that resulted to
high marks of 4.62 out of 5.0 for component 1 and 4.67 out of 5.00 for component
2. This meant that the modules had projected constructivism and language-
based principles (component 1) and had shown emphasis on learning science
while learning culture, language and literacy (component 2). After integrating all
the corrections and suggestions, the final copies of the culture and language
sensitive curriculum materials in physics and teachers guides were printed in
book form and soft copies were made available online at
http://cliphysicsed.weebly.com.
Statistical Analysis
Cultural indices were calculated by taking the mean of the scores of the
participants on an item in the VSM 08. Interpretations of the computed cultural
indices were done using the research results of Baron (2008). The
epistemological beliefs of the participants were determined by taking the
average of the students scaled scores on all 30 items of the EBAPS. Each item is
scored on a scale of 0 (least sophisticated) to 4 (most sophisticated). Scores in
each subscale was determined by taking the mean of the scores of all the items in
the identified subscale. Comparison of students scores in the unit test and
departmental examination were established using pre-test and post-test gains, t-
tests for independent sample, t-tests for paired samples and averages to
determine attainment of concept by the students. Comparisons of correct
responses prior to-and post- implementation of the modules were presented in
graphical format.
In addition, coding and analysis of verbatim answers of students in the activities

included in the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials were done.
Manual coding method was done to encrypt students verbatim answers in the
journal log sheets. Color code scheme was used using strips of paper for the
language preference. The student modules were classified according to language
preference (English or native language). After the classification based on
language, a second layer of color coding was done to identify the specific
activities that captured students interest. Third layer color coding was done to
match what cultural dimension, practices or beliefs are these student-chosen
activities fall. The last layer of coding system was done to match the student-
chosen activities with their frequency of correct responses in that particular
topic.
The Participants
A unique set of participants were purposively identified in each stage of the
study. This is presented in table 2 which includes the sampling procedure used.

12
Table 2: Participants of the Study

Stages of the
Participants/Sample Sampling Process
Study
Sample size
385 senior high school students (age computation
Cultural group: 15-16) Purposive sampling
o 50 high school students from based on percentage of
Profiling
Pangasinan National High population of
School Pangasinan natives over
the whole population
3 natives and old folks of Pangasinan
3 Physics experts who are natives of
Development Pangasinan
Purposive sampling
1 Physics expert who is well-versed in
of CS-CMIP
the native language
Other groups of learners from the same
school
Investigation 89 students for the control group (IV- C
of Blaise Pascal & IV-A Benjamin Franklin)
Enhancement 39 students for experimental group (IV-B Purposive sampling
of Science Alessandro Volta
Attitude 1 teacher participant
One of the intentions of this study is to enhance the use of the traditions, beliefs
and native dialect to preserve and conserve the culture and the native language.
The researcher herself is a native speaker of the language (Pangasinan).
Participants in the design of the culture and language sensitive modules were
purposively chosen on the basis of their being natives and their expertise in
physics. The three native folks were chosen for interview to gather data on
practices, traditions and beliefs. The three physics teachers and the physics
expert who is well-versed in the native language were invited to validate the
developed culture and language sensitive curriculum materials.
Implementing culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in physics

The culture and language sensitive curriculum materials were implemented to
the experimental participants during the first quarter of the school year 2012-
2013. Simultaneously, the current curriculum materials were employed to the
control participants. The current curriculum materials included experiments,
activities, materials and text found in Science and Technology IV text book
distributed to all public high school as the prescribed materials in the
department of education. Text in the current curriculum materials were about
concepts, activities, worksheets, seat works and performance tasks intended for
the Science IV curriculum.
Only one teacher was assigned to teach physics to the chosen participants.
Incidentally, the teacher assigned to teach the participants do have the following
characteristics necessary to properly implement the standard curriculum and the
culture and language sensitive curriculum. The teacher has specialized in
Physics teaching, had trainings for practical work, inquiry-based and others. He

13
is a native just like the chosen participants and he has already taught physics for
a decade. Also it can be said that the participants science content knowledge is
comparable. They were identified as part of the special science classes of the
fourth level of Pangasinan National High School following the special science
class curriculum. As basis of qualification in special science class, the student
should attain a passing mark in the science-oriented qualifying examination
administered by the school. The science qualifying test is a national test
developed by the science education institute in the Philippines.
Procedure
The value survey module was administered to extract the cultural dimensions of
the learners. CS-PLES developed by Morales (2013) was used to identify the
cultural inclination and the expectations of the learners on the use of culture and
language sensitive curriculum materials in physics in the teaching and learning
process. To completely profile and identify the cultural preferences of the
learners, their epistemological beliefs were extracted using EBAPS. The complete
set of cultural profile or cultural preferences of the learners was used in the
design of the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in physics.
A pilot study was done to complement the cultural profile of learners in order to
develop and design the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials.
Old folks were interviewed to discover existing culture, artifacts, traditions,
beliefs, practices and relics. From the interview transcriptions, analysis of the
culture, artifacts, traditions, practices, beliefs and relics was done to determine
which culture can be used in the development of the topics that were included in
the curriculum materials. Document analysis was also done to complement the
data culled from the interviews and the cultural profile of the participants. The
first curriculum material is thematically termed as Energy in the Society. This
included introductory topics such as the nature of science, products of science
such as laws, theories, concepts and principles, scientific method, and
measurement. Interconnection of science, technology, society and physics was
the first lesson designed using the best remembered products of Pangasinan
such as bagoong, bangus and bucayoand tourist spots (beach - Lingayen Gulf).
These products and places form the 4 bests of Pangasinan. Other topics in this
unit were developed using the same product or others found in the place.
Measurement was designed using the concept of bucayo making and bagoong
production and scientific method using the power plants in San Roque and
Sual. These are towns located in Pangasinan.
The heart of the design of the curriculum materials are culture and native
language. Thus, the medium of instruction and communication of the culture
and language sensitive curriculum materials is the native language. Validation
included both descriptive and qualitative aspects. Three Physics experts who are
fluent in Pangasinan and are natives of the place were invited to validate and re-
validate the curriculum materials. Two others, a classroom Physics teacher of
and a regional supervisor were invited to look into the use of the vernacular or
native language in the culture and language sensitive curriculum material.
Twenty one classroom teachers and four Physics experts were invited to

14
evaluate the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials using the
culture and language sensitive curriculum material evaluation tool (Morales,
2013).
The other developed instruments were also validated. Three physics content
experts and one social science expert were invited to descriptively and
quantitatively validate the culturally sensitive physics learning environment
survey, interview and focus group discussion protocols, rubric scoring guide,
and the culturally sensitive curriculum material evaluation tool. Together with
the adopted instruments, these were pilot-tested to students of the same age
group as the intended participant to determine the reliability.
To determine how effective the culture and language sensitive curriculum on

student concept attainment, experimental design was done. Prior to
implementation, pre-test in two modules were administered to both groups.
Implementation of the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials
(modules) in physics to experimental participants lasted for a quarter. A quarter
of the school year was also utilized for the implementation of the current
curriculum materials to the control participants. English language was the
medium of instruction used in the control group of 89 participants. They also
made to use current curriculum materials as their major reference or text as
prescribed by the department of education. The experimental group of 39
participants made use of the culture and language sensitive curriculum
materials in physics in which the medium of communication and instruction
was the native language. Rubric scoring guides, journal log sheets, interviews
with selected student-participants, classroom observations, video and audio tape
recordings were used to extract important observations regarding the learning
process focused on concept attainment in both groups. A post-instruction
administration of post-test (unit tests) was done to both groups of participants.
Quarterly test or the department test was also administered as post-
implementation protocol.
Results and Discussion

The major objective of the study was to determine the effect of culture and
language sensitive curriculum materials on student concept attainment. Results
of the study are presented below in two broad concepts: cultural profiling of
learners and concept attainment of the learners using the culture and language
sensitive curriculum material in physics focused on the learning aspect.
Cultural Profiling of Learners

The cultural profile of the learners was determined using the value survey
module (CVSM 08), EBAPS and CS-PLES. The profile presented in Table 3 was
used as ground footing in the design of the culture and language sensitive
curriculum materials in physics.

15
Table 3: Cultural Profile of Learners

Cultural Epistemological
Views of Students
Inclination Belief
Student- Perceive science Students like the integration of
centered as bits of culture and language in the learning
Collectivist knowledge, fact process.
Gender and formulas They want to be consulted about the
equality Movement topic and the style of teaching they
Rule-oriented towards higher are most adopted to
classroom order thinking They want to give insights on the
Persistence, skills conduct of the lesson.
perseverance Science is They like use of Mother Tongue as
and thriftiness important in real- medium of instruction.
life. Students prefer a teacher with the
Physics following cultural traits as familiarity
knowledge is with the culture, practices, and
evidence-based tradition of the group of learners;
Good work and fluency in mother tongue; and
practice promotes familiarity with the misconceptions
learning brought about by the cultural
background of the learners.
Students would want to be
empowered in terms of the conduct
of teaching and learning process to
achieve meaningful learning.
The culture and language sensitive curriculum materials were designed based
on the cultural profile of the learners. Based from Table 3, the participants were
student-centered, thus more inquiry-based activities were provided in the
learning modules. The included activities boosted the learners epistemological
belief that Physics is evidenced-based. Their cultural dimension is suggestive of
their being collectivist. Activities were designed and conducted in groups and
not individualistic in approach. Their epistemological belief placed limits on the
kind of questions that would be asked of them. These questions should be
categorized as higher order thinking skills questions rather than convergent
questions asking for facts. Excerpt from students post-instruction interview
answers suggests their inclination to higher order thinking skills questions.
Students: Andi madam mas mainumay ta agmo la nunuten no antoy
usaren mo ta mainumay ya salitaen. Makapan-focus ka ed
samay tepet tan say gabay kon tepet aramay makapankonekta na
aaralen ed samay kultura tayo.
(No mam, it is easier to answer or recite when you do not
anymore think of the words to use because we are so
fluent in Pangasinan. We are not conscious about
grammar not like when using English. We can focus on
thinking and stating answers to the questions. We better
appreciate application questions relating physics and our
culture.)

16
Students: Medyo agka mi balet tanton manebat no say tepet nen sir et
singa ibaten mo labat na yes tan no. Pero no manpaeksplika
aman mainumay tan mas gabay mi.
(We seldom answer when our teacher ask us questions
that only require a yes or a no answer. But if we are
asked to explain, we are very eager to answer because we
use the native language.
Teacher: Say naincounter kod sikara very expressive so ugaw no
Pangasinan so usaren. Ta no English so pan-rerecite da irequest
da ya Pangsinan la. Pangasinan la sir kwanda ray arum anggad
ed arum ya section madam. Ta agda met na-express so gabay da.
Is-are, subject-verb agreement so problema tan say grammar da
no duga o andi. No man paliwawa ra say gabay da Pangasinan.
Ta agda naipaliwawa no English. No maminsan aga la man-
recite so ugaw na nanairapan ed English. Insan say laba-labay
da amay pantutungtungan so tradisyon dya ed Pangasinan.
Gabay da may activity ya inpankokonektay physics amay
inusar yo may bagoong, bucayo, tan dayat. Ayaki dakdakel ni
inbaga tan produktoy Pangasinan.
(What I encountered was students were very expressive
when the native language is used. They are not conscious
with the is-are verb agreement during recitation. They
cannot recite and they refuse to recite when they are
required to speak in English. The acitvities they like most
are those that use their culture and traditions. They like
the Inpan-kokonektay physics acivity where you used
the concept in bagoong and bucayo making and the gulf
to connect physics, environment, tehcnology. They even
mentioned about all other native porducts of Pangasinan
which were not included in the module.)
The learners are expressive of their need and appreciation to connect science in
real-life scenarios. They like the idea that they are able to make inputs on how
learning inside the classroom can be made better. The teacher claimed that the
students even suggested including other native products in the discussion.
Student Concept Attainment

In the study, concept attainment is defined as the condition where the students
were able to display or show that they were able to arrive at the scientifically
accepted physics concepts. The focus of the principle of concept attainment was
the changes in the students held concepts in physics. These changes can happen
as corrections of erroneously held prior concepts or completion of incompletely
held prior knowledge. It was also perceived as the state of arriving at the
scientifically accepted physics concept. Quantitatively, concept attainment was
expressed through gains in pre-test and post-test in each of the culture and
language sensitive module presented in Table 4.

17
Table 4. Paired Sample t-test of Concept Tests for Experimental Group

Concept Test Pre Test Post Test Std. p-
N t
(CT) Mean Mean Deviation value
CS-CMIP for Unit 1
39 3.69 5.25 1.09 -8.92 0.00*
(Energy in the Society)
CS-CMIP for Unit 2
(Energy in the 39 11.36 18.00 4.41 -9.26 0.00*
Environment)
*significant (p<0.05)
The implementation of the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials

to the experimental group resulted to significant mean difference between the
pre-test and the post test in both modules. Culture and language sensitive
curriculum materials worked well with the group resulting to significant
increase in the mean of the concept test administered in each of the units. As a
formative tool, the culture and language sensitive modules included activities
that were initially designed to help the students in concept building and
meaning making. These were rated using a rubric scoring guide which was a
product of a consensus decision of the students, the teacher and the researcher.
Presented in Table 5 was the frequency of scores of the students patterned using
the K+12 proficiency levels (Appendix A).
Table 5. Proficiency Level of the Experimental Group using CS-CMIPs

Proficiency Level
Concept Test No. of B D AP P A
N
(CT) Activities 74 and 90 and
75-79 80-84 85-89
below above
CS-CMIP
0 0 3 16 20
(Energy in the 6 39
(0%) (0%) (7.6%) (41%) (51.3%)
Society)
CS-CMIP
0 1 32 6 0
(Energy in the 12 39
(0%) (2.5%) (82%) (15%) (0%)
Environment)
B-Beginning D-Developing AP-Approaching Proficiency P-Proficient A - Advanced
Using the K+12 curriculums proficiency level, most students can be categorized
within the proficient and advanced level. Only few students of this group were
tagged within the approaching proficiency level. Further, no one among these
students belong to the beginning and developing level. Students belonging to A-
level were able to exceed the core requirements in terms of knowledge, skills and
understandings, and can transfer them automatically and flexibly through
authentic performance tasks. While students within the P-level had developed
the fundamental knowledge and skills and core understandings, and can
transfer them independently through authentic performance tasks. These
interpretations were set by the department of education as an inclusive
assessment principle of K+12 curriculum implementation.

18
In unit 2, a clump on grade range 80-84 was observed. The students were tagged
within the approaching proficiency level. At this level the students could be said
to have developed the fundamental knowledge and skills and core
understandings and, with little guidance from the teacher and/or with some
assistance from peers. They could transfer these understandings through
authentic performance tasks. It can be said that the students who used the
culture and language sensitive curriculum materials displayed good
performance during the course of the lesson. This resulted to significant
difference in the pre-test and post-test performance.
Complementary to the results of the pre-test and post-test gain of the

experimental group are their coded responses in the modules. Table 6 presents a
summary of the coded responses highlighting the language preference and
cultural connections appreciated by students.
Table 6. Summary of Journal Log Entries

Language preference (n=38)
Unit/ Shift in Preferred Activities/Culture/Percentage
Module English Pangasinan language students who prefer the activity
preference
Pangasinan products, physics
connections, & measurement
(76.3%)
1 24 12 2
Mind map (5.3%)
Interview/Reporting/Brainstor
ming (21%)
Activities
Act 1: Daluyon... (13.15%)
Act 3: SilewnaSumisigay
(52.6%)
Act 4: KolornaSilew (89.5%)
Act. 5:Sayimahe.. (13.15%)
Act 6: Espijo tan Kirmat
(47.4%)
Act 7: Ray diagramming
(78.9%)
Act 8: Mirror Equation (36.8%)
2 20 9 9 Act 9: Refraction...(2.6%)
Act 10: LenteLente (2.6%)
Act 11: Ray tracing (28.94%)
Act 12:PinholeKamera (2.6%)
Insights
Application is on buying fish
we see diff color than the real
one with a different light.
There are difficult terms but as
a whole it is better than
English.
What we learned are all useful
in daily living.

19
Group collaboration in
performing and answering
activities.
It is in Act 3 where they
recognized the hardships
encountered by fisher folks
There are topics where
learning them in the dialect is
easy there are others however
which appear difficult.
Difficulty encountered in
dealing with mathematical
equations using the dialect
In the first unit, more than half of the experimental group preferred to use
English rather than the native language as medium of instruction. In the second
unit, 52.6% of the students preferred English rather than the native language.
There were several reasons mentioned by the students for this preference. The
scientific or technical terms could not be translated. There were few words that
could be used in the native language compared to English. Students had
difficulty reading and writing native language words because they dont know
the standard or acceptable spelling and other syntax. Different places were using
different terms to mean the same event, thing or instance. These were the same
difficulties identified by UNESCO (2002) in implementing mother-tongue
instruction and mother tongue-based instruction.
On the other hand, there were about 31.6% of the students from the
experimental group in the first unit and 23.7% in the second unit who preferred
to use the native language rather than English language specifically in the oral
discourse. These students claimed that they could easily express themselves
without fear of being humiliated because of grammatical errors in oral discourse.
They further mentioned that they were more active participants of the class as
they were not focused on sentence construction during oral discourse but they
gave all their attention to the details of the concepts and thus they easily
understand the lesson. These were the same reasons marked by 5.2% of the
students in the first unit and 23.7% of the students in second unit who shifted
from the belief that they were better off in English language to an embrace of the
native language as the medium of instruction in the next lesson.
The cultural views of the students were gathered from the journal log entries.
This was done by including as part of the journal log sheet questions on the
preferred activities of the particular module. In the first unit, most of the
students (76.3%) appreciated the activities that included Pangasinan products,
physics connections, & measurement. Twenty one percent like interviewing,
reporting and brainstorming of non-tangible culture (beliefs, traditions, and
practices) and tangible culture such as the products (Bagoong, Beaches, Bangus,
Bucayo). Five percent of the class said they enjoy activities dealing with or
designing mind maps. In the second unit, the most appreciated activities were
SilewnaSumisigay; KolornaSilew; Espijo tan Kirmat; ray diagramming; mirror

20
equation; and ray tracing. They said that they were very interested in these
activities because they were so practical and they were connected to their ways
of life as natives. They were able to appreciate the concept of colors as applied to
buying and selling fish. They were even empathetic with the ways of living of
the fisher folks. They had a first-hand experience of knowing the science behind
catching fish using different light intensities. From these experiences they were
able to realize that the activities mentioned were very useful in everyday
activities of the students. Though they mentioned difficulty in dealing with
mathematical equations and some technical terms in the native language, the
students still expressed that they were better off with the native language than
English as the medium of instruction. These students also claimed that they
learned best with collaboration with peers in performing all the activities. This
matched with the diagnosed cultural background of the group with low
individualism index which means that teachers deal with students as groups,
students individual initiatives were discouraged, and languages in which the
word I is not pronounced rather self concept is expressed in terms of group.
Some connections were also identified with the epistemological beliefs of the
students that matched with their insights. The interpretations were not far from
the insights provided by the students where they specifically mentioned the
usefulness of what they were learning and doing in daily living. Thus from these
results and consequences, using the students cultural profile or cultural
preference to customize curriculum materials integrating culture and language
resulted to significant gains in the students attainment of concept. This was not
far from the claim of several researches conducted by UNESCO (2008). Findings
of the researches emphasized that the use of local languages as medium of
instruction does not suffice to guarantee optimum effectiveness of teaching and
learning. It was concluded that the use of the national languages in education
could not be maximally successful without revising teaching methods and
developing adequate teaching and learning materials.
Post implementation interview conducted with several students from the

experimental group were used to verify all data collected from the concept tests
as well as journal log entries. The teacher-participant and one of the evaluators
of the module joined the post-implementation interview. Below are some
excerpts of the transcribed interviews.
Students: Amay diad English wala ray terms ya mairap ya ipaliwawa ta
aralem. Amay diadPangasinan na-explain ya maong ta
natalusan ni ta nen ugaw kami et aman lay gamit min salita.
(In English there are terms that are very difficult to
explain and cannot be easily understood. In Pangasinan it
is better because we easily understand what is meant by
the teacher because it is the language that we have been
using since wewere kids.)
Students: Ta mairap min talusan may libro ya blue madam katon amay
module souusaren mi tan awit mi met ya lanang.
(It is very hard to understand the concepts in the blue
book for highschoolphysics so we always bring the
modules instead because it is very easy to learnphysics
with the modules.)

21
Teacher Nato: Say sakey labat ya problema madam ta aramay araralem ya

salita ag da la natalusan. Singa amay salming tan lente.
(The only problem maam was the use of oldPangsinan
terms that appears to bedifficult to the students).
Students: Ag mi la balet natalusan iman. Marakep met balet ta dakel so
naaral min aliwa labatya Physics no agta kultura tan amayamay
ya salita ed Pangasinan.
(We cannotunderstand old Pangasinan terms but we are
still positive with theintegration ofculture and langauge
because we are not only learning Physics butwe are also
taught the culture and language of Pangasinan.)
From the excerpts, congruence in the following was observed. The use of the
native language was really beneficial to the students specifically in meaning
making. There were some difficulties with regards the use of the native language
as the medium of instruction such as inadequate vocabulary to wholly translate
the English counterpart of the concept being explained and non-standardization
of native language terms thus making students encounter different terms that
may mean the same phenomena. In-depth explanation of terms was achieved by
the teacher and the student as they only focus on learning the concept and not
understanding the language. An appreciation of learning Physics through
learning the culture and language. Mother tongue based instruction was best
accompanied by curriculum materials integrating culture and language to
achieve optimum results.
To determine how effective are the culture and language sensitive curriculum
materials in student concept attainment compared to the current curriculum
materials, t-test for independent sample was computed for the post-test of the
control and experimental group in the two modules. These are presented in
Table 7.
Table 7. Comparing (t-test) Post-Test of Units 1 and 2 (CS-CMIP)

CS-CMIP Std.
Grouping N Mean T p-value
Unit Deviation
Control 85 4.37 1.11 -3.86
Unit 1 0.00*/0.01**
Experimental 39 5.25 1.31 -3.74
Control 82 14.85 3.8 -4.527
Unit 2 0.00*/0.00**
Experimental 38 18.00 2.7 -4.601
* equal variances assumed ** equal variances not assumed
The observed difference in the mean of the control and the experimental groups
was significant at 95% level of confidence. In both modules, the experimental
group to whom the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials were
used as the intervention material significantly performed better as compared to
their counterparts (control group) on which the current curriculum materials
were used. Thus, in terms of post-test results, the culture and language sensitive
materials displayed better efficacy in concept attainment of students than the

22
current curriculum materials. This was due to the following reasons. The culture
and language sensitive modules were designed according to the cultural and
language background and preferences of the students. The modules used culture
and language as the major focus in the learning of physics concepts and
principles. The modules were new to the students; and the modules made use of
the native language as the medium of communication and instructions.
To validate the results in Table 7, the departmental test scores of the control and
the experimental group were compared. The statistical comparison of the
departmental scores is presented in Table 8.
Table 8. Comparing (t-test) the Departmental Test

Std.
Grouping N Mean T p-value
Deviation
Control Group 86 32.78 6.13 -2.95
0.004*/0.000**
Experimental Group 39 35.79 3.09 -3.71
* equal variances assumed ** equal variances not assumed
The observed difference in the mean of the two groups was statistically
significant in favor of the experimental participants. This verified that the
culture and language sensitive curriculum materials gave significantly better
results in terms of physics concept attainment. To further explore the capability
of the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials to attain concept
attainment, percentages of students with correct responses in each of the items
of the two concept/unit tests per module were determined. Comparison of the
increase in the percentage of students with correct responses in both groups is
presented in Table 9.
Table 9. Comparing the Percentage of Students with Correct Responses
CS- Mean S.D.

Participants p-value
CMIP Pre-Test Post-Test Pre-Test Post-Test
Control (89) 37.60 42.92 28.16 32.31 0.052

Unit 1
Experimental
36.00 55.50 27.08 36.49 *0.004
(40)
Control (89) 30.05 36.76 14.8 19.11 0.055/
Unit 2 Experimental
30.50 46.36 16.54 22.74 *0.001
(40)
*significant at p<0.05

23
Higher mean percentages were observed in the post tests for both the control
and experimental group as compared to their respective pre-tests. A significant
increase was only attributed to the experimental group in both modules. Thus,
more students from the experimental group were able get correct responses for
the given items in the concept tests in both units. Graphs of correct responses are
presented in Figures 1 and 2 for the first module.
Percentage vs Pre-Test Items

90
Percentage of Students with correct
80
70
60
50
40
responses
Control (89)
30
20 Experimental (40)
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pre-Test Items
Figure 1: Percentage of Correct Responses vs. pre-Test Items of Unit 1
Greater percentage of students who obtained correct responses in the pre-tests

belonged to the control group except in item nos. 9 and 10 on which no student
obtained correct response. These items attributed to the control group were
focused on the definition of the terms science, physics, technology, and
hypothesis. Very low and zero percentage of student correct responses were
observed in both groups in items 4, 6, 7 and 8 respectively which were focused
on concepts on scientific theory, scientific laws, and other major parts of
scientific method. Thus, both groups were already a-depth in terms of definition
of terms related to the study of physics but were not knowledgeable enough to
get correct responses in the concepts related to scientific method, scientific
theories and laws. Although a greater percentage of student correct responses
were observed in the control group, the trend in the concepts held by the student
was the same with the experimental group.

24
Post-Test Items vs. Percentage

120
Percentage of Students with Correct
100
80
Responses
60
Control (89)
40
Experimental (40)
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Post-Test Items
Figure 2: Percentage of Correct Responses vs. Post-Test Items of Unit 2
The increase observed in the experimental group was significant compared to

the observed increase in the control group. A dramatic difference was monitored
in all items except item no.1. This means that students held concepts on the
definitions of science, technology, physics and hypothesis were better enhanced
in the control group. The experimental group did a lot better in the items (item
nos. 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9) where both groups experienced difficulty getting the correct
response in the pre-test. These items were primarily focused on the concepts of
scientific method, scientific laws and theories. Thus, the cultural intervention
(use of the context of the Pangasinan 4Bs: Bagoong, Beaches, Bucayo, and Bangus
combining this with the context of San Roque Dam and Hydroelectric Power Plant in
San Manuel Pangasinan) made learning of definitions and concepts of science,
physics, technology and hypothesis easily attained by the experimental group as
compared to the control group. Further, a better concept attainment was
observed in scientific method, scientific laws and theories using the context of
local beliefs, traditions, and artifacts as cultural integration in the concept
development.
The same observations were culled from the second module. Both the control
and the experimental groups were at par in terms of the percentage of students
with correct responses in item nos. 1, 6, 12, 16, 24, 32, and 33. These items were
distributed to the three major topics of unit 2 which included light and
spectroscopy, reflection and refraction. More pre-test items were observed to
have marked a greater percentage of students with correct responses in favor of
the control group. However, after the implementation of culture and language
sensitive modules to the experimental group, greater percentage of students
with correct responses were registered in all items as compared to the control
group except in item nos. 1, 16, 20, 21, 22, 27, 30, and 32. Item nos. 1 and 27 were
focused on speed of light, while item nos. 20, 21, and 22 were on refractive
indices, and item nos. 30 and 31 were on index of refraction. These topics were
discussed in the culture and language sensitive curriculum material using the

25
traditional and the usual presentation of the lesson except that the native
language was used as medium of communication and instruction. On the other
hand, a large difference was observed in the percentage of students with correct
responses in all the other items in favor of the experimental group. It can be
deduced that successful and enhanced concept attainment in the following
topics: luminosity; image formation in plane and spherical mirrors; and
refraction of light and lenses was achieved by the experimental group. This was
through native language and culture integration (use of petromaxand use of
superstitious beliefs and tangible culture such as wood and mirrors). These findings
conform to the assumptions of instructional congruence framework and
UNESCO (2008) findings that language integration in the teaching and learning
process will only be successful with the proper materials on which culture was
also integrated.
Conclusion and Recommendations

The use of culture and language sensitive curriculum materials attained higher
degree of concept formation of the students. Deep meaning making of physics
concepts was achieved by matching the lesson presentation, topic discussion,
and medium of instruction to the cultural background or cultural preference of
the learners. Students post-implementation interviews verified the idea that
utilizing students cultural and epistemological background in the design of
curriculum materials makes the curriculum material best fit for meaning making
of physics concepts for the students. This allowed the students to concentrate on
the deep understanding of the concepts while they are immersed in their own
culture and language. This made learning of physics concepts more connected to
them. They see physics as something that would enrich their knowledge of their
roots and native language which boosts their motivation to learn. They view
learning of physics concepts as something that has real-life significance.
On the details of learning, they are able to engage in deep processing of

information and physics concepts using the same schema of thinking they often
use as when they are engaging in their daily decision making. They are able to
employ patterns of assimilation similar to how they assimilate daily and real-life
concepts. Learning physics using culture and language sensitive materials made
students experience concept attainment in physics in their natural learning
setting. They did not experience what other physics students encounter. Others
face the awkward feeling of nervousness and anxiety when entering a physics
class as they anticipate a shift to a new world while entering their classroom.
Instead, it still feels like home whenever students start engaging in physics
taught in culture and native language perspective. This made learning of physics
fun, more comfortable, relaxing, and satisfying on the part of both the students
and the teacher.
Curriculum designers could peek into the process of integrating culture and
language in the development of meaningful curriculum materials in science.
Since only one ethnic group was used in this study, others could use the
framework to extend the investigation to all other ethnic groups in the
Philippines or to other countries of diverse cultural background. Curriculum

26
developers can design culture and language sensitive curriculum materials that
make use of religious beliefs, practices and traditions such as celebration of fiesta
and the like. It may also extend to utilize local games or those known as laro-
ng-lahi (local games) in the lesson development or as part of the activities.
A longitudinal research may be adopted for better data gathering and analysis.
This research may explore not only the learning aspect but the teaching aspect of
science concepts as well. It would encompass a triangulation of the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor aspects of teaching and learning process. Progress of
the learners in all these domains of learning would be monitored and matched
with the different stages of their psychological development. In the teaching
aspect, series of in-service training programs on integration of culture and
language in the teaching of science would be utilized for the experimental
process on the teaching aspect.
The investigation may also be used in aligning the pre-service physics teacher
curriculum and professional development programs of physics teachers. These
efforts may be able to achieve the goals and recommendations of ASEAN 2015
(asean.org 2012) which is to build socio-cultural capital by linking culture to
national development; harness indigenous knowledge system and practices, and
promote the countrys cultural strengths for ASEAN cooperation and
participation and completion of information regarding cultural or social profiles
of citizens of a country at the regional and provincial levels to distinctly
characterize each ethnicity according to cultural and epistemological learning.
This paradigm could include cognitive styles of the students per ethnic group
for more characterization of the uniqueness of each ethnic group of learners.
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29
Appendix A
K+12 Curriculum Level of Proficiency
Level of Grade
Interpretation
Proficiency Equivalent
The student at this level exceeds the core
requirements in terms of knowledge, skills and
90% and
A Advanced understandings, and can transfer them
above
automatically and flexibly through authentic
performance tasks.
The student at this level has developed the
fundamental knowledge and skills and core
P Proficient 85% - 89% understandings, and can transfer them
independently through authentic performance
tasks.
The student at this level has developed the
fundamental knowledge and skills and core
AP
understandings and, with little guidance from the
Approaching 80% - 84%
teacher and/or with some assistance from peers,
Proficiency
can transfer these understandings through
authentic performance tasks.
The student at this level possesses the minimum
knowledge and skills and core understandings,
DDeveloping 75% - 79%
but needs help throughout the performance of
authentic tasks.
The student at this level struggles with his/her
74% and understanding; prerequisite and fundamental
B Beginning
below knowledge and/or skills have not been acquired
or developed adequately to aid understanding.
Source: Department of Education K+12 framework

30

Vol, 2, No. 1, pp. 30-43, February 2014
The Effect of Explicit and Recast Feedback

on the Intermediate EFL Learners
Listening Self-efficacy
Samane Naderi
Islamic Azad University
Torbat-e-Heidarie Branch, Iran
Abstract. In this quasi-experimental study, the effect of two types of

Corrective Feedback on the Intermediate EFL Learners Listening Self-
efficacy Beliefs was investigated. Forty four subjects were selected out of
fifty six EFL learners. They were randomly divided into two
experimental groups one with explicit and the other with recast
feedback and one control group with no feedback. To investigate the
pre-existing listening self-efficacy differences among participants, a
listening self-efficacy questionnaire was administered at the beginning
of the term. After the treatment was fulfilled for each group during a
term, the very listening self-efficacy questionnaire was applied in order
to measure the effectiveness of the feedbacks in listening self-efficacy of
each group. The results of the one-way ANOVA indicated the
effectiveness of both Corrective Feedback types in listening self-efficacy;
moreover, it was concluded that between two Corrective Feedback types
the explicit one was more effective in improving learners' listening self-
efficacy. The results of this study can be useful for teachers in teaching
methodology related to error correction and it can be beneficial for
teacher trainers in pre-service and in-service courses.
Key words: corrective feedback (CF), explicit, recast feedback, listening

self-efficacy.
Introduction
In the recent years, increasing interest has developed in the corrective feedback
domain. Many studies have been carried out about different types of corrective
feedback and their contribution to the language learning (Leeman, 2003; Ellis,
Loewen, and Erlam, 2006; Mackey, 2006; Lyster, and Ranta, 1997; Lyster, 2004;
Havranek and Cesnik, 2003; Kim and Mathes, 2001). In addition, a large amount
of study has been conducted about self-efficacy beliefs (Multon, Brown, and
Lent, 1991 Pajares, 2000; Gore, 2006; Fahim and Nasrollahi, 2013; Barkley, 2006).
Although the amount of study about listening self-efficacy and this variable with
corrective feedback is limited (Rahimi and Abedini, 2009; Day, 2006; Renzhi,
2012).

31
Corrective feedback is a controversial issue among researchers and educators.

On the one hand, many scholars consider the errors as sin and according them,
they should be corrected immediately by teacher (Larsen-Freeman, 2000; Brown,
2007) on the other hand; many other educators believe that correcting learners
errors can disappoint the learners in learning process and should be avoided
(Truscott, 1999; Krashen, 1981a). However some others view the errors as the
sign of learning which should be left uncorrected in some situations and it is
needed to be corrected in some other situations (Long, 1996; Russell, 2009).
In spite of several decades' researches about error correction and teaching
methodology, some general questions about error correction still bewilder both
language researchers and practitioners. The questions such as: 1. Should
learners errors be corrected? 2. When should they be corrected? 3. How should
they be corrected? 4. Which kinds of errors should be corrected? 5. Who should
correct them? (Lyster & Ranta, 1997) and some specific questions about error
correction like: 6. Does the correction affect the learners' feelings? 7. How should
appropriate corrective feedback be given in learners' listening comprehension
errors? 8. Does the corrective feedback in these kinds of errors affect the learners'
feelings and self-beliefs? All these kinds of questions made the researcher
interested in conducting the present study to investigate the effect of explicit and
recast feedback on the intermediate EFL learners listening self-efficacy in the
Iranian context and on the three groups of participants.
Back Ground
Corrective Feedback
According to Chaudron (1988) the meaning of the corrective feedback is
different in various situations, it can be considered as any kind of teacher's
behavior that follows learner's error which minimally tries to make learner
aware of his error, the CF may not be obvious to the learner in terms of the
response which it makes to be elicited, or it may be an obvious effort for eliciting
learner's revised response.
Bitchener (2008) argues that Corrective feedback can improve learners' skills.
He believes that feedback from teacher is an important part of learning process
and it can help learners to remove learning gaps and ambiguities. Ashwell
(2000) points out the nature of teacher's feedback in classroom. In Ashwells
view, teacher's feedback is considered as the teacher's response to learners'
performance and on the one hand, it can help teachers to transfer the
information to the learners. On the other hand, it can help the learners to
understand and construct the meaning and to improve their different skills.
Before referring to the different types of the corrective feedback, the main
question in error correction and corrective feedback is whether the learners'
errors should be corrected or not. Actually researchers have different ideas
about error correction for example, Truscott (1999) is one of the opponents of
error correction; he believes that giving corrective feedback results in some bad
feeling such as: "embarrassment, anger, inhibition, and feelings of inferiority" (p.
441). On the other hand, according to Hendrickson (1978), all errors should be
corrected, the global errors should be corrected more than local errors and
correcting should be happened in systematic and consistent way. In recent

32
researches, error correction and CF are considered as essential factors in

educational setting (Long, 1996; Saxton, 1997; Lyster, 2004).
Different types of corrective feedback (CF)

Lyster and Ranta (1997) point out six types of CF:
Explicit feedback which refers to providing correct form explicitly. When
the teacher points out the correct form and obviously shows the learners'
error.
Recast feedback involves the reformulation of all or part of the learners'
utterance, subtracting their errors.
Clarification request shows the learners that their utterance was
misunderstood or it is ill-formed in some way and needs reformulation.
Metalinguistic Feedback includes some comments, providing some
information, or questions relevant to the leaners utterance not providing
the correct form of utterance explicitly.
Elicitation feedback by providing the learners with an opportunity to
complete or correct their utterances, using some questions to elicit the
correct forms or asking them to reformulate their utterances.
Repetition refers to the teachers repetition of learner's ill-formed
utterance; mostly the teachers highlight the learner's error by the use of
appropriate intonation.
They believe that it is possible to incorporate two different types of CF for

example, the combination of explicit feedback and metalinguistic feedback is
called multiple feedback.
Among these types of corrective feedback, the researchers selected explicit
and recast
feedback to investigate their effect on the Intermediate EFL Learners listening
self-efficacy beliefs.
Explicit feedback
Loewen and Philp (2006) consider CF as learners' effort to apply the target
language. They argue that CF is different in the degree of explicitness and
attempts to recognize the problems of accuracy in interaction and
communication. In this range of explicitness explicit feedback is trying to make
learners aware of their errors directly.
Explicit feedback is defined as "any feedback that overtly states that a
learner's output was not part of the language-to- be-learned" (Carroll and Swain,
1993, p. 361). Lyster and Ranta (1997) argue that explicit feedback is happened
when it is clearly expressed that an error has been made and the correct form is
provided for learners.
Ellis (2005) points out some effects of the self-processing that accompanied
with explicit feedback, in fact, through explicit feedback, learners are given a
chance to identify their errors which need to be corrected in the direct way.

33
Recast feedback
Loewen and Philp (2006) define Recast feedback as the teachers
reformulation of all or part of a learner utterance, minus their errors. This can
help learners know that their utterances included some errors. They define
recast feedback by providing three characteristics:
"Recasts are generally provided incidentally in the course of focus-on-

meaning interaction in response to non target-like utterances.
Recasts retain the central meaning of the learners utterance while
changing the lexical, morphosyntactic, or phonological form.
Recasts provide positive evidence and negative feedback rather than
providing overt correction" (p. 537).
They believe that recast feedback keeps the focus-on-meaning and also let the
teacher maintain the control of the class.
Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Self-efficacy is defined by Delcourt and Kinzie (1993) as perceived self-efficacy
reflects an individual's confidence in his or her ability to perform the behavior
required to produce specific outcomes (p. 36).
Self-efficacy as individuals beliefs in their capabilities to perform a task
proves to be an important variable in predicting learners performance in doing
a task (Bandura, 1986).
Bandura (1986) believes that self-efficacy refers to people's judgment of their
capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required attaining
designated types of performance. It is concerned not with the skills one has but
with the judgments of what one can do with whatever skills one possesses (p.
391).
Wu (2006) believes that learners' beliefs of their own ability to learn a foreign
or second language determine their learning process quality and their tolerance
in learning; therefore, these beliefs of self-efficacy influence language-learning
success.
Literature Review
Firstly, some studies carried out on feedback will be reviewed and afterwards
the result of some studies which done on self-efficacy-beliefs will be presented.
The effectiveness of CF has been examined in several ways. Muranoi (2000)
applied indefinite articles as the treatment for 114 participants of Japanese first-
year college students. The study had two experimental groups one received
recasts in communicative tasks, requests for repetition, and explicit grammar
explanation. The other experimental group received focus-on-meaning sessions.
The control group received no feedback. The results of post-test revealed that
both experimental groups outperformed the control group on the posttest.
Also Sanz (2003) conducted another study with 28 participants of first-year
university students of Spanish studying pronouns between the object and verb.
In this study, two groups were involved. Group one received metalinguistic
feedback and group two received implicit feedback. The results of sentence
completion and written video retelling showed that both groups' ability to apply
the target structure developed with no difference between the groups.

34
DeKeyser (1993) examined morphosyntactic features with explicit corrective

feedback. The participants of the study were 25 Dutch high school seniors
learning L2 French. They were tested with three oral communication tasks and
fill-in-the-blank tests. Based on the results, the researcher did not find enough of
a significant difference between the two groups.
Ammar and Spada (2006) in a quasi-experimental study investigated the effects
of recasts and prompts on L2 learners' written and oral ability with different
levels of proficiency. The results revealed that prompts were more effective than
recasts and that the effectiveness of recasts was sensitive to the learners' level of
proficiency. In fact, the learners with high level of proficiency benefited equally
from both prompts and recasts, but the learners with low level of proficiency
significantly benefited from prompts more than recasts.
In a recent correlational study, Fahim and Nasrollahi (2013) investigated the

relationship between Iranian students' self -efficacy and their critical thinking
ability. They believed that the way in which learners recognize their language
learning capabilities and their ability to control the way of thinking may have a
significant effect on their learning achievement. For this study they randomly
selected 50 university students in the major of English teaching to fill out the two
questionnaires on Self-efficacy and Critical thinking skills. The results showed
that there are a strong significant and positive relationship between Iranian
students' critical thinking ability and self-efficacy. It means that the higher the
students' self efficacy, the higher their critical thinking ability. Generally, the
finding provides empirical support that self-efficacy should be considered for
developing learners' critical thinking skills (p. 538)
In another study related to self-efficacy and L2 achievement, which was
carried out by Barkley (2006), it was investigated whether learners self-efficacy
beliefs were predictors of their reading comprehension achievement. For this
study, 400 students of a middle school were selected. A state standardized
reading comprehension test was applied to measure the students reading
comprehension. The findings revealed that there are significant and positive
relationship between learners self-efficacy beliefs and their reading
comprehension achievement.
Research Questions
To fulfill the aim of the present study, the following research questions were
raised:
1. Does the application of corrective feedback (i.e. explicit and recast feedback)
for listening comprehension have any significant effect on the listening self-
efficacy of the intermediate Iranian EFL learners?
2. Which type of corrective feedback is more effective in learners' listening self-
efficacy, explicit or recast feedback?
Method
Participants
The researcher selected forty four participants out of fifty six intermediate EFL
learners by the use of a placement test from Khorasan Foreign Language
Institute. These Forty four participants were randomly divided into two

35
experimental groups each group consists of 15 learners and one control group
comprising of 14 learners. Their age varied from 13 to 32, and their educational
levels varied from high school to Bachelor degree.
Instrumentations
Placement test. To homogenize the subjects the Interchange/Passages
Objective Placement Test for the intermediate (Lesly, Hasen & Zukowski, 2005)
was administered. This test is a kind multiple choice evaluation package
consisted of 70 items in 3 parts: listening 20 items (15 minutes), reading 20 items
(20 minutes), and language use 30 items (15 minutes). According to the
guidelines of the proficiency the learners whose scores were between 37 and 49
were considered as the intermediate level EFL learners.
Listening self-efficacy questionnaire. Learners listening self-efficacy belief
was measured before and after using corrective feedback (explicit and recast) for
listening by the questionnaire, which has been constructed, by Rahimi and
Abedini (2009). This questionnaire was designed based on three other
questionnaires of Beliefs About Language Learning (BALLI) developed by
Hortwiz (1985), Persian Adaptation of the General Self-efficacy Scale constructed
by Nezami, Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1996) and Morgan-Links Student Efficacy
Scale (MJSES) made by Jinks and Morgan (1999) (Rahimi & Abedini, 2009, p.
18). All items in the questionnaire were adapted to the five-interval Likert scale
responses. Rahimi and Abedini (2009) had tested the reliability of the
questionnaire and its Cronbach alpha was 0.69.
Procedure
The present study was carried out at the Khorasan Foreign Language Institute in
Mashhad. To homogenize the subjects the Interchange/Passages Objective
Placement Test for the intermediate (Lesly, Hasen & Zukowski, 2005) was
administered. Forty four participants out of fifty six EFL learners were selected
for the purpose of this study. These Forty four participants were randomly
divided into two experimental groups one with explicit feedback and the other
one with recast feedback each comprising of fifty participants and one control
group without any feedback comprising of 14 participants. To investigate the
pre-existing differences among participants in listening self-efficacy a listening
self-efficacy questionnaire was given to the participants at the beginning of the
term. During the term, which took 20 sessions two types of corrective feedback
(explicit and recast feedback) for listening, were fulfilled as the treatments. For
this purpose, the participants were assigned to do some related listening
comprehension tasks and exercises in each session. The participants of the
experimental group with explicit feedback received feedback on their errors
overtly. In the experimental group with the recast feedback the learners errors
were corrected indirectly through the teachers reformulation of all or part of
learners answers and finally the participants of the control group did not
receive any feedback on their listening comprehension errors. After the
treatments were fulfilled for each group, the very listening self-efficacy
questionnaire was given to learners in order to measure the effectiveness of the
feedbacks in listening self-efficacy of each group.

36
6. Results
To answer the research questions of this study data gathered through the
posttest. In order to answer the research questions, the following statistical
procedures were conducted. To ensure the normality of the distribution,
descriptive statistics was run. To see the difference of the mean scores among the
three groups on pretest, posttest and the difference between pre-test and post-
test (gain scores), a one-way ANOVA was conducted to the data.
Table-1: Descriptive Statistics of the Experimental and Control Groups in Listening

Self-Efficacy at the Pre-Test.
95%Confidence Interval for Mean

Std. Std.
N Mean Deviation Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Min Max
Pre-test self Explicit 15 54.06 8.76 2.26 49.21 58.91 42 68
efficacy Recast 15 54.86 11.32 2.92 48.59 61.13 38 71
Control 14 54.07 10.16 2.71 48.20 59.93 39 74
To compare the mean scores of the three groups at the pre-test, a one-way
ANOVA was run. The F-observed value and p-value were .058 and .944,
respectively. This amount of F-value at 2 and 41 degrees of freedom was lower
than the critical value of F and p-value was higher than the significance level of
05 (see Table 2).
Table-2: One-Way ANOVA on the Three Groups at Pretest.

Sum of squares df mean square F sig.
Between groups 11.28 2 5.639 .058 .944
Within groups 4007.881 41 97.753
Total 4019.159 43
Therefore, it can be concluded that there was no significant difference between

the mean scores of the three groups at pre-test (F (2, 41) = .058, p> .05) and these
groups are appropriate ones for the study.
The result of the Levene's test of homogeneity of variance indicated that the
three groups enjoyed homogenous variance; therefore, there was not any
significant difference between the variance of the three groups. Thus, the results
of the one-way ANOVA were reliable (F (2, 41) = .058, p> .05) (see Table 2).The
descriptive statistics for the three groups at the post-test are illustrated in Table
3.

Self-Efficacy at the Post-Test.
95%Confidence Interval for Mean

Std. Std.
N Mean Deviatio Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Min Max
n
Post-test Explicit 15 77.400 5.11 1.31 74.57 80.2 62 83
self Recast 15 64.46 11.01 2.84 58.36 70.56 42 82
efficacy Control 14 53.28 9.50 2.54 47.79 58.77 40 70

37
The mean of explicit group at the post-test is higher than the other two.
To compare the mean scores of the three groups at the post-test, a one-way
ANOVA was conducted. The F-observed value and p-value were 26.762 and
0.000 respectively. This amount of F-value at 2 and 41 degrees of freedom was
higher than the critical value of F, and p-value was lower than the significance
level of .05 (F (2, 41) = 26.762, p< .05( (see Table 4):
Table-4: One-Way ANOVA on the Three Groups at Post-Test.

Sum of squares df mean square F sig.
Between groups 4226.355 2 2113.677 26.762 .000
Within groups 3238.190 41 78.980
Total 7465.545 43
Thus, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between the

mean scores of the three groups on post-test. The effect size, calculated via eta
squared, was found to be 0.56. This indicates the degree of association between
the dependent (post-test scores) and independent (two types of CF) variable,
which is a large size (Dornyei, 2007).
The result of the Leven's test of homogeneity of variance demonstrated that
the three groups had homogenous variance (F (2, 41) = 26.762, p> .05); therefore,
the results of the one-way ANOVA were reliable, that is, there was not any
significant difference between the variance of the three groups.
ANOVA analysis indicated that somewhere among the means there is a
difference, but the exact place of differences is not obvious. To determine the
precise location of differences, a post hoc comparison of the means was run.
Accordingly, a Scheffes test was applied. The results of the post-hoc Scheffes
test revealed that there was significant difference between all three groups of
Control, Explicit and Recast at the level of 0.05 (see Table 5).
Table-5: Scheffes Test for the Comparison of Post-Test Means of the Three Groups
Mean Difference (I- 95% Confidence Interval
(I) group (J) group J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
explicit recast 12.93333* 3.24510 .001 4.6909 21.1757
control 24.11429* 3.30254 .000 15.7260 32.5026
recast explicit -12.93333* 3.24510 .001 -21.1757 -4.6909
control 11.18095* 3.30254 .006 2.7926 19.5693
control explicit -24.11429* 3.30254 .000 -32.5026 -15.7260
recast -11.18095* 3.30254 .006 -19.5693 -2.7926
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
To investigate the effect of two types of CF on the learner's listening self-

efficacy more exactly, the difference of scores at pre-test and post-test was
calculated (gain scores) and the related statistical analyses were used for them.
The descriptive statistics for gain scores for the three groups are shown in Table
6.

38

Self-Efficacy at the Gain Scores.
95%Confidence Interval for

Std. Std. Mean
N Mean Deviatio Error Min Max
n Lower Bound Upper Bound
Post-test Explicit 15 23.33 6.91 1.78 19.50 27.16 15
self Recast 15 9.60 6.609 1.70 5.93 13.26 38
efficacy Control 14 1.35 1.90 .50 .256 2.456 1 22
-1 6
The mean of explicit group at the gain scores is higher than the other two.
To compare the mean scores of the difference at pre-test and post-test for the
three groups, a one-way ANOVA was applied. The F-observed value was
55.469. This amount of F-value at 2 and 41 degrees of freedom was higher that
the critical value of F (see Table 7).
Table-7: One-Way ANOVA on the Three Groups at Gain Scores

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 3593.739 2 1796.869 55.469 .000
Within Groups 1328.148 41 32.394
Total 4921.886 43
Therefore, there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the

difference at gain scores for the three groups (F (2, 41) = 55.469, p< .05). The
effect size, calculated via eta squared, was found to be 0.73. It indicates the
degree of relation between the dependent (gain score) and independent (two
types of CF) variable, which is a large size (Dornyei, 2007). The result of the
Levene's test of homogeneity of variance indicated that the three groups possess
homogenous variance; as a result, the one-way ANOVA were reliable. The F-
value of 55.469 at 2 and 41 degrees of freedom was lower than the critical value.
Therefore, the underlying assumption of one-way ANOVA was fulfilled,
namely, there was not any significant difference between the variance of the
three groups (F (2, 41) = 55.469, p> .05).
To determine the precise location of differences, a Scheffes test was applied.
The results revealed that, at the level of 0.05, there was significant difference
between all the three groups of Control, Explicit and Recast (see Table 8).
Table-8: Sceffes Test for the Comparison of Gain Scores for the Three Groups
Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval
(I) group (J) group (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
explicit recast 13.73333* 2.07826 .000 8.4546 19.0120
control 21.97619* 2.11505 .000 16.6041 27.3483

recast explicit -13.73333* 2.07826 .000 -19.0120 -8.4546
control 8.24286* 2.11505 .002 2.8707 13.6150
control explicit -21.97619* 2.11505 .000 -27.3483 -16.6041
recast -8.24286* 2.11505 .002 -13.6150 -2.8707

39
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
The mean of G1, G2, and G3 are displayed in the figure 1 below.
As the figure indicates, the mean of explicit group is higher than the other
two. This result can be concluded from table 3, 5, 6, and 8 too. We can conclude
that explicit feedback is significantly more advantageous over recast in
improving learner's listening self-efficacy.
Discussion
There are many researches which investigated the effect of CF on the different
aspects of language (e.g. Ellis, Loewen, & Erlam, 2006; Bitchener and Knoch,
2008; Gass, Mackey, & Ross-Feldman, 2005). This study investigated the effect of
two types of Corrective Feedback (explicit and recast feedback) on the
Intermediate EFL Learners Listening Self-efficacy Beliefs. As was perspicuous at
pretest, there was no significant difference between the three groups but at the
post-test a significant difference between groups emerged. A one-way ANOVA
was performed to find out the effect of explicit and recast feedback on the
Intermediate EFL Learners Listening Self-efficacy Beliefs. ANOVA for post-test
scores showed that, with F (2, 41) = 26.762, p = .000, there were significant
differences in the mean scores among the three groups. Similarly, ANOVA for
gain scores (the difference of scores at pre-test and post-test) showed, with F (2,
41) = 55.469, p = .000, significant differences among the three groups. The results
implied that the application of explicit and recast feedback has a significant
effect on the learners' listening self-efficacy.
Scheff post hoc tests were conducted for the purpose of locating the
differences. The results revealed significant differences among the three groups
in the post-test and Scheff post hoc tests for gain scores also showed significant
difference among the three groups.

40
Finally, based on the results of the present study, considering Scheff post hoc
tests for post-test and gain scores and comparison of three groups' mean scores it
can be concluded that the experimental groups with two kinds of feedback
outperformed the control group and between two experimental groups, the
explicit group outperformed the recast group at posttest which signifies that
explicit feedback helped learners to improve their listening self-efficacy better
than recast feedback.
Conclusion
In this paper some aspects of corrective feedback (CF) was discussed. Although
some researchers such as Truscott (1999) believe that errors should not be
corrected, many others consider CF as an essential factor in learning process
(Long, 1996; Hendrickson, 1978; Saxton, 1997; and Lyster, 2004). As previously
mentioned, the aim of this study was to find out whether explicit and recast
feedback has significant effect on the Intermediate EFL learners listening self-
efficacy beliefs and which type is more effective. The results indicate that the
experimental groups with two kinds of feedback outperformed the control
group and between two experimental groups, the explicit group outperformed
the recast group at posttest which signifies that explicit feedback helped learners
to improve their listening self-efficacy better than recast feedback. The findings
can be beneficial for teachers and teacher trainers to allocate some space to error
correction techniques in learning process.
Pedagogical Implications
This study has some implications for EFL teachers, teacher trainers, material
developers and curriculum designers as the main stakeholders.
1. Teachers should be aware of beneficial characteristics of corrective
feedback in teaching process.
2. Self-efficacy is considered as a significant source of motivation for
learners (Fahim and Nasrollahi, 2013). Therefore, teachers should be
familiar with various techniques which develop learners' self-efficacy in
different areas. They should help learners believe in their capabilities
have enough self-confidence in learning process.
3. The study offers some important implications for material developers
and curriculum designers. They can take into account the learners' self-
beliefs especially their self-efficacy in designing the materials and related
curriculum. As Arnold and Brown (1999) mention Decision-making
learning process can provide more chances for learners to promote their
capabilities. In language learning process the learners learn taking
responsibility, appropriate skills for negotiating and evaluation of
themselves in addition to merely learning the language content. All these
processes result in development of self-efficacy (Arnold and Brown,
1999). Thus, the material developers and curriculum designers can help
learners to foster their potentialities and self-beliefs by providing the
appropriate materials and programs.
4. The findings of this study can also be beneficial for teacher trainers to
include suitable practices for instructing. They should make the EFL
teachers familiar with the different error correction techniques and

41
different types of feedback, make the teachers aware that when they can
correct errors, how they should be corrected and which types of
corrective feedback should be used.
Suggestions for Further Studies

1. This study was conducted in a foreign language institute and it can be
replicated in other educational setting such as universities and high
schools.
2. In this study the effect of explicit and recast feedback was investigated on
the learners listening comprehension ability. In other studies the effect of
these types of feedback can be examined on the other language skills and
components.
3. Also, the effect of other types of corrective feedback can be investigated
on this skill or other ones.
4. The study can be carried out with different ages and levels of proficiency.
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44

The Role of Community-Based Information

Centers in Development: Lessons for Rural
Zimbabwe
Shadreck Ndinde and Webster Kadodo

Great Zimbabwe University
Masvingo, Zimbabwe
Abstract. Community-based information proposals from the library

profession in Zimbabwe should, in theory, fit well with government
strategic goals for a knowledge-based society. In reality, information
technology has opened floodgates for national and international
development by bringing in a plethora of community-based information
systems and services. The concept of information centers has its roots in
Ivan Illichs de-schooling education. This paper highlights
developmental issues initiated by different community-based
information centers elsewhere in the world and in Zimbabwe. It defines
community, information, rural development and traces on community
centers throughout their evolution to the modern community-based
information centers. The premise of the paper is that establishing
community-based information centers in Zimbabwean rural areas
would strengthen and empower rural people to be among global
players. The major focus of this paper is to provide a framework for
establishing these centers in rural Zimbabwe for the purpose of
providing everyone with useful, practical information for their
developmental activities. Rural Zimbabwe has a bigger role in national
and international development which can be achieved by harnessing
community-based information systems and services. Despite low level
penetration of community-based information centers in Zimbabwe, the
Matabeleland South initiatives have capacitated Zimbabweans to follow
the trend. The centers should be spread throughout the country to
provide information for development. Community-based information
centers can act as significant trajectories in meeting social and economic
targets for rural people by connecting them to developmental programs.
The paper finally shows how community information based centers
complement efforts by the government and other agencies in resource
sharing and enhancing services available through such centers.
Keywords: information; information technology; rural development;

community-based information; rural Zimbabwe
Introduction
Access to information is important as it is a driving force for modern society in
45
development projects. People need information to develop their potential

through education and training, i.e. to succeed in business, to enrich their
cultural experience, and to take control of their daily lives. Information is a key
contributor to the development of individuals and communities. Yet access to
information is not equal across the Zimbabwean community. Some people,
particularly those living in affluent urban centers, can choose from abundant
sources of information. In contrast, people who live in poor communities are
frequently denied access to the information that they need to improve their lives.
The position is particularly severe in many rural areas in developing countries
such as Zimbabwe. The rapid development of the internet, in particular, has
irrevocably changed the information landscape. Community-based information
centers have evolved accordingly in response to both technological change and
the increased sophistication of information provision. Setting up information
centers in rural Zimbabwe has become an important mover for the development
of the generality of the country.
De-institutionalizing information
The idea of de-institutionalizing information is premised on Ivan Illichs de-
schooling the ineffectual nature of institutionalized education at
(http:ournature.org/~novembre/illich/1970_deschooling.html, Accessed on
14/06/2013). According to Illich, the School the production of knowledge, the
marketing of knowledge, which is what the school amounts to draws society
into the trap of thinking that knowledge is hygienic, pure respectable
deodorized, produced by human heads and amassed in a stock (Gajardo, 2000:
4) hence a feat that can only be accessible with consistent attendance as
recorded and affirmed by the register system in schools. Inconsistent attendance
is viewed as pointer to lack of progress or as explanation for failure. The school
walls thus, become a syndrome that creates false belief in learners that they can
only learn when they are in the school and attending regularly. This false belief
has been affirmed in Zimbabwe by the large numbers of Ordinary Level failures
who throng teacher training colleges for bridging courses. The thinking behind
this is that teacher training colleges, being institutions of higher learning, offer
better service compared to schools.
The idea of de-schooling therefore is synonymous to Paulo Freires de-

intoxicating learning from the transmission model. This would create a
permissive environment in which individuals begin to learn (be educated) rather
than being schooled. We need to devolve from seeing education as a thing out
there but rather as an activity and for this to happen, the ethos, not just the
institutions, of society ought to be de-schooled (Illich, 1971:55). Learners ought
to develop self-belief that they are active agencies of knowledge creation than
the learning institutions being places where knowledge resides. These
institutions must play a catalyst role in activating learners to think and construct
their own knowledge than memorize other peoples thinking. For this purpose,
Illich (1971) proposes setting up of educational webs which heighten the
opportunity for each one to transform each moment of his living into one of
learning (http:ournature.org/~novembre/illich/1970_deschooling.html;
downloaded on 14/06/2013).
2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

46
Just like the misconception that learning is only possible in a school set-up,
information has been ill-conceived as a privy for the educated and politicians.
Information has, for long, been packaged in ways that create the notion that it is
only accessible to a select group. This is done mainly through two processes, that
is, the exclusionist languages that have been used to package the information
and that the circulation points have mostly favored the educated and politicians
who are mostly urbanites. For the majority of the rural folk, packaged
information tends to elude them. In tandem with Illichs proposal, there is need
to use advanced technology to support both learning and information
dissemination. Information centers in rural areas could act as launch-pads for
national debates and development at various levels and places. Languages that
are accessible to each community should also be used to package the
information to increase circulation. Increased access to information means
increased debates on local and national activities perchance increasing
productivity. De-institutionalizing information could prove to be one of the key
movers that may unlock development in rural Zimbabwe.
Community-based information centers

Community-based information points are centers of excellence. The term
Information normally, is a message communicated by a communicator to a
receiver. Giggey (1988:11) defines community as a group of people who have
something in common. This can be their age, education, religion, interests,
political affiliation, activities, work, possessions or a combination of two or more
of these. Community-based information centers (CBIC) are information
dissemination points for the survival and growth of the community, or the
information required by members of the community to make effective use of the
available resources around them. These members usually have some mutual
obligation. The information service through which CBIC is provided to
communities is called Community Information Service (CIS). Survival
information, such as that which relate to health, agriculture, housing, income,
legal protection, economic opportunities and political rights can be
communicated among the peoples of communities through CBICs.
The Cambridge Dictionary (2010) at http://dictionary.cambridge.org/

(Accessed 20 July, 2012) defines development as when someone or something
grows or changes and becomes more advanced. Malcolm (2003) says rural
development generally refers to the process of improving the quality of life and
economic wellbeing of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely
populated areas. He argues that rural development has traditionally centered on
the exploitation of land-intensive natural resources such as agriculture and
forestry. However, changes in global production networks and increased
urbanization have changed the character of rural areas. Increasingly tourism,
niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource extraction and
agriculture as dominant economic drivers (Ward and Brown, 2009). Rural
development is also characterized by its emphasis on locally produced economic
development strategies. In contrast to urban regions which have many
similarities, rural areas are highly distinctive from one another. For this reason
there is a large variety of rural development approaches in Zimbabwe and other
47
places of the world. CBICs have the potential of transforming the livelihood of
the rural folk.
The evolution of the centers

The concept of establishing CBICs dates back to the 18th century. The first
attempts to improve access to information involved establishing collections of
books and printed materials, what was then called community libraries. In the
early 1970s, CBICs began to appear in some developed countries. Their focus
was on acquiring, processing, storing and disseminating the information that
was needed by the communities they served. They were, therefore, less passive
than the community libraries.
The first examples of community based libraries as information centers were
found in Africa in the 1960s. They were usually initiated and funded by
development agencies, working in conjunction with national or public library
systems that were, themselves, part of the colonial legacy. In the then Rhodesia,
the Harare Public Library and Gweru Community-Based Library are cases in
point. Community-based library services are still operating in some parts of
Africa, and still continue to meet community needs (Mchombu and Cadbury,
2006). The basic aims of community libraries were to support the development
of literacy skills and to supplement the formal education provision. Their focus
was, therefore, usually on children and young people. Increasingly, however,
they also played an important role in maintaining literacy skills among adults.
The existence of community libraries often served as a catalyst for more wide-
ranging information based activities. In Peru in South America, for example, the
network of community libraries, bibliotecas rurales, has developed into an
educational and cultural movement that incorporates literacy activities, local
language publications, reading and learning (Ortiz, 1996). Perhaps because of
the relatively high capital costs involved, the provision of community libraries
was usually made by a government agency, such as a national or public library
service, and often with assistance from an aid agency. As such, many of the
centers were managed as part of the management structure of the sponsoring
agency. This is the case with Zimbabwean community-based libraries. The
National Library and Documentation Services (NLDS) working with the
National Free Library facilitated the establishment of 41 school/community
libraries. However, these libraries are only located in Matabeleland South
Province of Zimbabwe.
Community-Based Information Centers (CBICs)
In common with developments in mainstream library services, there was a shift
towards more dynamic centers that were concerned with the collection and
provision of information rather than simply with the management of collections
of books. These community-based information centers began to emerge in the
early 1970s and a number are still providing valuable services today. Their focus
was on acquiring, processing, storing and disseminating the information that
was needed by the community that they served. The emphasis was on taking the
information to the people who needed it most. There was a corresponding need
to identify and satisfy information needs within the community. This rather
more dynamic role implied the need for trained information staff. This reflected
recognition of the importance of oral information and an oral culture in rural

48
communities. Initially, the focus of these centers was firmly on the needs of local
businesses, particularly agriculture.
The aim was to provide individuals and communities with access to national
and international information sources. The services were often, therefore,
developed in partnership between an international organization, such as the
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, or the
International Rice Research Institute, and a countrys Ministry of Agriculture. In
the 1980s and 1990s, attention began to shift towards the need to meet the daily
information requirements of individuals. This was especially true in areas like
health, social empowerment, community development and information
networking. As Tadesse and Genesse (2002) note, CBICs seek to enhance
development and reduce poverty in the region through providing much needed
information, particularly in the areas of agriculture and health.
Tele-centers and Community IT centers

During the 1980s, when Zimbabwe was celebrating its independence, the nature
of community information centers began to reflect the growing importance of
information and communication technology in creating, storing, transmitting
and communicating information. Tele-centers and Community IT centers
became the new buzz-words in the information field. The technology, however,
was still mainly analogue consisting of telephones and fax machines,
photocopiers, duplicators and printers. Many communities lacked these basic
resources and strenuous efforts were made to establish resource centers in urban
and rural communities. The main focus of tele-centers and IT centers was on
meeting the information needs of the local business community, particularly
subsistence farmers.
As time moved on, however, there was an emerging recognition of the need to
develop IT-handling skills, particularly among children and young people. The
nature of the centers also changed. Initially they were places where
professionals, or people trained in basic information skills used the technology
to acquire, process and store information on behalf of the community and its
members. Gradually, a self-service style of operation began to emerge: people
went to the centers to use the technology to satisfy their own information needs.
The Indian Government, for example, has done much to support the
development of tele-centers in rural areas. In 2000 it launched a programme
establishing nearly 500 centers in the north-eastern region of the country. Each
was equipped with computers, printers, a generator and a satellite link for
internet access. The centers are manned by two trained operators and have the
potential to be used for a very wide range of activities (Harris and Rajora, 2006).
However, resource limitations and other constraints such as the time and cost
involved in setting up and maintaining equipment means that such centers in
developing countries such as Zimbabwe are faced with a lot of problems.
Multipurpose Community Tele-centers

Multipurpose Community Tele-centers reflected the way that technology
changed, particularly the development of the internet, had greatly extended the
49
range of activities that could be undertaken by tele-centers. It is now the most

common type of centre, and examples can be found in South Africa, Botswana,
and the Asia-Pacific region, as well as in more developed European countries
and North America. The primary drive was to provide opportunities for the
community to use ICT for a wide range of purposes, not just as a means of
acquiring, processing and storing information. The centers were often built
around training in the use of the internet, computers and associated technology.
Some sought to provide services to the whole community (Proenza, Buch and
Montero, 2001) while others have focused on particular groups within the
community such as women (International Telecommunication Union, 2004). The
centers were increasingly initiated by community-based organizations and
supported by a wide range of local, regional and national government agencies,
along with sponsorship from private sector companies and charitable
organizations.
In other cases, the centers have been established by an outside agency that has
sponsored the development in order to uplift targeted communities, for
example, the US Information Corner in Zimbabwe. Good examples elsewhere
are the centers that have been established by the Population and Community
Development Association (PDA) of Thailand. The centers are equipped with
computers, printers, along with an internet connection. The main purpose of the
centers is to provide training in computing and the use of ICT. They offer a
range of courses for the community and for local organizations. The centers also
serve as a community facility and members of the community are encouraged to
use the equipment. At an international level, the International
Telecommunication Union and UNESCO have played an important role in
promoting the concept of multipurpose community telecentres. UNESCO has
produced a useful, practical guide to their establishment and operation
(UNESCO, 2003) in given countries.
Community Multi-media Centers

The functions of community-based information and technology centers have
changed over time from community libraries, with their emphasis on building
collections of books, to the multipurpose community tele-centers where
information and communication technology is used for a wide range of
purposes. Since 2000 a further function was added to those outlined above, that
is information broadcasting. A community multimedia center combines local
radio by local people in local languages with a public tele-center facility offering
access to internet, e-mail, computer training and a range of services and
activities that meet development needs (UNESCO, 2005). In some cases, tele-
centers were added to community radio stations; in others, radio was added to
existing tele-centers. This development reflects the emergence of new
opportunities to use digital information and associated media to disseminate
information. Digital technology enables local people in small, remote
communities to take control of the local, regional, national and even
international information that they receive, customizing it to meet their
particular requirements. Content of all types can be relayed in local languages to
meet local needs.

50
Community Learning Centers

In recent years, with the growth of the internet and the transition to information
and knowledge-based societies, people have become more and more conscious
of the importance of learning and knowledge sharing as a basic need for social
and economic development. Community information and technology centers
have always contributed, in one way or the other, to social and economic
processes. In recent years, more importantly, a number of community learning
centers have been established with the specific purpose of providing a variety of
learning opportunities that can empower people within their communities and
improve their quality of life (UNESCO, 2006). In developing countries, UNESCO
has done much to foster the development of community learning centers under
its Programme of Education for All. The centers recognize the importance of
non-formal, lifelong learning and the development of skills. The centers provide
support for children and young people moving through the formal education
system. They also make significant provision for adult and continuing learners.
This, hitherto, was what Illich proposed a couple of years back. Community
learning centers are increasingly initiated by community-based organizations
and supported by a wide range of local, regional and national government
agencies, particularly education ministries, and by UNESCO in developing
countries.
Purposes of community-based information centers

The common purpose that underlies all the community based information
centers is to achieve equal access to information, or, at least, to reduce levels of
inequality. The importance of information has seen rapid growth in recent years
with the aim to create information and knowledge-based communities.
Community-based information centers aim to provide community development
information and business services to remote communities. CIBCs provide access
to internet-enabled computers, development of online community software
based on the local information needs, fax machines, printers, copiers, telephones,
televisions and radios. In addition, there could be a mobile library with books
and daily newspapers and magazines in rural Zimbabwean communities. This
would act as gateways to information on topical and daily activities. Community
based information centers have one thing in common: they bring new learning
opportunities to those who otherwise lag behind in the increasingly information-
wired world. Lack of access to information can severely constrain personal
development through education. It can impair the efficiency and
competitiveness of businesses, whether those of subsistence farmers or more
ambitious entrepreneurs. It can limit a communitys cultural life leading to lack
of experience creating narrowness of vision. Perhaps most significant of all, this
can prevent individuals from taking control of their daily lives, their health and
their well-being, as well as denying them exercising their rights as citizens
(Sullivan, Kone, Senturia and Chrisman, 2001). Such was the case in Zimbabwe
for Matabeleland South Province where such an endeavor was embarked on as a
pilot project. The pilot project, however, suffered greatly from under-funding
and lack of visionary implementers.
The importance of information has grown in recent years with the transition to
information and knowledge-based communities. This is a phenomenon that can
be seen all over the world. The development of these information-based societies
51
hold the prospect of economic growth and social improvement but, all too often,
it produces within the overall population disadvantaged groups who are
excluded because they lack access to information. Societies are becoming
polarized into those who have access to information the information-haves
and those who do not the have-nots. This situation is usually compounded by
a digital divide where people lack access to the technology that, increasingly, is
required in order to obtain and use information. It is the view of these
researchers that such is the case in most rural Zimbabwe. The information
centers that have sprout in growth-points need to be developed to accommodate
every Jack and Jill in the rural areas. It can be noted at this point that Econet,
among other mobile service providers, has made a commendable effort to bring
information to most rural points. However, this effort is being curtailed by the
expensive mobile handsets that people have to purchase for them to access
information.
The more individuals, communities and whole societies depend on information

and the associated technologies, the greater is the social exclusion that is
experienced by those who do not have access to the technology and the
wherewithal to use it. As if this were not bad enough, matters are made worse
by the tendency for educated people and those with skills to leave the
disadvantaged rural communities and move to the cities; rural-urban migration.
In effect, this increases the social and technological exclusion for those who
remain in the rural areas. In Zimbabwe, there is, therefore, a great need to
reduce the level of inequality in peoples access to information. Establishment of
community-based centers that are designed to provide people with access to
information is a necessary move that will certainly cater-pool societal growth.
Such centers have been established elsewhere in disadvantaged communities all
over the world they are a global phenomenon hence can be set up in rural
Zimbabwe as well.
The Zimbabwean rural populace benefits from community information

centers
Information and communication activities are a fundamental element of any
rural development activities. Rural areas are often characterized as information-
deprived though information provision has always been a central component of
rural development initiatives. The rural poor typically lack access to information
vital to their lives and livelihoods (Chapman and Slaymaker, 2002). Zabed,
Munsi and Ahmad (1997) suggest that,
[. . .] in a country like Bangladesh with an agro-based rural economy, rural
development can play a major role in national development. Therefore,
quick and easy access to information is vital to the development of the rural
community.
The flow of information from and to the rural based communities is an essential
pre-condition for the development of rural Zimbabwe towards eradication of
widespread poverty. Information and communication technologies (ICTs)
greatly facilitate the flow of information and knowledge offering the socially-
marginalized communities unprecedented opportunities to attain their own
entitlements (Akbar, 2004). As a result, urban people are benefiting from the

52
new ICT-based economy, but the poor, disadvantaged and marginalized rural
population does not have access to the information superhighway. Owing to
limited infrastructure in Zimbabwe, people living in rural areas cannot afford to
have these facilities. However, help could be possibly at hand with the
establishment of community-based information centers as a way to enable rural
communities to access information key to development (Mahmood, 2005).
In Zimbabwe, the idea is to establish thousands of tele-centers throughout the

country so that all citizens of the country would have access to communication,
information and other services for improving their livelihoods and quality of
life. These tele-centers, once established in rural areas, will provide a range of
services focused on the needs of rural residents and will bring profound impact
on rural life that include creating social awareness, eradicating poverty,
empowering women, opening the door for financial activities and eliminating
digital divide. As a result, the underprivileged and marginalized people living
in the remote areas would immensely benefit from these initiatives.
Conclusion
Creating awareness through provision of information products and services to
the rural people is an essential component for development. It seems that rural
people in Africa are not always aware of what information entails
(Manzvanzvike, 1993). Economic development in Zimbabwe can only be
achieved by harnessing these information synergies and uplifting the rural-
based information centers. However, information on its own may be useless
unless we create linkages through information-based websites which can
connect the rural people with markets for their products, money transfer, job
applications and weather information. Information has power only when used
and applied effectively. Information plays such an important role in almost
every human activity; its value in the development process has been a topic of
extensive debate. Community-based information centers are therefore a panacea
to national development when intervened with proper usage.
Declaration
The researchers wish to declare that there was no research grant attached to this
research by any organization.
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54

Influential Factors and Their Correlation on

Student Imagination
Chao-Tung Liang
LunghwaUniversity of Science and Technology
Taoyuan, Taiwan
Chaoyun Liang
National Taiwan University
Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract. This study aimed to analyze what influential factors could

stimulate imagination of design students in different design phases and
explore how these factors correlate with each other. The influential
factors were categorized into two groups: environmental factors (i.e.,
physical component, human aggregate, organizational measure, and
social climate) and psychological factors (i.e., facilitative motivation,
generative cognition, positive emotions, inspiration through actions,
self-efficacy, and stress/challenge). These effects are seen in the design
process, especially in phase one (problem definition and design
analysis) and with a lesser effect in phase three (detailed design and
communication). Our results also showed that the social climate factor
had a close relationship with the factors of positive emotion,
stress/challenge, and self-efficacy. The correlation among the factors of
stress/challenge, physical component, and human aggregate deserved
additional attention, as those factors might have crucial implications to
instructional strategies.
Keywords: design school students; environmental factors; imagination

stimulation; influential factors; psychological factors
Introduction
In recent years, from Europe to the Pacific region, more and more outstanding
design has emerged from Taiwan. Over the past five years, Taiwan's designers
have won more than 100 awards from the four major international design
competitions: Red Dot, iF, G-Mark, and IDEA. These achievements declare the
power of design to the world. The key to the success of the design lies in the
capacity of creative thinking. Imagination is the basis for cultivating creative
thinking, and thus is the driving force of innovation. The discourse on the values
of imagination and imagery process is often neglected in Asia, but has become a
focus of contemporary European scholars (e.g., Bscher, Eriksen, Kristensen, &
Mogensen, 2004; Folkmann, 2010; Trotman, 2006).

55
There are limited studies, which have been published linking the learning
aspects of environment and psychology to factors of imagination stimulation, let
alone developed an assessment tool for evaluating imagination stimulation in
the design field (Yueh, Chang, &Liang, 2013). The need for evaluating and
having a greater understanding of these factors become more apparent when
considering the importance between imagination stimulation and possible
instructional strategies for design school students (Liang, Hsu, & Chang, 2013).
In response to this need for research, this study aimed to analyze what factors
influence students imagination in different design phases and explore how
these factors correlate with each other. In this study, imagination refers
specifically to the process of transforming the inner imagery of design school
students when they face a design task. Such images are developed from the
individuals image memory and shaped into something new.
Imagination studies
Dewey explained how imagination works a hundred years ago, Imagination is
an aspect of reflective thinking that enables us to create ideas that not only go beyond
what is given (Dewey, 1910, p. 7); Imagine as it reshapes experience are things which
are absent in reality. The variety of peoples and environment, their contrast with
familiar scenes, furnishes infinite stimulation (Dewey, 1916, p. 60, 212); the
conscious adjustment of the new and the old is imagination (Dewey, 1934, p. 272).
These quotes show that imagination can change old, familiar experiences to new
insights or actions.
Imagination enables people to go beyond actual experience and construct

alternative possibilities in which a fragmented situation becomes a meaningful
whole (Passmore, 1985). Individuals have the potential to make creative
discoveries in their imagery. It is possible to demonstrate this experimentally for
many types of creative discoveries (Finke, 1990; Liang &Chia, 2014). Therefore,
imagination can be viewed as the basis for cultivating creative thinking, and
thus is the driving force of innovation (Finke, 1996; Policastro& Gardner, 1999).
Reichling (1990) held that intuition, perception, thinking, and feeling recur
throughout the various conceptions of imagination. She defined intuition as a
quality aligned with thinking but distinct from reasoning. Bower et al., (1990)
perceived intuition as an informed judgment in the context of
discovery.Specifically, clues to coherence automatically activate the problem
solvers relevant mnemonic and semantic networks. Wippich (1994) contended
that a more fluent reprocessing of coherent stimuli could be a basis for intuitive
judgments. Bolte and Goschke (2008) further indicated that intuitive gestalt
judgments for coherent fragments rested on the activation of semantic object
representations, which biased participants intuitive impression of gestalt.
Moreover, Reichling indicated that perception serves as a mediated mode of

knowing. Perceptions and intuitive knowledge are made recognizable through
experiences. Experience is phenomenologically and existentially construed to
include what is actually experienced as well as the undergoing of an experience.

56
OConnor and Aardema (2005) situated imagination within the consciousness

complete with its own precognitive, cognitive, and meta-cognitive domains.
They argued that divisions between perception and imagination are transcended
by precognitive factors and believed absorption in a possible world depended
on the relationship between core and marginal consciousness.
Another facet of imagination identified by Reichling is thinking.Finke (1990)

introduced the concept of pre-inventive forms into the operations of creative
thinking, and described an approach to creative invention differing from those
typically used in problem-solving studies. After discussing three extant views of
mental imagery (quasi-pictorial, description, and perceptual activity theories),
Thomas (1999) concluded that the traditional symbolic view of mental contents
should be rejected, while the situated cognition and active vision approaches are
preferred. Thomas thus viewed imagery as non-discursive, and related it closely
to seeing.
Reichling contended that feelings are another crucial facet of imagination.

Goodman (1985) claimed that emotion in an aesthetic experience is a means of
discerning what properties a work has and expresses. Scheffler (1986) believed
that emotions serve as a cognitive stimulus to the scientific imagination.
Cognitive emotions are a source of imaginative patterns and perform a selective
function among these patterns. Berenson (2010) concluded that feelings allow
the inner leap in an individuals imagination. Feelings also serve as the basis
bringing forth the exhilaration of discovery.
Environmental factors
As the American College Personnel Association (1994) indicated, an
understanding of any human environment begins with the identification of its
essential features: its physical component and design, its dominant human
characteristics, the organizational structures that serve its purposes, and the
participants constructions of its social climates. These dimensions create a
variety of conditions on campus, and can enhance or detract from student
learning and development (Liang et al., 2013).
At first, the physical dimension of a campus consists of its natural environment

(location, topography, weather, temperature, etc.) and its man-made
environment (architecture, sound, spaces, facilities, and messages sent to its
inhabitants). The major components of a physical environment include: ambient
environment, environmental load, personal space, privacy, territories, and
crowding (Gifford, 2007; McAndrew, 1993). Secondly, the human aggregate
dimension is the collective characteristics of people who inhabit the
environment. These characteristics stress the uniqueness of the organization and
provide a sense of belonging for its members. The human aggregate represents a
schools intangible property: school history, philosophy of education, traditional
values, ritual practices, special events, school images, shared beliefs, and
behavioral norms (Huebner & Lawson, 1990; Peterson & Spencer, 1990).

57
Thirdly, Strange (2003) indicated that the complex nature of universities results
in the need to maintain a sense of order and generate various arrangements that
define the organizational measure of an environment. As a result of this need,
rules and regulations are formed, rewards systems are developed, and reports
become necessary for resource allocation. Such organizational measureswould
affect the performances of any organization in terms of innovation, efficiency,
and morale (Hage, 1980). Lastly, the social-climate dimension focuses on the
subjective views and experiences of participant observers, assuming that
environments are understood best through the collective perceptions of the
individuals within them. (Strange and Banning, 2001, p. 86) Environments can
also be described in terms of their personalities, or social climates, which are
composed of relationships, personal growth, and system maintenance (Moos,
1979).
Psychological factors
Accordingly, psychological aspects of imagination stimulation would include
factors of facilitative motivation, generative cognition, positive emotion,
inspiration through action, and self-efficacy (e.g., Gallese, Keysers, &Rizzolatti,
2004;Garcia, McCann, Turner, &Roska, 1998; Hennessey, 2003; Liang,& Chang,
2014; Liang, Chang, & Hsu, 2013; Lin, Hsu, &Liang, 2014; OConnor &Aardema,
2005). As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over when, what
and how they study, Ford (1992) indicated that motivation is crucial in guiding
the direction, persistence, and quality of their learning behaviors. According to
action-control theory, volition plays a critical role between the motivation to
learn and goal-directed behaviour (Garcia et al., 1998). Hennessey (2004) also
held that there is a direct relation between the motivational orientation brought
to a task and the likelihood of creativity at that task.
Generative cognition is associated with the learners perceptions, feelings, and

other ways to trigger ideas; e.g., using multiple representations or mental
simulations (e.g.,Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, &Armor, 1998). Gallese et al. (2004)
claimed that a direct experiential grasp of what other people do or feel is
intrinsic to human nature. This experiential insight into other minds provides an
important view for generative cognition. In addition, Miserandino (1996)
identified evidence of engagement within a school as energized behavior (e.g.,
initiation, effort, concentrated attention, persistence) and positive emotion
(enthusiasm, happiness, curiosity, interest, etc.) (p. 204). Fredrickson (2001) also
suggested that positive emotions broaden a persons available repertoire of
cognitions and actions, thus enhancing creativity. Hennessey (2003) even
indicated that the undermining of creativity in performance may be largely
driven by an affective, rather than a cognitive mechanism.
OConnor and Aardema(2005) contended that imagination and perception

constantly operate together to form any kind of awareness. Fredrick (2007)
confirmed that the most effective and creative problem solvers engage in a
process of meta-thinking in which people are aware of how they are thinking as
they are thinking. Therefore, Fukasawa claimed that the true essence of design is
the revelation that occurs when realizing something about an object during its

58
use that was not noticed before(Goto, Sasaki, &Fukasawa, 2004). Furthermore,
Bandura (2000) indicated that people of high efficacy would focus on the
opportunities worth pursuing, and figure out ways of exercising some control
even in environments with many constraints. Clark (1998) confirmed that
individuals tend to be more motivated to reach a goal if they had strong self-
efficacy beliefs. Yong (2010) concluded that individuals with high self-efficacy
perceive themselves as capable of taking the necessary steps to resolve
problems.
Method
Participants involved in this study were students from twelve universities across
Taiwan. They had to satisfy three requirements: Students had to be majoring in a
design related department, have at least sophomore standing, and have similar
assignments of graphic design based on the agreement between the instructors
and this research team. In order to ensure the quality of this study, the research
team communicated the survey with instructors in the target universities first,
and then arranged similar schedules and design assignments. In other words,
this study could be implemented cross campuses under a comparable timetable
and similar design tasks.
The investigation process delivered in each university followed the same

procedure. Each student participant received a cover page and a questionnaire
in a package. In the cover page, all participants were informed that their
involvement was voluntary and they could withdraw from the study at any
point in time without incurring a penalty. Students were guaranteed anonymity,
confidentiality, and the right to review the results of their responses. In the
questionnaire, students were asked to determine the strength of influence that
each identified item had on their imagination in the current design phase. Data
collection of each survey was conducted by well-trained graduate assistants who
were accompanied by the class instructor.
Although design and problem solving are compound processes that often
include iterations or re-defining the problem in the reality. However, a
systematic approach of instructional activities that allow students to gradually
grasp complicated concepts is oftentimes needed. The questionnaire was thus
distributed in three different design periods. The first period, the phase of
problem definition and design analysis, was during the first two weeks of
October 2012. The second period, the phase of concept development and
prototyping took place in the final two weeks of November 2012. The third and
final period, the phase of detailed design and communication, was during the
middle two weeks of January 2013.
In the first phase, a total of 1,224 valid samples were collected, including 354
sophomores, 365 juniors, 332 seniors, and 173 in their master programs. In these
subjects, there were 338 male and 886 female participants. The demographical
data of the other two phases are presented in Table 1. Because the participants
were not forced to contribute in all the three phases, the numbers of participants
differed slightly between each phase.

59
Since measures of influential factors on stimulating imagination in different

design phases were unavailable, new scales needed to be developed for this
study. Based upon the literature review above and personal experience, items
were created to represent the issues identified in this study. All the preliminary
items were organized into two groups: environmental factors (i.e., physical
component, human aggregate, organizational measure, and social climate) and
psychological factors (i.e., facilitative motivation, generative cognition, positive
emotion, inspiration through action, and self-efficacy). In order to make the
standpoints of the participants clearer, items were measured using 4-point Likert
scales, ranging from 1 to 4. Higher scores indicated higher levels of influence.
The items were examined for comprehensiveness and clarity by three research
associates and a small group of graduate students. The constructed scale was
pre-tested by 235 college students in the target pool and then verified by
preliminary validation analyses. Based on satisfactory analytical results of the
pilot study, a total of 53 items were chosen to construct the formal questionnaire.
The measured items were organized by item analysis on the mean (2.54-3.69),
standard deviation (> .75), skewness (< 1), extreme value test results (p < .05, t
> 1.99), correlation coefficients (> .3), and factor loading values (> .3) of the data
acquired during the formal survey. The reliability test of the scale was
conducted and found to be reliable with Cronbachs alpha values of .912, .918,
and .925 in the three different phases. The Cronbachsalpha value for each scale
item was high enough (> .903) to warrant confidence in internal consistency
reliability as seen in Table 1.
Table 1: Analysis of the demographical data and cronbachs

Demographical Data & Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
N 1,224 1,002 968
Gender Male
338 27.61%
303 30.24% 274 28.31%

Female 88672.38% 69969.76% 69471.69%
Standing Sophomores
354 28.93%
260 25.95% 28929.85%
Juniors 36529.82% 30230.14% 30631.61%
Seniors 33227.12% 30830.74% 25926.76%
Master program
13314.14% 13213.17% 11411.78%
Cronbachs Whole .912 .918 .925
Item > .903 > .914 > .923
Results and discussion

Factor analysis
Factor analysis results indicated that the 53 items could be organized into two
groups and ten factors. The first group was the environmental aspect of
influential factors, while the second was defined as the psychological aspect. The
majority of factors were consistent with earlier studies (e.g., Gallese et al., 2004;
Huebner et al., 1990; OConnor &Aardema, 2005; Strange, 2003) except for the
stress/challenge factor which was not identified as an independent stimulus in
the literature. Within the environmental group, the four factors accounted for
50.80% of the variance in the phase one, 54.68% in the phase two, and 52.34% in
the phase three. In the psychological group, the six factors accounted for 48.25%

60
of the variance in the phase one, 50.71% in the phase two, and 52.58% in the
phase three.
Within the environmental group, the first factor emerged was social climate, a
seven-item scale, which measured the extent of which learners reported being
influenced by the class climate. This finding was consistent with early studies
(e.g., Hennessey, 2004; Strange, 2003). The social climate factor was rated as the
greatest influential factor in this study. Its effect in phase one appeared to be
greater than the other two phases.
The second factor, organizational measure, a six-item scale, assessed learners

perceptions of the influence from the institutional structure and organizational
measures. This result was also compatible with the literature identified earlier
(e.g.,Hage, 1980; Strange, 2003). This factor was weighed as the most influential
one by the subjects in phase two, which implies that this factor may be critical in
developing related instructional strategies.
The third factor, human aggregate, a five-item scale, indicated the degree to which
learners felt that their imagination was influenced by the organizational culture,
tradition, or style. This finding lent additional support to previous research (e.g.,
Huebner & Lawson, 1990; Peterson & Spencer, 1990). The moderate effect caused
by this factor was steadily generated throughout the three phases.
The fourth factor, physical component, a six-item scale, measured the degree to
which learners considered the facilities and messages in an environment would
stimulate imagination. This result also supported the previous studies regarding
learning environments(e.g., Gifford, 2007; McAndrew, 1993). Although this
factor had the least effect in the environmental group, its mean (3.09 average in
three phases) was high enough to be considered influential.
Within the psychological group, the first factor identified was positive emotion, a
three-item scale. This factor measured the extent of which learners reported
being influenced by optimistic intentions. Our results provided supplementary
support for early inquiries in this topic (e.g., Clark, 1998; Hennessey, 2003). The
positive emotion factor was rated as the second greatest influential factor in this
study. Its influence on phase one also appeared to be greater than on the other
two phases.
The second factor, facilitative motivation, a four-item scale, assessed learners

initial driving force in knowing and learning. This finding was compatible to the
classic theories of motivation (e.g., Garcia et al., 1998; Rosenbaum, 2002). The
emergence of factors of self-efficacy, stress/challenge, along with facilitative
motivation, showed the different effectsbetween intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation on student learning and imagination stimulation. It should be noted
that the effect of this factor dropped slightly in the third phase.
The third factor, inspiration through action, a five-item scale, examined how
learners felt that their imagination was influenced by meta-thinking during

61
hands-on practice. This result supported the studies conducted by Goto et al.
(2004) and OConnor et al. (2005) regarding the integration of external reality
with inner experience, as well as the interaction among perception,
consciousness, awareness, and imagination. We found that the weight of this
factor in the final phase was greater than the previous two phases.
The fourth factor, self-efficacy, a seven-item scale, evaluated the extent of which
learners reported being influenced by the belief in their own competence.Our
study was consistent with the modern studies of self-efficacy (e.g., Bandura,
2000;Yong, 2010). The emergence of this factor also lent support to the studies of
mental simulation and anticipatory effects resulting from active perception
proposed by Rosenbaum (2002). The weight of this factor in the third phase was
greater than the previous two phases.
The fifth factor, generative cognition, a six-item scale, measured the degree to
which learners considered what cognitive approaches would stimulate
imagination. This finding was also consistent with the literature identified
previously (e.g., Gallese et al., 2004;Taylor et al., 1998). The effect resulted from
this factor was consistent throughout the three phases.
The sixth factor, stress and challenge, a four-item scale, indicated the degree to
which learners felt that their imagination was influenced by ones psychological
state and feelings regarding their surroundings. It should be restated that this
factor was not originally identified as an independent stimulus in this study.
However, several studies would support this finding. Accordingly, emotions
experienced during cognitive processing of learning materials can be viewed as
imposing unnecessary load in working memory, thus creating a negative effect
on reasoning and performance.The effect of this factor on phase one was greater
than the following phases. Although this factor had the least effect in this study,
its mean (3.05 averaged in three phases) was high enough to be still considered
influential.
The results of this study indicated that the five greatest influential factors, from
most influential to least, were social climate, positive emotion, organizational
measure, facilitative motivation, and inspiration through action. These effects
are seen in the design process, especially in phase one (problem definition and
design analysis) and with a lesser effect in phase three (detailed design and
communication). The factor loadings, means and standard deviations are
reported in Table 2.
Table 2: Means and standard deviations of each factor in three design phases
Group/Factor Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor M SD Factor M SD Factor M SD
Environmental
Social climate .825 3.45 .452 .829 3.37 .471 .832 3.29 .478
Organizational measure .789 3.41 .478 .816 3.38 .492 .744 3.28 .523
Human aggregate .798 3.30 .531 .821 3.24 .535 .799 3.19 .524
Physical component .736 3.18 .458 .779 3.13 .492 .787 3.08 .492
Psychological

62
Positive emotion .609 3.39 .490 .655 3.31 .522 .663 3.29 .544
Facilitative motivation .511 3.37 .412 .632 3.33 .452 .715 3.23 .501
Inspiration thru action .634 3.29 .423 .646 3.24 .423 .725 3.24 .473
Self-efficacy .696 3.17 .424 .743 3.20 .444 .773 3.17 .454
Generative cognition .619 3.12 .395 .646 3.12 .395 .743 3.05 .445
Stress and challenge .627 3.10 .533 .604 3.01 .532 .638 3.01 .527
Correlation
Pearson correlations were conducted to see how the influential factors correlate
with each other. The statistics for the whole process are reported in Table 3:
1. Significant correlations were found among all factors in the whole process.
The correlations showed moderately strong correspondence (r> .4) between
the social climate (SC) and positive emotion factor, SC and self-efficacy
factor, and SC and stress/challenge factor. These results were compatible
with the organizational climate literature (e.g., Hennessey, 2004; Strange,
2003) which viewed the climate as a critical factor in affecting peoples
psychological status. This study suggests thatdesign instructors should pay
attention to the interlacing influences caused by social climate, positive
emotion, self-efficacy, and stress/challenge factors, and seek an integrative
instructional strategy to take these factors into account.
2. In the first phase, statistics showed that there was a significant correlation
between environmental and psychological factors (r = .613, p< .001).
Specifically, correlations between SC and positive emotion factor, and SC
and stress/challenge factor approached a moderate level. This finding
implies that instructors need to focus upon the social climate related
strategies during the initial design phase.
3. In the second phase, there was a significant correlation between
environmental and psychological factors (r = .623, p< .001). Significant
correlations between factors of SC and positive emotion, SC and self-
efficacy, SC and stress/challenge, andorganizational measure and positive
emotion also approached a moderate level. These results suggest that
instructors might further promote students self-efficacy and positive
emotion by utilizing a combinational approach of social climate and
organizational measure factors in the second phase.
4. In the third phase, we found that there was a significant correlation
between environmental and psychological factors (r = .668, p< .001).
Significant correlations between factors that reached a moderate level
included SC and positive emotion, SC and facilitative motivation, SC and
inspiration through action, SC and self-efficacy, SC and stress/challenge,
organizational measure and self-efficacy, human aggregate (HA) and
positive emotion, HA and self-efficacy, and HA and facilitative motivation.
In addition to implementing socially-constructed related strategies, our
results suggested that instructors might need to add extra strategies related
to organizational measure and human aggregate in the final phase.
Due to the complexity of correlations in each design phase, canonical correlation

analyses were conducted to ascertain the meanings of these relationships.

63
Table 3: Pearson correlations among influential factors on imagination stimulation
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Social climate 1 .599*** .606*** .455*** .465*** .389*** .361*** .437*** .308*** .457***
2. Organizational measure 1 .561*** .484*** .395*** .381*** .323*** .386*** .272*** .318***
3. Human aggregate 1 .419*** .369*** .358*** .321*** .377*** .295*** .274***
4. Physical component 1 .329*** .338*** .299*** .362*** .305*** .270***
5. Positive emotion 1 .376*** .297*** .362*** .257*** .381***
6. Facilitative motivation 1 .391*** .371*** .383*** .320***
7. Inspiration thru action 1 .421*** .427*** .294***
8. Self-efficacy 1 .338*** .392***
9. Generative cognition 1 .238***
10. Stress and challenge 1
*p<.05.**p <.01.***p <.001.
A canonical correlation analysis (CCA) was further conducted to see if

influential factors shared a substantial variance showing that they could be used
as supplements or complements. CCA examines the correlation between two
synthetic variables that are weighted based on the relationships between the
variables within the sets. CCA thus can be conceptualized as a bi-variate
correlation (Pearson r) between the two synthetic variables, which are created
from the equations of canonical functions (Sherry & Henson, 2005). Since CCA is
founded on the Pearson r, the correlations calculated from the first function are
usually similar to the results of Pearson r. Therefore, the point of interest lies
mainly on the results of the second function on the whole process and each
individual design phase.
The analysis for the whole process yielded two functions with canonical
correlations (Rc) of .666 and .197. Looking at the Function 1 coefficients,
significant correlations were found among all the factors, similar to the analyses
of the Pearson r. The Function 2 coefficients showed that the stress/challenge
factor was positively related to the social climate factor, but negatively related to
physical component and human aggregate factors. These results confirmed that
the class climate (social climate) was one of the main sources of stress and
challenge. However, appropriate arrangements of facilities and messages within
(physical component), and class and school culture (human aggregate) could be
perceived and utilized as de-stressors for design students.
The canonical analysis for the three phases also yielded two functions
respectively, with Rc of .640 and .211 in phase one, .657 and .216 in phase two,
and .694 and .170 in phase three. The correlations resulting from Function 2 of
each phase also showed that stress/challenge was positively related to social
climate, but negatively related to physical component and human aggregate in
all three phases. It should be noted that the coefficient of physical component
dropped, and thecoefficientof generative cognition increased in the second
phase. Interestingly, the coefficient of physical component continually went
down in the final phase. Our results indicated that effects of physical component
as a de-stressor constantly dropped along the design process, as the participants
became familiar with the learning environment. Based on these findings,
instructors should demand a contextualized approach of instructional strategies

64
which take all the environmental and psychological factors and their effects into
account based on the emerging needs of different design phases.
Closing Remarks
Taken together, our results concluded that influential factors not only had
significant effects on stimulating imagination, but also had varying effects
during the three phases of design process. Specially, the factors of social climate,
positive emotion, organizational measure, facilitative motivation, and
inspiration through action,served as the most influential dimensions. The effects
of these five factors were apparent, especially in the first phase (problem
definition and design analysis). This phenomenon was also observed with the
other factors. This implies that a set of unique instructional strategies applied
during phase one could be particularly beneficial to design school students. The
results also echo the study done by Bscher et al. (2004) in which work
environment, tools to be used, and the nature of the task are sought out to form
the best combinations for designers to utilize their imagination.
Ignorance is valued as a necessary precursor to curiosity. Curiosity, in turn,

triggers imagination. Imagination is the process of transforming an individuals
inner images. People construct new ideas from old experiences and develop
their imaginations through their memories of images. The capability of
imagination is a foundation for cultivating creative thinking, and is the driving
force necessary for individuals to continually create and innovate. An excellent
designer who is capable of simulating invisible possibilities is only able to
because he or she has an exceptional imagination. We sincerely hope that design
educators can use our study as a foundation to design appropriate and effective
instructional strategies to inspire students passion for excellence, nurture their
curiosity, develop their imagination, empower their professional life, and
awaken their spirit for unknown future.
Acknowledgments
The current study is part of the research project (NSC98-2511-S-155-005-MY2) supported
by Taiwans National Science Council. The authors would like to extend their gratitude
to the insightful suggestions of anonymous IJLTER reviewers. Correspondence
concerning this article should be addressed to Chaoyun Liang, Department of Bio-
Industry Communication and Development, National Taiwan University, Taiwan.
Electronic mail may be sent tocliang@ntu.edu.tw.
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67

Investigating the Relationship between English

Language Anxiety and the Achievement of School
based Oral English Test among Malaysian Form
Four Students
Lim Hooi Lian and Mardziah Bt Budin

Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Malaysia
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify the levels of the
English language anxiety experienced by Form Four students in two
selected schools. It was also to find out the extent of the relationship
between students English language anxiety and their achievement in
school based oral English tests; and the difference between genders
in English language anxiety. A survey was administered to 200 Form
Four students (aged 15-16) of two secondary schools. The
questionnaire reflected three components of English language
anxiety, namely: (a) communication apprehension, (b) fear of
negative evaluation, and (c) test anxiety. Descriptive analysis,
independent sample t- test and correlation test were used in the
study. The results of this study revealed that students have a
moderate level of English language anxiety and significant difference
between genders in English language anxiety.
Keywords: English language anxiety; communication apprehension; fear of

negative evaluation; test anxiety; Form Four students
Introduction
It is undeniable that English is the most common and the most important language
in the world. Therefore, English serves as the second language in Malaysia. It works
as one of the tools that unify the Malaysian people of different ethnicities,
languages, cultures and religions. In our education system, English is made a
compulsory subject to all students. The education system has been designed to
2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

68
produce students who are able to communicate effectively in English. But there are
still problems which disrupt students to excel with high grades in spoken language.
Background of study
One of the important problems that cause students not to perform well in spoken
English is language anxiety. Several researchers had investigated the relationship
between anxiety and English language learning which demonstrate the presence of
foreign language anxiety among learners (Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; P. D. MacIntyre &
Gardner, 1994; Young, 1991). Further, most researches focus on average learners
such as school and college students, revealed that the consistent moderate negative
correlation between language anxiety and language achievement (Horwitz, 2001).
The correlation studies showed that high language anxiety is related to low
achievement in language learning. MacIntyre and Gardner (1994), in a study
involving college students learning French, found that high anxiety students
experienced difficulty in expressing their views and tended to underestimate their
own abilities. Zhao (2007) made a similar observation with high school students in
China. He found that anxiety concerning English class affected students
achievement in English. There are also studies that revealed a negative correlation
between anxiety and ability in basic language skills, particularly the skills of
speaking and listening. According to MacIntyre and Gardner (1991), high anxiety
students performed worse than low anxiety students in these skills.
Previous research of second language anxiety focused more on tertiary level.

Moreover, study in this field is fairly small in Malaysia. On the present study
however, the researcher would like to focus on Form Four students English
language anxiety. Hence, this study aims to examine the relationship between
language anxiety and School Based Oral English Language achievement, focusing
specifically on Form Four students in zone Larut Matang and Selama, Perak State,
Malaysian.
English speaking ability among Malaysian students in School Based Oral English
Test will help to develop students oral competence in line with the learning
objectives stated in the English Language Syllabus for Malaysian Secondary Schools
(Malaysian Examination Syndicate, 2002). However, one of the cause that contribute
to students low achievement in the School Based Oral English Test is second
language anxiety. It was further supported by Siti Noorhayati (2007). Based on her
study found that secondary schools students did experience a considerable amount
of speaking anxiety in the areas of communication apprehension, fear of negative
evaluation and test taking. Based on Wong ( 2012) showed that a large number of
the students (68.4%) experienced moderate levels of language anxiety while 14.1%
of them experienced high levels of language anxiety and the remaining 17.5%
experienced low levels of language anxiety.
Besides, this study aimed to advance research in this area through investigating the
levels of language anxiety in gender in secondary school level. Previous researches

69
(Baxter, 1999; Pappamihiel, 2001; Selami Aydin, 2008) had found that female
students are usually more anxious than males in English classes. Whereas,
Pappamihiel (2001) found that while there was no gender difference in ESL classes,
Mexican middle school girls were significantly more anxious about using English in
their mainstream classes. The study showed that female students were more
worried about English language tests than males were. However, Hussain, Shahid,
& Zaman (2011) revealed that girls showed less anxiety in English language class,
because they had more positive attitude towards English.
Objectives of the study

The objectives of this study are:
I. to determine the students levels of English language anxiety.
II. to investigate the relationship between students level of English
language anxiety and their school based oral English test
achievement.
III. to identify the difference in between male and female students levels
of English language anxiety.
The research questions to facilitate the study are as follows:

I. What are the levels of students English language anxiety?
II. What is the relationship between students level of English language
anxiety and their school based oral English test achievement?
III. What is the difference between male and female students level of
English language anxiety?
Significance of the study

The findings of this study provided some insights to language teaching. Firstly,
English language teachers would be more aware of the second language skills in
which their students feel anxious. When they are more aware of language anxiety,
they will be more prepared in conducting second language activities in the
classroom and more sensitive when dealing with their students. Besides, they can
identify ways to create an environment which is conducive for second language
learning.
Besides helping language teachers, this study would help students to improve their
learning styles. They would be aware of such socio-psychological constraints like
thoughts of failure, deprecating thoughts, or low self-esteem. Through this
awareness, they can develop their social and personal well-beings in their future
university life and working environment where English language is a vital skill to
survive. This study would also assist the Centre for Languages in the planning of
English language teaching in the college. It can develop more comprehensive
language programmes and more practical teaching materials. Besides, classroom
procedures can be improved that promote language learning. All in all,
understanding the nature of language anxiety can help teachers, students, and
hopefully the college.

70
Anxiety and language learning

Horwitz and his colleagues (1986) define foreign language anxiety as a distinct
complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom
learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process. They also
found that foreign language anxiety can be related to these three components as
follows:
a. Communication apprehension is characterized by fear and anxiety in
communicating with people, such as difficulty in speaking in public,
listening or learning a spoken utterance are all manifestations of
communication apprehension. This type of anxiety in learning a second
language is derived from the learners personal knowledge that they will
have difficulty understanding others and making themselves
understood. Learners suffering from communication apprehension
choose to keep silent in their English classes. One of the most studied
topics in the field of speech communication is the tendency on the part of
some people to avoid, and even, fear, communicating orally (Daly 1991:
3). Horwitz et al. (1986: 128) define communication apprehension (CA)
as a type of shyness characterized by fear or anxiety about communicating
with people.
b. Test anxiety is a type of performance anxiety which is caused by fear of
failing a test. Test anxious students often put unrealistic demands on
themselves. Test anxiety is considered to be one of the most important
aspects of negative motivation which will affect learning. This type of
fear is defined as an unpleasant feeling or emotional state that has both
physiological and behavioral concomitants and that is experienced by
the anxious learner when taking formal test or other evaluative
situations.
c. Fear of negative evaluation is an extension of the third component (test
anxiety) of second /foreign language anxiety because it is not limited to
test-taking situations; rather, it may occur in any social, evaluative
situation, such as interviewing for a job or speaking in second/foreign
language class (Horwitz et al., 1986: 127). It is also broader in the sense
that it pertains not only to the teachers evaluation of the students but
also to the perceived reaction of other students as well (Shams, 2006: 10).
The following figure showed the studys first component, language anxiety together
with the sub-variables that constitute the component.

71
Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety
Communication Fear of Negative

Test Anxiety
Apprehension Evaluation
Figure 1: Horwitzs Conceptual Framework of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Methodology
This study utilized the quantitative research methodology. The research method
used in this study was a survey.
Instrumentation
A set of questionnaire was adapted from the Language Classroom Anxiety Scale
(FLCAS) by Horwitz et.al (1983). The FLCAS consists of 33 statements with
significant part-whole correlations with the total scale, aiming to assess
communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation
associated with language anxiety. Each item on the FLCAS is rated on a five-point
Likert scale ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Total scores of
the scale range from 33 to 165. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. Section one
solicits demographic information of the students school, class, gender and age.
Section two focuses on information on students anxiety towards speaking in
English, fear of negative evaluation and finally focuses on students anxiety towards
taking a speaking test in English.
Sampling
The study was carried out on 200 participants from two schools in zone Larut
Matang and Selama, Perak State, Malaysia. Random sampling method was used to
select the participants. The students consisted approximate of males and females.
The students are Form Four (aged 15-16) students from both schools.
Data collection
Researcher got the convenient schedule of the teachers as to the administration of
the questionnaire to the target participants. The participants were given 30-35
minutes to accomplish the questionnaire. Once all the data have been completed,
the questionnaires were classified, tallied and tabulated. The students English
teachers were referred to identify their latest achievement of school based oral
English test achievement.

72
Data analysis
The data were collected from their answers in the questionnaire. The overall
analysis of the data was collected using the frequency count and the percentages of
each answer where then calculated. The data obtained were analyzed using SPSS
version 20.0 Windows and were represented in the form of descriptive statistics
which include percentages and mean.
The classification of English language anxiety level referred to the category as Table 1.
Table 1: Students mean level of English language anxiety

Language Anxiety Mean
Low 1.00-2.33
Moderate 2.34-3.66
High 3.67-5.00
According to Baharuddin (2009), students are categorized into 3 levels of anxiety.

Table 1 showed mean 1.00-2.33 (low language anxiety LLA), mean 2.34-3.66
(moderate language anxiety MLA) and mean 3.67-5.00 (high anxiety level HLA).
Results and Discussion
Table 2: Students level of English language anxiety

Language Anxiety Variable Mean Level
Communication Apprehension 3.15 moderate
Fear Negative Evaluation 3.07 moderate
Test Anxiety 2.57 moderate
Overall Language Anxiety 2.93 moderate
As showed in the Table 2, communication apprehension ranked the highest

(m=3.15), followed by fear negative evaluation (m=3.07) and test anxiety (m=2.57).
Communication apprehension, fear negative evaluation and test anxiety are all
categorized in moderate language anxiety level.
Basically according to the items, the students will be facing fear and anxiety in
communicating with people. Difficulty in speaking in public, listening or learning a
spoken utterance is all manifestations of communication apprehension. This type of
anxiety in learning a second language is derived from the learners personal
knowledge that they will have difficulty understanding others and making
themselves understood. Learners suffering from communication apprehension
choose to keep silent in their English classes.
Fear negative evaluation ranked second (m =3.07). The students faced problems
like nervousness when questioned, they were embarrassed to volunteer answers,

73
and felt that other students spoke better English. They were upset when they could
not understand what the teacher corrected and often feared being laughed at by
their peers. Generally they felt they were being judged and cast in poor light by
teacher and peers.
While test anxiety ranked the lowest (m = 2.57).While test normally generate some
anxious moments associated with the likelihood of not doing well, the absence of an
audience helps to ease the tension. Statements indicate of test anxiety were, I worry
about the consequences of failing my English class (m=3.55) and I can feel my heart
pounding when Im going to be called on in English class (m = 3.1).
From the findings, the overall mean of 2.93 indicated that the students who
participated in this study are experiencing language anxiety in learning the second
language. Meanwhile, there are moderate correlation between the two variables
namely English language anxiety and oral English test achievement. The correlation
is at 0.360. The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 3 showed the relationship between the subjects language anxiety and oral
English test achievement. The result showed that there was positive correlated
(r=.360), p<0.01. The correlation index indicated that there was a moderate
significant relationship between language anxiety and language achievement. It
explains that as the level of anxiety increases, the English language achievement
may also increase. Thus, this finding reveals positive significant correlation between
English language anxiety and English language achievement.
Table 3: Correlation English Language anxiety and oral English test

achievement
Language Language
Anxiety Achievement
Pearson Correlation 1 .360**
Language Anxiety Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 200 200
Pearson Correlation .360** 1
Language Achievement Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 200 200
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 4 revealed the difference between male and female in language anxiety.
Table 4: Difference between male and female in language anxiety

Test Value = 0.5
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean 95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference Difference
Lower Upper
Gender 43.072 199 .000 1.27500 1.2166 1.3334

74
The result of the t-test indicated in Table 4 revealed that there was significant
difference between male and female subjects as showed by the overall significant
value t=(199) = 43.07, p < .05). Independent samples t-test revealed that overall,
there were significant difference in boys and girls language anxiety (p .05). Boys
mean language anxiety score (M = 3.07) was higher than that of girls (M = 3.02)
(refer Table 5). In communication apprehension, girls mean scores were higher than
boys while in fear of negative evaluation, boys mean scores were higher than girls.
Lastly, in test anxiety, boys scores higher mean than the girls. These findings
suggest that generally, boys were more anxious than girls in English class.
Table 5 showed the difference between male and female in language anxiety based
on communication apprehensible, fear of negative evaluation and test anxiety.
Table 5: Difference between male and female in language anxiety based on three
components
Variable Gender Mean
Communication apprehensible Male 3.04
Female 3.07
Fear of negative evaluation Male 3.14
Female 3.09
Test anxiety Male 3.05
Female 2.92
Overall Male 3.07

Female 3.02
These findings suggest that a majority of students experienced moderate feelings of

anxiety when communicating in English with other people. In the real language use
situation, it is normal for second language learners to feel some anxiety. As stated
by Khairi and Nurul Lina (2010), moderate feelings of anxiety in second language
learning might help students to create the desire to learn, to motivate and to get the
students realize that they have to work harder in order to acquire the target
language. On the other hand, if students experience low level of anxiety, they may
be so relaxed that they do not really learn or acquire any new things and as a result,
the process of language acquisition will not be successful. For students who
experience high anxiety, they may perceive a second language learning situation as
threatening to them and may respond to this threatening situation by showing poor
learning performance.
The most significant finding of the research is that the students showed a high score
in two of the traits of second language anxiety which are fear of communication
apprehension and negative evaluation. Ohata (2005) found that learners feared
taking tests, because test-taking situations would make them anxious about the
negative consequences of getting a bad grade. This would lead to other
psychological stresses, such as the fear of losing self-confidence or feeling inferior to
others. It reflects the biggest dilemma faced by most second language learners in

75
Malaysia as a whole. The fact that students are more worried about failing the exam
would probably halt the output process which is essential in the process of language
acquisition. Rather than focusing on ways to polish and enhance their language, the
students would dwell on unrealistic expectations in which they are to produce a
flawless language. These kinds of negative traits would surely bring in how they
behave and respond in second language classroom that consequently debilitate the
learning.
The findings showed that there was significant difference between the genders in
language anxiety. The independent samples t-test revealed that overall; there were
significant difference in boys and girls language anxiety (p .05). Boys mean
language anxiety score (M = 3.07) was higher than that of girls (M = 3.02).The
findings concur with Hussain, Shahid, & Zaman (2011) study, revealed that girls
showed less anxiety in English language class, because they had more positive
attitude towards English. Similarly, Awan, Azher, Anwar, and Naz (2010) found
that female students were less anxious in English classroom as compared to males
with a significant t-test of mean difference (t=2.520, p= .013). Their study revealed
that female undergraduates were better in dealing with language encounters.
Conclusion
The findings showed that a large number of the students (93.5%) experienced
moderate levels of English language anxiety while very few (6.5 %) of them
experienced low levels of language anxiety. On the other hand, the correlation index
indicated that there was a moderate significant relationship between language
anxiety and oral English test achievement. Further, the study noticed that there was
significant difference between genders in language anxiety. The results of the
current study would help language teachers in several ways as regard their teaching
of second language in their classes.
First, language teachers have to realize that their students are experiencing anxiety
in their classes. They must be able to understand the nature of their students
language anxieties. It may vary from one learner to another so it is pertinent that
teachers be made aware of what language anxieties their students may be suffering
from. As such, ,they may be able to design lesson and prepare activities and
learning materials that will be best address the strategies that can be effectively
utilized by these types of learners to cope with their respective language anxieties.
Second, English language teachers should have learning activities where these
students are given more guidance on how to talk or write about themselves, their
family, their interests and their culture. Teachers should also try to create a non-
threatening, relaxed learning environment in which students can take risks and
make mistakes without fear of embarrassment. English teachers should create
learning environments with a definite potential for success through setting
attainable goals and reasonable challenges for HLA students. Opportunities for
success and celebrating success will enhance their self-confidence (Bandura, 1993).

76
Third, Schools should adopt innovative approaches to minimize apprehension and

maximize student achievement. The most important thing is, in order to increase
the level of efficiency in the English language, they need to practice. Practice will
make perfect. Practice speaking with friends or family, or even text messaging them
in English which will also help to increase the level of proficiency in English thus
indirectly, it will improve the level of second language anxiety. Four, teachers can
help students by providing more opportunities for them to interact in safe groups in
which they feel comfortable. In addition, teachers must make a conscious effort to
ensure that these students have the opportunity to participate in class, not just the
ones who take the initiative. Wait-times should also be lengthened to ensure that
these students have enough time to respond without interruption.
The findings presented in this paper are limited to the students of the school
involved in this study. A replication of this study involving students from schools
in other parts of Malaysia would provide further support for the generalizability of
the findings.
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Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 80-90, February 2014
ISSN: 1694-2116
Influencing Tax Compliance in SMEs

through the Use of ICTs
Edison Wazoel Lubua (PhD)

Mzumbe University,
P.O. Box 20266, Dar es Salaam, 255, Tanzania
Abstract. This paper presents a discussion on the use of e-transparent

tools in addressing challenges of tax compliance in Small and Medium
Enterprises (SMEs) of Tanzania. The discussion begins by providing the
background of the study and the problem under investigation. This
background is followed by the outline of objectives, significance of the
study and the methods used. The later sections identify factors
influencing voluntary compliance and how the use of ICTs positively
improves voluntary compliance by taxpayers. The last section provides
the conclusion of the study.
Keywords: E-transparency; ICT; Tax Compliance; SMEs
1. Background of the Study

Revenue collection is an important determinant of the economy of any country
(Malima, 2013). The adequacy of government revenues allows the government
to support its operations ranging from administrative activities, infrastructure
constructions and service provision. The study by Ebeke (2010) commented on
the importance of developing countries to adequately manage its sources of
revenue to enhance the speed of developments. This is because sufficient
revenue decreases the degree of dependence of the government to donors for its
developments (Komanya, 2013). It also offers the government with the ability to
make different developmental decisions.
In order to improve revenue collections, the government ought to develop an

environment that raises the awareness and willingness of taxpayers toward
returning taxes voluntarily (Malima, 2013). Therefore it is the business of the
government to formulate a sound legislation which favours revenue collection
activities. While the international community emphasis is on enabling
developing countries to enhance their degree of economic independence, the
Tanzanian government managed to increase domestic revenue collection by
17.4% 2011/2012 (Ministry of Finance of Tanzania, 2013). These results were
influenced by different improvements in taxation system such as increasing the
number of staff, defining administrative blocks and the use of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs); however, the increase is still below

81
neighbouring countries. In improving the domestic revenue collection process,

the Tanzanian revenue authority uses the following technological tools:
Electronic Fiscal Devices (EFDs), income Taxation (ITAX) system and Custom
Application Online System (CULAS).
Basically, domestic revenue is one of the key branches of taxation system in

Tanzania and countries within SADC and EAC economic blocks. While statistics
show improvements in the area of tax collection, a large group of eligible
taxpayers is yet to be reached (Ministry of Finance of Tanzania, 2013). The
literature suggests the unprofessional methods of keeping records by
entrepreneurs, low tax knowledge, bureaucratic procedures and corruption to
inhibit the revenue collection process in developing countries (Kitillya, 2011; The
Policy Forum of Tanzania, 2010).
In order to reach many clients and act more effectively, the Tanzanian revenue
authority re-defined its administration system to include small administrative
blocks. Although the aim of re-defining the administrative structure was to
maximize efficiency in identifying and managing new customers, this goal is yet
to be met (Bugeni, 2012; Interview). Improving domestic revenue collections can
easily be enhanced through voluntary compliance of clients. However, it is
unfortunate that the majority of clients do not voluntarily returning tax to the
revenue authority (Malima, 2013).
2. Statement of the Problem

The development of any nation depends on the ability of the government to
operate based on its own sources of revenue. It is for this reason that developing
countries require proper management of sources of income for enhanced
development. In any nation, tax collection contributes significantly to the Gross
Domestic Product (Ministry of Finance of Tanzania, 2013). Consequently, the
Tanzanian government invests its effort in making sure that revenue collection
activities are well administered. To ensure effectiveness in tax administration the
Tanzanian government performs the following activities: Improve the skills of
employees through trainings, re-define the administrative structure in small
geographic areas, and transforms traditional methods of service provision to the
use of electronic systems (Tanzania Revenue Authority, 2013). It is evident that
there is a good progress in term of revenue collected by the Tanzania Revenue
Authority (Kitillya, 2011; Ministry of Finance of Tanzania, 2013). Nevertheless,
different reports still suggest the presence of many TRA clients who do not
submit their tax return to the authority (Malima, 2013).
The study by Jensen & Whlbier (2012) suggests voluntary compliance of clients
to tax return as the key success factor for the revenue authority to meet its
statutory obligations. The following things are proposed to provide an incentive
in promoting voluntary compliance in revenue collection: these include tax
compliance education, enhancing transparent assessment and balancing the
roles of an employee in the taxation process (Khalfan, 2010). It is the intention of
this study to show the influence of the use of e-transparent services to voluntary
compliance by taxpayers.

82
3. Main Objective
To show how e-transparent services address the challenge of low voluntary tax
compliance by SMEs in Tanzania.
4. Significance of the Study

The study is significant in the area of revenue collection because of the following
reasons:
i. It determines the influence of employees integrity, tax laws
awareness and administrative protocol to taxpayers voluntary
compliance.
ii. It describes the catalytic behaviour of e-transparent services in
addressing challenges brought by low employees integrity, low
awareness of tax laws and administrative protocol of the revenue
authority in enhancing taxpayers voluntary compliance.
5. Methodology
The study obtained its data through mixed research methods. First, it identified
Kinondoni tax-region as the case for its study. Particularly, data were collected
from clients and employees of Manzese tax centre of the Kinondoni tax-region.
Also, the study used a survey questionnaire as the instrument for data collection.
A total of 100 SMEs and 10 employees were surveyed. The following
characteristics of the sample were observed:-
Gender - 61% of the members of the sample were male and 39% were
female.
Education - 23% had the college education and 77% were below college
education.
Business Experience 40% had business experience above 3 years and
60% were below 3 years.
Other sources of data include the use of available literature that address
challenges of voluntary compliance by the taxpayers. The analysis used the
Spearmans rho correlation model.
6. Voluntary Tax Compliance in SMEs

It is the intention of the Tanzanian government to ensure that all taxpayers
submit the information about their business voluntarily annually for evaluation.
This enables the revenue authority to assess the business to establish tax
liabilities. The study carried out an analysis to know the per cent of SMEs
registered with the revenue authority in the sample. About 42% of respondents
are registered with the revenue authority. Few SMEs has registered their
business with the Tanzanian taxation authority.
Additional analysis shows that about 76% of respondents who are registered
with TRA files their tax returns consistently. Overall, only 32% of all
respondents files tax returns consistently. A significant per cent of taxpayers are
defaulters even among clients registered with the revenue authority. Similarly,

83
the majority of potential taxpayers is not registered with the revenue authority,
and this increases the per cent of the none tax filers . Generally, 68% of all
clients of the revenue authority do not file their tax returns as required by the
law.
In the interview the study observed the following factors to affect the rate of tax
returns by SMEs; such factors include taxpayers levels of education, business
experience, tax laws awareness and the integrity of employees. However, the
level of education of respondents showed a none significant influence to the
trend of filing tax returns by clients; the remaining factors are discussed in the
below sections.
6.1. The Awareness of the Tax Laws

This section determines whether the level of the awareness of potential
taxpayers on tax laws influences voluntary tax returns. The descriptive analysis
of data suggests about 32% of respondents to be aware of the legislation which
require them to file tax returns in every year. The information shows that the
majority of respondents have low awareness of the legislative requirement of
filing tax returns in every year. In responding to the need of raising the level of
awareness of taxpayers on the requirements of different tax laws the revenue
authority devised the taxpayers education department which implements
different strategies for raising the level of taxpayer education; nevertheless its
impact is still low.
In this study, we first determined the categorical relationships between tax law
knowledge and voluntary compliance. The results obtained through the Pearson
chi-square model (Table 1 below) shows the p- value as 0.00 (p < 0.05). This
observation indicates a significant relationship between the level of voluntary
submission of tax returns by SMEs and the level of awareness of tax laws.
Table 1. Tax Laws Awareness * Voluntary Submission Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 43.773a 8 .000
Likelihood Ratio 52.277 8 .000
N of Valid Cases 100
The results of the Pearson chi-square model are further interpreted by additional
descriptive information. The information shows about 68% of potential
taxpayers who are knowledgeable and 6% of those who are not knowledgeable
with tax laws to voluntarily file their tax returns to the revenue authority. The
information agrees with the model analysis in table 1 where the majority of
clients who have a good knowledge of tax laws do also voluntarily comply with
tax laws.
Additionally, the study observed a significant correlation between the level of

tax knowledge and voluntary compliance of clients with tax laws. The

84
Spearmans rho correlation coefficient is 0.623, where the pvalue is 0.000. Based
on this information the increase in tax laws awareness influences the increase of
the extent to which taxpayers voluntarily files their tax returns by about 62%.
These observations correspond with comments by Lewis (1982). He commented
that low tax knowledge correlates with negative attitudes toward taxation.
Moreover, the study by Eriksen and Fallan (1996) commented that knowledge
about tax law is important for preferences and attitudes towards taxation. The
attitude and preferences analysed in this study is whether the taxpayer should
comply or not comply. In a recent study by Palil (2010) it was observed that tax
knowledge positively correlates with tax compliance.
6.2. The Influence of Business Experience to Tax Compliance

The experience of tax clients who owns SMEs in business is among factors
thought to influence the attitude of taxpayers in complying with tax laws.
Business owners who have conducted business operations for a long time are
thought to have a better understanding of the business environment than those
with little experience. These environments include country laws and regulations
associated with business operations.
In the analysis the study observed that 60% of respondents have business
experience below 3 years. Because of this reason, it is likely that the majority of
taxpayers have inadequate knowledge in tax affairs. This is ascertained by the
acknowledgement by taxpayers that the majority were never visited by revenue
officials from taxpayer education.
A further analysis showed that, 45% of taxpayers with business experience

above three years, and 23% of those with business experience below three years
files tax returns consistently. An extended analysis using the Pearson chi-square
model suggests the observed difference in percent to be significant. The results
in table 2 shows the p-value is 0.004 (p<0.05). The majority of experienced
owners of SMEs are aware of tax laws and procedures; this is possibly due to
reasons such as received trainings, seminars and visitation by revenue officers.
Table 2. Experience * Voluntary Submission Chi-Square Tests

In responding to the question of whether voluntary submission of tax returns by

owners of SMEs depended on business experience, the results of the Spearmans
rho correlation analysis reported a significant correlation. The correlation
coefficient is 0.370 ad the p-value is 0.000. The information suggests the increase
in tax compliance by 37% when there is an increase in the experience of business
owners. These results compare with a case drawn from Kenya where the study
observed that the number of years of business experience influences the
taxpayers level of compliance to tax laws (Marti, Wanjohi, Magutu, & Mokoro,
2010). Those with extended business experience have more knowledge of tax

85
issues because they understand the benefits of voluntary compliance and are
used with the routines of filing tax returns.
6.3. The Influence of the Integrity of Employees of the Revenue Authority to Clients
voluntary compliance
The integrity of employees is essential in making sure that the organisation
meets its objectives. Employees with good integrity ensures that they provide
services in corruption free environments. In the analysis of the study, only 39%
of taxpayers admitted that the level of their compliance has never been affected
by the integrity of employees of the revenue authority. The information
suggests the majority of clients of the revenue authority to be uncomfortable
with the integrity of employees. The study acknowledges the presence of
respondents who admitted that they were requested to bribe tax officers to
receive tax relief. Similarly, new employees admitted that the experienced
employees operated in secretive environments.
Table 3 presents data about an extended analysis that determines whether
the taxpayers intention for voluntary submission of tax returns varies
depending on the level of the integrity of employees of the revenue authority.
The results show the p-value = 0.029. The information reports a significant
relationship between employee integrity and the desire of clients to voluntarily
return tax.
Table 3. Employees Integrity*Voluntary Submission of Tax, Chi-Square Tests

Linear-by-Linear Association 6.013 1 .014
Furthermore, the study tested the degree of linear influence of employee

integrity to taxpayers voluntary submission of tax returns using the
Spearmansrho correlation model. The results of the analysis report the
correlation coefficient (r) as 0.234 where the p-value is 0.019. The information
suggests a significant influence of voluntary submission of tax returns by the
integrity of employees. The increase of employee integrity influence voluntary
tax filing by 23%.
In the study by Nawaz (2010), the author closely associated low integrity to
employees with corruption. The study indicated a significant negative effect of
corruption (low integrity) to tax collection. The study supports the findings in
the above paragraph that low integrity significantly influences tax collection. In
addition to lowering of revenue collection, low integrity to employee causes
long-term damage to the economy by detracting investment, increasing the size
of the informal economy, distorting tax structures and corroding the tax
morality of taxpayers. The underlying assumption of the relationship between
the integrity of employees and the increase of the informal economy in not well

86
established by the study; however there is a need to establish these facts due to
the presence of a large number of the unregistered SME owners reported by the
study.
The Tanzanian government puts various mechanisms to control the integrity of

employees in relation to tax collection. The first control is whistle blowing.
Taxpayers are required to report environments subjecting them to corruption.
This includes environment where tax officers fail to offer services as required by
the law. Unfortunately, the clients are not comfortable with the degree to which
the issue of integrity is addressed by the authority. Some of the measures taken
to address the issue of the integrity of employees include the taxpayers
education and the use of online media in obtaining services.
6.4. The Influence of Tax Officers visits to Taxpayers Voluntary Compliance

In 2011, the Tanzanian revenue authority decentralized the management of tax
affairs through restructuring its administration to a block management system.
The purpose of this structure of management is to influence voluntary
compliance to tax payers through dissemination of taxpayers education along
with physical visitation. Under this system, tax regions have been divided into
blocks and sub-blocks depending on their geographical areas. Customers are
registered and categorized according to blocks and sub-blocks. Services given to
clients include TIN registration, physical visitation, filing of tax returns,
auditing, and trainings. The activities are conducted according to blocks and
sub-blocks in which the customer belongs.
The block management system aims to simplify the task of reaching customers
so as to collect necessary business information for tax purposes. In managing
blocks, revenue officers are assigned the duty of visiting customers located in
their respective blocks at least once in three months. In their visitations they
collect clients business information, identify non-filers, identify unregistered
clients, and make sure that business tax information is up-to-date (Tanzania
Revenue Authority, 2013).
This part of the study determined the relationship between the frequencies
which employees of the revenue authority visit their clients and the compliance
of taxpayers in filing tax returns. Traditionally, the revenue authority expects tax
officers to visit clients at least once in every three months. This visitation aims to
promote the arrangement by the revenue authority that requires taxpayers to
pay their tax dues at least in four instalments in a year. The results of the
descriptive analysis show about 16% of respondents to be regularly visited by
TRA officers. The results suggest few clients to benefit from regular visitation by
taxpayers according to the tradition by the revenue authority. It was further
observed that about 44% of respondents were never visited by officers of the
revenue authority in their administrative block. Therefore the study concludes
that the potential of the block administration system is not adequately explored
by employees of the Tanzanian revenue authority.

87
Additionally, the result shows that about 56% of taxpayers who were visited by
tax officers regularly files tax as required. Similarly, 27% of those who were not
regularly visited file tax as required. The study observed the difference of 29%
between the two groups. The analysis agrees with the Pearsons chi square
analysis where a significant relationship was observed. The results reported in
table 4 suggest that p = 0.000. As indicated in the above, there is a significant
association between how regularly taxpayers are visited by employees of the
revenue authority and their compliance with filing of taxes as required.
Table 4. TRA Visitation * Voluntary Submission, Chi-Square Tests
Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Linear-by-Linear Association 17.228 1 .000
Moreover, the analysis observed a significant correlation between the frequency

of visitation by employees of the revenue authority and voluntary filing of tax
returns by taxpayers. The Spearmans rho correlation value is 0.460 and the p-
value is 0.000. The reported per cent of influence is 46. The increase of the
frequency of visiting tax payers influences the increase of voluntary submission
by taxpayers by 46%. While visiting taxpayers, tax officers raise the awareness
of taxpayers on their legal obligations of paying tax. They also reveal the benefits
associated with filing tax voluntarily together with available options for filing
the tax.
6.5. The Influence of Training to Voluntary Tax Compliance

Training is useful in raising the awareness of clients of the revenue authority on
different subjects including the importance of voluntary compliance in taxation.
The Tanzanian revenue authority has a department for taxpayers education
with the responsibility to ensure the dissemination of tax education to clients.
This department provides tax education in the form of leaflets, brochures,
advertisements and it organizes numerous periodic trainings to TRA customers.
The analysis of the study observed that about 68% of respondents were
untrained. They have never received tax education from experts through any
method. Therefore, it is possible that a large number of respondents may not
comply with taxation rules because of low awareness.
Furthermore, it was observed that 23% of trained customers and 9% of the

untrained customers voluntarily submit their returns regularly. This indicates
that trainings offered by TRA to SMEs resulted in improvement in the voluntary
compliance attitude of taxpayers. Similarly, other results were obtained through
Pearson chi-square test whereby the p-value was 0.00 (p< 0.05). With this
information the observed difference in the level of compliance between trained
and untrained SMEs is significant.

88
Table 5. Training Status * Voluntary Submission Chi-Square Tests

Moreover, the Spearmans rho correlation analysis showed a linear relationship

between the training status of clients and voluntary submission of tax returns.
The correlation coefficient value is 0.557 (p = 0.000. There are about 56% of
influence to customers voluntary compliance through enhancing their
awareness through training. The observation corresponds comments by two
studies which found the increase of compliance after campaigns for raising the
awareness of clients (Komanya, 2013; Khalfan, 2010).
Further observations showed that some employees were reluctant to provide

adequate knowledge to clients because they benefited out of their illiteracy.
Clients reported that there were incidents where employees presented
unrealistic tax evaluations and demanded some money from clients for tax relief.
The use of electronic media for disseminating educative information address the
challenge of employees efficiency in training clients.
6.6. How Does the Use of ICT Address Challenges of Voluntary Taxation?
The discussion provided in previous sections of this paper showed several
factors to affect the decision of clients to voluntarily comply with taxation
systems of Tanzania. The success of the government in revenue collection
depends on how adequately are the challenges addressed. In this section, the
study shows how the use of e-transparent services in the management of tax
activities address challenges associated with voluntary compliance of SMEs to
the Tanzanian taxation system.
6.6.1 Low awareness of tax laws
The majority of tax clients in SMEs own mobile phones, and some are connected
to computers. The revenue authority can improve the awareness of clients about
tax laws by disseminating educative information through the use of mobile
phones. The online system must allow clients to subscribe for educative
messages; the information should be provided freely or at a low price. Currently,
there are two main services to which the revenue authority supports users of
ordinary mobile phones; they make online payments and make direct calls to the
institution. More services are needed in the area of tax education.
6.6.2 Low Business Experience
Low business experience is reported to affect the ability of clients to make
decisions pertaining voluntary compliance by SMEs. The use of e-transparent
services can uplift the knowledge of individual taxpayers through allowing
them to inquire and access the information that positively improves their
understanding of the benefits of voluntarily submitting tax returns.

89
6.6.3 Low integrity of employees of the revenue authority.

Employees play a vital role in ensuring that the revenue authority collects its tax
from clients at the right time. They also ensure that clients have the right
knowledge of business taxation. Low integrity to employees is reported to
significantly affect efforts by the revenue authority toward improving revenue
collection. To a large extent, the use of ICTs in the Tanzanian revenue authority
has addressed the challenge of corruptive behaviour by employees. In areas such
as custom department, clients are able to conduct own assessments. However in
domestic revenue (where SMEs are included) there is a low usage of ICTs.
Clients depend on employees for assessment and this assessment depends on
employees rational ability and integrity. The use of ICTs for self-assessment
addresses the challenge of the integrity of employees and promotes voluntary
compliance.
6.6.4 Low frequency of visitation by Tax officers
SMEs represent the largest group of business operators in the country. It is
unfortunate that the majority of SMEs has never been visited by tax officers for
business assessment. This is due to inadequate number of employees. The
reason for such visitation is to provide education necessary for voluntary
compliance plus other tax related administrative activities. The use of ICTs
enable clients to access these services without being visited by employees.
Employees will essentially provide these services while in their offices.
6.6.5 Training Needs
Training is essential because it provides clients with the skills necessary in
raising their attitude of voluntarily complying with taxation systems. In the
Tanzanian revenue authority, employees organize seminars to educate
stakeholders about the benefits of voluntary tax compliance. However, many
respondents admitted that they never received training from tax officers. This is
partly due to inadequate members of staff. The mobile technologies can be
useful in providing trainings to SMEs through the use of text messages. The use
of mobile phones could be extended to include the provision of educative
information to clients.
7. Conclusion
The study aimed to show how e-transparent services address the challenge of
voluntary tax compliance by SMEs in the republic of Tanzania. The study
observed the following factors to influence voluntary compliance: Awareness of
tax laws, business experience, the integrity of employees, low frequency of
visitation by tax officers and training needs. The revenue authority must use
relevant ICT tools to positively promote these factors; as the result, the position
of taxpayers to voluntarily file their tax returns will be enhanced.
8. References
Ebeke, C. (2010). Remittances, Value Added Tax and Tax Revenue in Developing Countries.
Retrieved November 26, 2013, from http://publi.cerdi.org/ed/2010/2010.30.pd

90
Khalfan, S. (2010). An Assessment of Factors Hindering the SME'S Voluntary Tax Compliance
in Zanzibar. Retrieved February 26, 2013, from http://repository.out.ac.tz/83/
Kitillya, H. (2011). Tax Administration Reforms in Tanzania: Experience and Challenges.

Retrieved November 10, 2013, from
http://www.imf.org/external/np/seminars/eng/2011/revenue/pdf/kitillya.pdf
Komanya, P. (2013). Local governments should be further empowered. Retrieved November

23, 2013, from http://www.ippmedia.com/frontend/?l=58128
Malima, A. (2013). Enhancing Income Tax Collection in SMEs Customers Perspective: A Case
of Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA), Kinondoni. Dar es Salaam: Mzumbe University.
Marti, L. O., Wanjohi, M. S., Magutu, P. O., & Mokoro, J. M. (2010). TAXPAYERS
ATTITUDES AND TAX COMPLIANCE. African Journal of Business & Management, 112-
122.
Ministry of Finance of Tanzania. (2013). Retrieved November 25, 2013, from

http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/fileadmin/documents/external/Aid_Effectiveness/PER_2012
_-_2013/150_Inception_Report_PER_Study_Tanzania-2.pdf
Nawaz, F. (2010). EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CORRUPTION AND

TAX REVENUE. Retrieved October 7, 2013, from
http://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/answer/exploring_the_relationships_betwee
n_corruption_and_tax_revenue
Palil, M. (2010). TAX KNOWLEDGE AND TAX COMPLIANCE DETERMINANTS .

Birmingham: University of Birmingham.
Tanzania Revenue Authority. (2013). The Tanzanian Revenue Authority Official Site.
Retrieved November 20, 2013, from http://www.tra.go.tz/
The Policy Forum of Tanzania. (2010). How Much Revenue are we Losing. Retrieved
November 12, 2013, from http://www.policyforum-
tz.org/files/Howmuchrevenuearewelosing.pdf

91

Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 91-123, February 2014
Strategic Intervention Material-Based

Instruction, Learning Approach and Students
Performance in Chemistry
Edwin I. Salviejo
Science Department, Makati High School,
1214 Makati City, Philippines
Fidela Q. Aranes
Chemistry Department, College of Science,
Technological University of the Philippines,
Allen A. Espinosa
Faculty of Science, Technology and Mathematics,
College of Teacher Development, Philippine Normal University,
Abstract. This study explored the learning approach adopted and

attempted to investigate the effect of Strategic Intervention Material-
Based Instruction (SIM-BI) on the performance of students in high
school Chemistry. It utilized the pretest-posttest pre-experimental
design. The SIM-BI used as a treatment of the study covered one of the
least mastered skills in the subject area which is chemical bonding. Two
classes of 80 students enrolled in Chemistry during the fourth quarter of
the school year 2012-2013 were used as respondents. They were
classified according to their learning approaches which were on their
mean scores in the Chemistry Learning Approach Inventory (CLAI). The
score in the Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) administered as pretest
and posttest measured students performance in Chemistry. Dependent
t-test was employed to determine the significant difference between the
mean responses in the pretest and posttest. Results of the study showed
that the use of SIM-BI is effective in terms of improving students
performance and learning approach. The surface learners performed
equally well as the deep learners when SIM-BI was used. The positive
result of the survey suggested that the SIM was appreciated and
appealed to both types of learners.
Keywords: strategic intervention material; learning approach;

performance in chemistry

92
Introduction
It is a common observation that learning Chemistry, as a discipline creates a
negative feedback to most students in the secondary level. Chemistry is one of
the hated subjects in Science, which students would likely fail completing the
necessary requirements and get low performances in both academic and
conceptual reasoning skills. To many students, Science learning is never fun and
the process is boring and burdensome; thus, student achievement in this field is
relatively low.
The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS 2003) which
was conducted nine years ago revealed unsatisfactory results. The Philippines
ranked 42nd in Science out of 45 participating countries that were tested (Manila
Times, 2004). TIMMS result specifically in Chemistry has an international
average of 45% correct answers and Philippine average of 30 %. This proved that
vast majority of Filipino students have performed below par in the Chemistry
achievement test and below the levels of most students from other countries
based on the international tests.
The mediocre difference in the academic performance of students is also evident

in the results posted in the National Achievement Test given by the Department
of Education (DepED) to elementary and high school students. In the year 2007,
Chemistry posted an average of 51.8 %, 57.8 % in 2008 (Espinosa, 2012). The
results are far and below the criterion target set by the Philippine government
which is 75% (Lapuz, 2009) cited. This problem in the education system is now
being addressed by the government through adopting the K-12 program. This
program being implemented by the government extends the basic education
curriculum from 10 to 12 years. DepEd reasoned that it is high time to
implement this system in the basic education attributing the low achievement
scores of students nationally and internationally.
In the present situation of the Philippine Educational System, wherein there are
shortage in the classrooms throughout the country and scarce funds, not enough
to cater instructional materials needed in every science classroom. The primary
goal of teaching is to provide appropriate and effective instruction to students.
Thus, a Science teacher is responsible to devise and provide the necessary
materials for use in science classes (Dy, 2011). Teaching Chemistry is more
productive when there are available, sufficient, and strategically designed
instructional materials suited for the type of students. Instructional approaches
may succeed or fail, they are dependent to the learning needs of the students.
Teachers must consider the students emotional needs and their approaches to
learning. Developing instructional materials play an integral role in the teaching
learning process. Use of instructional materials has a strong relationship with
academic performance at the secondary students as mentioned in Dahar( 2011).
Strategic Intervention Material, an instructional material for remediation

purposes is one of the solutions employed by the Department of Education to
enhance academic achievements of students performing low in the field of
science and technology. DepEd Memo No. 117, series of 2005 entitled Training

93
Workshop on Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) for Successful Learning

provided science secondary teachers the training in the preparation of SIMs. As
part of intensifying and developing strategic intervention materials as tool for
remediating poor performance in Science. The Department of Education
included the SIM making as one of the contests during science fairs in school,
division, regional, and national level competitions.
One of the most significant topics today in the field of educational research
specifically in the basic education is the learning approach adopted by the
students in learning a particular task. For educators, this approach should be
considered and applied most of the time in teaching (Lublin, 2010). One of the
major concepts that emerged from this research was the idea that students can
take different approaches to learning. Biggs (2003) defines good teaching as the
encouragement of a deep approach to learning.
In the light of this the paper was conceived. This study investigated the effect of
traditional teaching with the use of a strategic intervention material made by the
researcher to help improve students performance considering the learning
approach they adopt in Chemistry. It is hoped that students learning approach,
from being a surface learner to deep learner upon exposure to Strategic
Intervention Material Based Instruction will be realized.
The study sought answers to the following research questions: (1) What is the
profile of the students in chemistry before and after exposure to Strategic
Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM-BI)?; (2) What is the performance
in the Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) of deep and surface learners before
and after exposure to the Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction
(SIM-BI)?; (3) Is there a difference between the performance in the Chemistry
Achievement Test (CAT) of deep and surface learners before and after exposure
to Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM-BI)?; (4) What is the
students perception of the Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction
(SIM BI)?;
Strategic Intervention Material (SIM)

Instructional materials are school resource inputs (SRI), they include print and
non print items that are designed to impart information to students in the
educational process. Instructional materials also include items such as kits,
textbooks, magazines, newspapers, pictures, recordings, slides, transparencies,
videos, video discs, workbooks and electronic media including music, movie,
radio, software, CD ROMs, and online services (Dahar, 2011). Instructional
material plays a very important role in the teaching learning process. It enhances
the memory level of the students and makes the teaching learning process
interesting (Nicholls, 2000; Raw, 2003).
At present, in the Philippine education system, intervention materials are highly

regarded as tools for remediating poor achievements of the learners. SIM or
Strategic Intervention Material refers to a teaching aid introduced into the
teaching methods to stimulate the activity of the students and thereby increased

94
their level of understanding (Dy, 2011). It is strategically prepared and designed

for teaching remediation for low achievers in the subject. It is given after the
regular classroom instruction to students who were not able to grasp the
concepts of the subject matter.
Bunagan (2012) defined Strategic Intervention Material as meant to re-teach the

concepts and skills (least mastered). It is a material given to students to help
them master competency based skills which they were not able to develop
during a regular classroom teaching. It consists of both learning strategies (for
students) and content enhancement (for teachers). It is a multifaceted approach
to help students to become independent and successful learners. He further
differentiated SIM and modules. This intervention material focuses on the skill
not mastered by the students during regular class. It does not involve pretest
and posttest and includes fun activities. Module, on the other hand, contained
different topics included in a given chapter and intended for regular classroom
teaching and distance learning. Module requires pretest and posttest and also
includes fun activities.
SIM increases and deepens students skills in manipulation, knowledge or

thinking, understanding and observing the microscopic into macroscopic
representation of matter like atoms, molecules and ions which students believe
as a discrete representation of the existing matter and other related components
of science (Togonon, 2011).Strategic Intervention Material is an instructional
material prescribed by the Department of Education to improve students
performance in science subjects. To promote successful learning in the field of
science and technology subjects in both elementary and secondary among public
schools, DepEd Memorandum No. 117, series of 2005, provided the teachers the
training and workshop on how to prepare this intervention material. As part of
promoting the wide use of the material, the Department of Education included
SIM making that is open to all science teachers as one of the contests in yearly
science fair in the school, division, region and national level competitions.
The Strategic Intervention Material (SIM) is divided into six parts taken from the
seminars and trainings attended by the researcher. The first part of the SIM is
the title card, this part of the SIM includes the specific chapter or the subject
matter covered by the material. The SIM that was used in this study is entitled
Chemical Romance that covers chemical bonding which is considered least
mastered skills in Chemistry.The second part is the guide card. This section
gives a preview of what students will learn. This card should stimulate the
interest of the students with respect to the topic covered by the strategic
intervention material. It presents the focus skills mentioned in the learning
competencies and must state at least two sub-tasks (activities). This part must
also cite prerequisite skills built on prior learning and concrete outcome or
product that students are expected to demonstrate or produce.
The third part of the SIM is the activity card. This section is considered the heart
of the Strategic Intervention Material. It consists of activities that will develop
understanding of the students related to the given objective of a specific lesson

95
stated in the guide card. It contains also guide questions for the students to
answer and relate the activity conceptually, that will be developed after
completing the main activity. This part also provides the objectives, students
exercises, activities, and drills with clear directions to develop necessary skills in
the three domains and concrete concepts, particularly those drawn from real
life situations. It allows also the students to organize based on the sequence of
the focus skills and to make discoveries and formulate ideas on their own. This
section also consists of questions that establish relationship between the topic
and what students already know or familiar to them.
The fourth part is the assessment card that is made up of activities and tests
concerning what the students learned from the previous activities of the SIM.
This test measures how much students learned from the given activities in the
activity card. It is made up of questions in different forms (multiple choice,
interpreting graph, identification, and matching type). This section determines
the effect of this material as a tool for teaching remediation.
The fifth part of the SIM is the enrichment card. This section provides practical
activities to be done by students related to the topic. This involves applications
of the topic in their daily life, in industry or in other technologies. The last part
of the SIM is the reference card which includes the title of the books, websites, or
any other electronic or printed materials. This part may be used by students as
reference for additional information concerning the topic covered.
Traditional Instruction Supported with Instructional Materials

Nowadays, traditional and modern teaching methods become a hot topic in
education. Traditional teaching activities refer to the learning process activities.
The examples of traditional teaching activities methods are using games and
singing a song in and out the classroom (Heriwinarko, 2012). A very typical
feature of traditional methodology as Broughton (2004) claimed, is the teacher
dominated interaction. The teaching is deeply teacher centered. The
traditional methodology puts the responsibility for teaching and learning mainly
on the teacher and it is believed that tudents will be able to use the knowledge if
they are present in the class discussions and listen to the teachers explanations
and examples, (Boumova, 2008).
The Center for Integration of Research, Teaching and Learning (CIRTL) cited the
advantage and disadvantage of traditional teaching method: such as, giving the
instructor the chance to expose students to unpublished or not readily available
instructional materials and complimenting certain individual learning
preferences. Some students depend upon the structure provided by highly
teacher centered methods. Two of the disadvantages mentioned are to enable
understanding and long-term retention of content, it requires considerable
amount of unguided student time outside the classroom and it does not promote
active learning but rather placing students in a passive role which hinders
learning.
Todays diverse student population has resulted in teachers seeking changes in
the traditional methods of instructing students. Teachers seek ways to improve

96
student motivation and engagement in the learning process. Students learn

principally through interactions with people (teachers and peers) and
instructional materials (textbooks, workbooks, instructional software, web-based
content, homework, projects, quizzes, and tests). But education policymakers
focus primarily on factors removed from those interactions, such as academic
standards, teacher evaluation systems, and school accountability policies. There
is strong evidence that the choice of instructional materials has large effects on
student learningeffects that rival in size those that are associated with
differences in teacher effectiveness. Administrators are prevented from making
better choices of instructional materials by the lack of evidence on the
effectiveness of the materials currently in use (Chingos, 2012)
In order to facilitate the learning process, instructional media are used as aids.
Instructional media are classified as speaking listening media, reading
writing media and computer based instruction (Aranes, 1998). For purposes of
the study, the researcher will center his discussions to visual and observational
media which specifically concentrates on the application of intervention material
in teaching one of the least mastered skills in Chemistry.
Non-book instructional materials have opened up a new research field

particularly in the past 30 years. Similarly, in the most recent comprehensive
summary in the audio-visual field, numerous books and periodicals have made
an effort to bring together more recent findings. This investigation concerning
the use and purposes of instructional materials in teaching showed that there are
many studies merely attempting to demonstrate the superiority of one type of
learning material over another (Broderick, 2012). This research tried to
investigate one type of instructional material without comparing to others.
Students Performance in Chemistry

Chemistry is one of the most important branches of Science, it enables learners to
understand what happens around them. Chemistry topics are generally related
to or based on the structure of matter. In fact, Chemistry is often regarded as a
difficult subject, an observation which sometimes repels learners from
continuing studies of the subject (Sirhan, 2007).This statement is supported by
documents of test results obtained from third year students of Makati High
School for the school year 2010 2011.
Based on the result of the first quarter Division Achievement Test (DAT) in
different subject areas, Chemistry ranked fourth which has a mean percentile
score (MPS) of 42.96 %; Filipino, 53.15 %; AralingPanlipunan, 52.76 %; English,
48.25%; and Mathematics, 41.34 %. From the results, it can be inferred that
students in Chemistry performed far below mastery.
In the second quarter DAT result, English has an MPS of 59.05%;

AralingPanlipunan, 55.67%; Filipino, 52.62%; Mathematics, 48.16%, and
Chemistry ranked 5th with an MPS of 43.55%. The third quarter DAT result is
quite higher compared to the previous quarters. AralingPanlipunan has an MPS
of 84.85%; English, 79.75%; Mathematics, 68.32%; Filipino, 65.34%; and

97
Chemistry 64.45%, again ranked last among the five subjects. For the fourth and
last quarter of the Division Achievement Test for the school year 2010 2011, test
results showed that Chemistry ranked 5th with an MPS of 40.16 % next to
Filipino with 68.21%, English with 54.45%, Mathematics with 42.37%, and
AralingPanlipunan, 41.67%.
To sum up the Chemistry Achievement, the highest mean percentile score was
registered during the third quarter of the school year where the topics covered
are gas laws, atoms and periodic trends. Second in the rank is the second quarter
covering solutions, colloids and chemical change with a mean percentile score of
43.55%.Third in the DAT result is the first quarter with an MPS result of 42.96%
with topics covered on classifying matter, and techniques of separating
mixtures, and ranked last registered during the fourth quarter with an MPS of
40.16% covering chemical bonding and chemical reactions. These results suggest
that topics in the fourth quarter such as chemical bonding and chemical
reactions are the most difficult and least mastered in the subject area. Thus in
this study, a strategic intervention material was developed on the topic of
chemical bonding to improve students poor performance.
Students Learning Approach

A learner can be classified based on the learning approach he/she adopts for
every task given. Student Approaches to learning is a theory that describes what
students do when they go about learning and why they do it. Students will take
different approaches on how they study depending on the perceived objectives
of the course they are studying. The original work on learning approach was
carried out by Marton and Saljo as mentioned in Miguel (2012). The two original
proponents proposed that students learning approach could be divided into
two distinct groups, those who took an understanding approach to learning and
those who took a reproduction approach to learning. The first group that tried to
understand and comprehend the totality of the lesson was identified as deep
learners. Whereas, the second group that tried to remember facts contained
within the text and demonstrated an approach that would recognize as rote
learning or a superficial surface approach was classified as surface learners.
According to Morton, as cited in Miguel (2012), a learning approach is not what

a student has. It describes a relation between a student and the kind of learning
he or she adopts. Based on their intentions to learn, a student can be classified as
deep or surface learner (Entwistle, 2004). Intent just to fulfill the tasks
requirements like memorizing to pass an examination, a student is considered a
surface learner. A surface learner arises when the student sees learning as a
means to achieve an end. Students who adopt this approach are motivated by an
extrinsic objective and they will commit unrelated facts to their short time
memory but are unlikely to be able to establish meaning or relationships
between or within given tasks.
Ramsden (1985), as mentioned in Daluz (2003) notes that while a surface

approach will inevitably lead to poor understanding, a deep or achieving
approach to a high level of understanding should not be extended to the view

98
that a surface approach is necessarily adopted by weaker students and deeper

approach by highly competent ones. The approaches to learning are not
necessarily exclusive. Students may adopt different approaches according to the
task, the course or the teaching context. Learning approaches are not stable traits
in individuals, although some students will tend towards taking a deep
approach while others will tend towards taking a surface approach (Biggs, 1999).
Rather, it is suggested that good teaching can influence students to take a deep
approach. In this sense, teachers have a direct and powerful impact on the
learning outcomes of the students.
Students adopting surface approaches to learning are terms that most educators
and academicians have heard and got interested in. Learners may be classified
as deep and surface learners, they are not attributes of individuals. One
person may use both approaches at different times. This idea of learning
approach is probably one of the most interesting topics for educational research
for both basic and higher education. It is a very powerful and useful theory that
educators should consider and apply most of the time in teaching.
Table 1 compiled from the work of Biggs (1999), Entwistle (1988), and Ramsden
(1992) as cited in Miguel (2012) provides valuable characteristics of the deep and
surface learners.

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The researcher conducted a review of articles from foreign and local studies
relevant to the present study. This is presented in the paragraphs that follow.
Aguele (2010) studied the effectiveness of selected teaching strategies on the

remediation of process errors committed by students in Mathematics. The study
employed the quasi experimental design. Sample for the study consisted of 207
students drawn from six senior secondary schools in Edo State. The diagnostic
test on Mathematics (DIATOM) was used to collect data for the study. Data
collected were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and z-test for

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two population proportions. Results of data analysis revealed that the direct
instruction (DI) was a more effective strategy for the remediation of process
errors committed by students in Mathematics. The study further recommended
that enough practice activities should be given to students during class sessions
to assist them develop mastery of content taught. Remediation should be seen as
an ongoing process during normal classroom instruction. These results agree
with the study of Din (2000) that direct instruction (DI) once used effectively
could help students to remedy their basic mathematical skills.
Further, Dahar (2011) investigated the effect of availability of instructional

materials on the academic performance of students in Punjab (Pakistan). He
mentioned that instructional materials play a very important role in the teaching
- learning process. Population of the study comprised all secondary and higher
secondary schools, secondary teachers and secondary students in Punjab. A total
of 288 schools, 20 students and 10 teachers from each school were randomly
selected as the sample of the study. The study used the value added approach.
School Profile Proforma, a questionnaire for teachers and result sheet were the
instruments of the study. Pearson correlation was used to find out the
relationship between the availability of instructional material and academic
performance of students and Stepwise Regression analysis with linear function
was used to find out the differential impact (causal relationship). Results
revealed that availability of instructional materials has a strong relationship with
academic performance of the students.
Moreover, Anderson (2012), cited in his study on the Study Teaching of

Quantitative Genetics that intervention material consisted of a series of
computer-based materials and concept mapping exercises helped in improving
and addressing identified difficulties and alternative conceptions on Genetics
given to third year introductory module in quantitative genetics. He also found
out in this study that the knowledge of the student group that participated in the
intervention (experimental group), indicated a highly significant difference
compared to the control group in terms of improving the understanding of the
concepts of variance, heredity, and histogram in Genetics.
Similarly, the study conducted by Escoreal (2012) on the Strategic Intervention

Material tool to reduce least mastered skills in Grade 4 science, concluded that
SIM provides baseline information and should be implemented to avoid
marginalization of pupils. Her study also indicated that there is a significant
reduction (p < 0.05) in the pupils mean number of least mastered skills after
SIM implementation.Furthermore, Soberano (2010) mentioned that strategic
intervention materials were effective in mastering the competency based skills
in chemistry based on the mean gain scores in the posttests of the experimental
and control groups. He found out that there was a positive transfer of learning
in both groups. However, higher mean was observed from the experimental
group after the presentation of the intervention materials. The posttest result of
the control group was likewise significant. The difference of 26.2727 between the
posttest and pretest of the control group was significant at 0.05 level. The
computed t-value between the posttests of the experimental and control groups

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was 8.289 at tabular value 1.67, degrees of freedom 64 and 0.05 significance level.
This suggested that there was significant difference between their mean scores in
the posttests in favor of the experimental group.
Similarly, according to the study of Togonon (2011), on the development and

evaluation of project based strategic intervention materials (PB-SIMs), PB-SIM
is a valid instructional material in teaching high school chemistry. Results
showed a significant difference between the achievement of the students before
and after being exposed to PB SIMs. The pretest yielded a mean of 4.2167 and
the posttest mean of 10.6500. The p value associated with the computed t value
is less than the adopted level of significance. The students exposed to SIM
performed better in the posttest than the pretest. The results of the study were in
line with the findings of Hogan (2000) and Woodward (2004) as cited in
Soberano (2010) who found out that intervention materials contributed to better
learning of the concepts among students. The PB-SIMs significantly improved
the achievement of students in Chemistry specifically in solutions and colloids.
She also mentioned that PB-SIMs improved the perceptions of students toward
the subject.Dermirci (2001) conducted a study on the effects of web-based
Physics software program on students achievement and misconceptions. The
study supported the web-based Physics software program with traditional
method. The result showed a significant effect on dispelling students physics
misconceptions in force and motion concepts.
Morgil (2003) made a study on the traditional and computer assisted learning in
teaching acids and bases in Chemistry. The traditional and the computer assisted
teaching methods for teaching a fundamental topic in chemistry education acids
and bases were compared. The students were randomly distributed into control
and experimental groups and their knowledge on the topic were pretested. After
the test, the experimental group received computer assisted teaching and the
controlled group was taught by traditional teaching methods for two days. The
result incurred 52% improvement in the post instruction test results of the
experimental group; whereas, the controlled group only improved 31%. The
independent two-sample t-test revealed that this difference in the achievement
was significant favoring the experimental group.
Imdieke (2000) investigated the effect of two different teaching methods, the
traditional science instruction with hands -on activities and traditional textbook
science instruction with worksheets to determine which method of science
instruction is more beneficial to elementary science students. Based on the
results, student in the hands -on group achieved higher scores than those in the
worksheet groups. Conclusions drawn from the data show a significant
difference in the achievement of hands- on group with a means score of 94% in
contrast to the worksheet group means score of 82% using the 0.05 level of
statistical significance. Another important difference between the two groups
was their SD scores. The hands-on groups SD was 5.44 in contrast to the
worksheet group which scored 15.3. This difference shows that majority of the
students who learned by using hands-on activities achieved at the higher level
when compared to those who learned by using the worksheets.

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Similarly, Jiris (2009) mentioned in his study on the integration of animated

movies into Science education that the use of animated movies enhanced
students science understanding, knowledge and reasoning ability. The research
was based on the quantitative methodology using the pretestposttest
experimental design. The teaching method integration of animations was the
independent variable, while the dependent variables were: students
understanding, reasoning skills and motivation to learn science. The
experimental students (N = 1292) integrated science with web-based animations
as part of the science curriculum. The controlled students (N = 725) continued
studying science courses in traditional way using books and worksheets. The
animated movies were presented to the students at least once a week, about one
animation for each topic taught in class. The study also indicated that students
who studied science with the use of animated movies developed higher
motivation to learn science compared to students in the control group.
Whereas, Rondon (2013) made a study on the effect of a game based and
traditional learning method on the students knowledge retention. His study
revealed that students who received game-based method performed better in
both posttest in anatomy and physiology questions. He further stated that game-
based learning method is comparable to the traditional learning method in
general and in short - term gains, while traditional lecture still seems to be more
effective to improve students short and long term knowledge retention.
Miguel (2012) made a study on the achievement and retention of learning of

deep and surface learners exposed to UbD. The study was conducted at Ramon
Magsaysay High School during the first quarter of S.Y. 2011 2012. The sample
of the study was categorized as deep or surface learners. T-test was employed to
assess the difference between the performance of deep and surface learners.
Results showed that the use of the UbD is effective in terms of enhancing
students achievement while retention of learning is comparable regardless of
learning approach.
Hamm (2009) investigated the performance of deep and surface learners using
the Digital Audio Video Assessment (DAVA) and found out that multimedia
teaching and learning approaches encourage learners to adopt a richer, creative
and deeper level of understanding and participation within the learning
environment than traditional teaching and learning methods. Research shows
that DAVA promotes deep learning and understanding. Some factors mentioned
in this study that are critical in affecting the overall learner experience were the
learners well developed learning preferences, issues relating to technology
incidents and problems and the teachers own level of skills, training and
knowledge of the assessment. He further asserted in his research that learners
exhibited flexible learning preferences adopted either a deep or surface
approach related to their motive or strategy. Based on the evidence, some of the
participants who were classified as surface by Biggs, midway between deep and
surface, changed to deep when doing the DAVA. He argued that the reasons for
the deep approach transformation by these learners were: students have

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enjoyable and rewarding experiences and the DAVA suit to their learning
experiences.
Estacio (2008) attempted to study the effect on the achievement in Physics of

students taught with enforced diagramming. The study was conducted at the
Technological University of the Philippines Manila campus. The study was
focused on the conception of force and motion. This study found out that
enforced diagramming method can be used to enhance achievements of surface
learners.Whereas, Beran (2005) compared the performance of deep and surface
learners in problem solving. In her study, she mentioned that deep learners are
better than surface learners. Deep learners favored algorithmic strategy wherein
the solutions use the correct formula and involved correct substitution of the
given data. However, surface learners favored the systematic trial and error
strategy that shows some irrelevant formulas and error in solving the problem.
In the study comparing the effectiveness of the students teams achievement

division (STAD) and chalk and talk lecture method (CTLM) on the achievement
of deep and surface learners by Biton (2001), results revealed that students
exposed to STAD achieved better than those exposed to CTLM. She also stated
that STAD worked well for both students with different learning approaches.
Similarly, Aranes (1998) made a study on the achievement of deep and surface
learners using illustrated laboratory procedure in Chemistry. The study was
conducted at the Technological University of the Philippines using four intact
classes of 93 sample students enrolled in General and Inorganic Chemistry
during the second semester of the school year 1997 1998. The total sample
population was divided into two groups, 46 belonged to the experimental group
while 47 students classified for the control group. The findings of this study
revealed that students in the experimental group significantly performed better
than those in the control group. Using illustrated laboratory procedures in
chemistry, surface learners could afford to perform equally well as deep
learners, and a significant interaction effect exists between the teaching method
and learning styles of the students. The surface learners favor the use of regular
laboratory manual, whereas the deep learners favor the illustrated laboratory
procedure.
Further, Tonel (1997), showed in her study on the effectiveness of teacher
resource material in Physics in teaching deep and surface learners that students
who adopt the deep approach tend to perform better than students who adopt
the surface approach. The resource material was found effective in enhancing
student learning.
Synthesis
Based on the presented information from different sources, such as books,
unpublished theses and the Internet, one way to improve student performance
specifically in the least mastered skills of the subject area, is the utilization of an
instructional material. Studies revealed that the use of an instructional material
plays a very significant role in enhancing the memory level of the students and
makes the teaching learning process interesting.The use of Strategic

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Intervention Material (SIM) as prescribed by the Department of Education is one

of the treatments to improve students achievement and reduce least mastered
skills in science subjects. Different studies have shown that the use of SIM
successfully decreased the least mastered skills in science subjects; thus, poor
achievement was enhanced.
Five related studies (Dermirci, Morgil, Imdieke, Jiris, and Rondon) considered
the traditional method of instruction. Based on these studies, traditional teaching
method alone does not promote high academic achievement in science.
However, when this method was assisted with technologies and available
instructional materials it improved students performance. The present study
utilized Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM BI) while the
above related studies used traditional teaching instruction assisted with
computer programs and other technologies.
Results of various studies encouraged the researcher to study the effect of

Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM BI) as a tool in
improving students performance in Chemistry and its effect on the learning
approaches of students. Soberano, Togonon, Escoreal, Dahar, Aguele and Tonel
tested the effectiveness of instructional and intervention materials. It is worth
noting that these studies were successfully established its positive effect on
learning.
Studies on the learning approaches with instructional materials (Miguel, Hamm,

Estacio, Beran, Biton, Aranes, and Tonel) were also considered in this research.
These studies used different teaching instruction to determine the effect on the
performance of students with different learning approaches. The present study
employed Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM BI) to
investigate the effect on the learning approaches and performance of students in
Chemistry.
In this study, the developed Strategic Intervention Material in Chemistry was

used as intervention material during the instruction on the topic chemical
bonding to improve students performance and determine its effect on their
learning approach.The studies reviewed may not be that extensive on the factors
of changing the learning approaches considering the wide - range of literature
that exist in this particular topic. Nonetheless, the study mentioned already the
baseline information on the conceptualization and conduct the present study
which led to a hypothesis, that the Strategic Intervention Material Based
Instruction (SIM BI) has significant effects on students learning approaches
and performance.
Research Paradigm
The paradigm illustrates the possible effect of SIM - BI on deep and surface
learners performance in Chemistry.

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Figure 1. Research paradigm of the study
The research paradigm shows the relationship between SIM - BI and students
learning approach and their performance in Chemistry. In the study, the
Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM - BI) in chemical
bonding and learning approach were the independent variables and the
performance of deep and surface learners in Chemistry was the dependent
variable.
Research Hypotheses
The research hypotheses below were tested at the 0.05 level of significance
express in alternative form.
1. There is a significant difference between the achievement test means of
deep and surface learners before the exposure to SIM - BI
2. There is a significant difference between the achievement means of deep
and surface learners after exposure to SIM BI.
3. There is a significant difference between the achievement test mean
scores of deep learners before and after exposure to SIM BI.
4. There is a significant difference between the achievement test mean
scores of surface learners before and after exposure to SIM BI.
Research Design
The study is descriptive experimental and used the pretest posttest pre-
experimental design. Descriptive part of the study involves the learning profile
and the students perception survey. Experimental part of the study is the
students performance in Chemistry. Qualitative analysis was employed for the
learning approach of students before and after exposure to SIM-BI, students
perception on the use of the strategic intervention material, and students
performance in the Chemistry Achievement Test. Quantitative analysis was used
to determine any difference between the pretest and posttest means. The pretest
posttest experimental designed for this study is presented below.
O1 X O2
Where: O1 pretest
X Treatment (SIM BI)
O2 - Posttest
The Sample

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Two sections from the third year level of Makati High School for the school year
2012-2013 (III Pearl and III Zircon) were used as respondents of the study.
The sample consists of 80 students with 36 males and 44 females selected from
18 sections through convenience sampling. These sections are heterogeneous
and handled by the researcher. The researcher had a total contact time with each
section equivalent to six hours in a week. The daily schedule for the Chemistry
class for the III Pearl and III Zircon is from 6:40 A.M. - 7:40 A.M. and 10:00
A.M. 11:00 A.M., respectively. An additional 1 hour for each section was
allotted for the completion or remedial class to III Pearl every Tuesday and
Wednesday for III Zircon from 1:20 P.M. 2:20 P.M.
Research Instruments
In the conduct of the study, the researcher used five research instruments, the
Chemistry Learning Approach Inventory (CLAI), Strategic Intervention Material
(SIM), Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT), Students Perception Survey (SPS)
and Observers Evaluation Questionnaire (OEQ). The CLAI was adopted from
Beran (2005) and the rest was developed by the researcher and validated by
experts.
Chemistry Learning Approach Inventory (CLAI)

The Chemistry Learning Approach Inventory (Appendix B) was used to classify
students as deep and surface learners. It is a questionnaire that classifies
students on what learning approach they adopt in learning the concepts of the
subject matter.
This questionnaire consists of 30 questions with English and Tagalog version.

Half of the questions (1,3,4,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21,23,27,29) were positively
stated; whereas, the other half (2,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20,22,24,25,26,28,30) were
negatively stated. Students chose the statement that applied to them using scales
from 1 4 with their corresponding qualitative descriptions in English and
Tagalog version. A rating of 1 in every item is equivalent to Never (Hindi), 2 is
Seldom (Madalang), 3, Often (Madalas) and 4 is Always (Palagi).
The ratings given to negative items were subtracted from five (5) prior to getting
the total scores. The students were classified based on their mean scores
obtained in the CLAI. The mean score of the student was computed by dividing
the total scores by 30, the total number of items. In this study, the mean score of
the student was the basis for classifying him/her as to what type of learner
he/she belongs. Students with a mean score of 2.5 were classified as deep
learners and those with mean score of < 2.5 were classified as surface learners.
Strategic Intervention Material (SIM) in Chemical Bonding

The SIM that was used in this study is entitled Chemical Romance that covers
chemical bonding which is considered least mastered skills in Chemistry. It
involves chemical combination of different elements leading to the formation of
another compound. The SIM tackles why and how the atoms combine, the
different types of chemical bonding, its nature and properties. It also includes
how to use the electronegativities of elements in predicting the type of chemical
bond that exists.

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The SIM was divided into two lessons. Lesson 1 discusses the introduction of
chemical bonding which consists of six activity cards and two assessment cards.
On the other hand, lesson 2 covers the different types of chemical bonding with
seven activity cards and two assessment cards. The first lesson in SIM started
with the guide card presenting the overview of the whole lesson. Under this
part, the objectives of the lesson were stated and students corner was provided
for the understanding check of the respondent. Guide card 1 consists of two
activity cards about predicting stability and the energy involved in chemical
bonding. Guide card 2 discusses the Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS) as a
tool of illustrating how bonds between elements are formed. It contains one
activity with guide questions. Each activity card of the SIM consists of the For
Your Information (FYI) section. This provides the basic information on the
specific topic tackled.
Guide Card 3 deals with ionic formation with three activity cards involving
isoelectronic, protons and electrons, charge of the atoms, oxidation numbers,
types of ion, valence electron, group number of elements in the periodic table,
process to become stable and the ionic symbol. Diagrams were presented in the
lesson for better understanding of the students. Lesson 1 ended with two
assessment cards. The first assessment card was a modified true or false and
identification type for the second assessment. It measured the learning gained by
the students in the first lesson.
The second lesson discusses the types of chemical bond, namely ionic bond,
covalent bond, and metallic bond. It also covers the polarity of a molecule and
its characteristics. Guide card 1 in this particular lesson deals with comparison of
the three types of bond in terms of the classes of elements present. There are
three activities provided in the lesson. The first two activity cards are all about
classifying elements using the periodic table. The third activity is the application
of the first two activity cards in determining the types of bond present in a
compound based on the classes of elements.
Guide Card 2 concentrates on the first type which is the ionic bond. In this
lesson, it uses the Lewis Electron Dot Structure as previously learned by the
respondents in lesson 1, in illustrating how bonds are formed between two
different types of elements. It integrates the ratio of the elements when
combined, the chemical formula and name. Guide Card 3 discusses covalent
bond in terms of sharing the electrons to attain stability of elements involved
and the Lewis structure of a molecule.
Guide Card 4 covers the types of a covalent bond, namely, polar covalent and
non polar covalent bond. It consists of three activity cards. The first and second
activity deal with the use of electronegativity difference in terms of predicting
the bond type. The last activity involves the correct LEDS of a covalent molecule.
Two assessment cards were provided to measure the amount of learning
transferred and retained to the respondents. The first assessment card is a
concept map type of test and a multiple choice questions for the second.

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The last two parts of the SIM were the enrichment and reference cards. Under
enrichment card, students were asked to conduct an interview to owners or
employees regarding their knowledge of the science behind hair rebonding.
Reference card which contains title of books and internet websites was also
provided as additional reference related to the topic covered by the SIM.The SIM
underwent phases of validation. The material was prepared by the researcher
and validated by three experts in Chemistry. Suggested ideas by the experts
were incorporated in the content of the SIM. These include diagrams,
improvement of guide questions and additional activities under the activity
card.
Chemistry Achievement Test

The researcher made and developed a 30 multiple choice item chemistry
achievement test in chemical bonding and was used as instrument in the study.
The achievement test measured the cognitive skills of the respondents: namely,
content, application and procedure. The test was developed following a table of
specifications (Appendix D2). The total score in the Chemistry Achievement Test
is 30.
The first draft was a 50 item questions (Appendix D) presented to the thesis
mentor and two experts in chemistry for content validation. Comments and
suggestions mostly on the test construction such as clarity of the stem and
attractiveness of the options by the experts were incorporated in the test. The
second draft was given to fourth year students who already took chemistry.
Result of the test was subjected to item analysis (Appendix D1). Based on the
result out of 50, 29 items were considered good questions, 4 items needed
revision and 17 items were rejected. Rejected items were discarded in the final
form of the test. Only 28 questions considered as good items from the item
analysis were included in the final form of the achievement test to maintain the
proportion of questions stated in the table of specifications. Two questions
classified as fair in the analysis were retained in the second draft to maintain the
questions about polarity of a molecule in the competency.
The second draft of the test was again given to another section of fourth year
students for the reliability estimate before it was administered as pretest and
posttest to the respondents of the study. Results (Appendix D3) showed that the
achievement test is reliable with a reliability coefficient of 0.63 using Kuder
Richardson Formula 20.
Perception Survey Questionnaire

The Perception Survey questionnaire (PSQ) (Appendix E) was developed by the
researcher to determine the perceptions of the respondents regarding the use of
the strategic intervention material. This survey consists of 10 questions validated
by the thesis mentor and expert panels. The PSQ in the form of checklist was
given to students after using the SIM. Each question was rated using 1 4 scales
with their corresponding qualitative descriptions. A rating of 1 is equivalent to
strongly disagree, 2, disagree, 3, agree 4 means strongly agree.

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Observers Evaluation Questionnaire

An observers evaluation questionnaire (OEQ) (Appendix F) developed by the
researcher and validated by experts was used to observe the teacher and the
respondents during the progress of the study. The instrument consists of five
questions with 1-5 rating scales in the form of checklist. A rating of 5 means
strongly agree, 4 agree, 3 undecided, 2 disagree and 1 means strongly
disagree. Five teachers including the department head were invited to observe
during the first week of the study.
Data Gathering Procedure

The first phase of the study was the administration of the Chemistry Learning
Approach Inventory (CLAI) to the respondents. This questionnaire was used to
determine the learning approach used by students in learning Chemistry.
The second phase was the administration of the pretest to students in chemical
bonding. The test given covers the topic on chemical bonding with a total of 30
questions that was validated by experts. The test lasted for 1 hour. The result of
the test was recorded for comparison purposes.
The third phase was the actual teaching using the regular instruction (traditional
teaching method) of the researcher in chemical bonding. The lesson started with
a video song presentation about chemical bonding. This material was
downloaded from the Internet that served as motivation for the students in
learning the topic. The lesson lasted for two weeks or equivalent to 12 hours
contact time with the students.
The fourth phase was the study proper. Under this phase, Strategic Intervention
Material (SIM) in chemical bonding was given as an intervention material after
the regular instruction. Each student was given a copy of the SIM and answered
activities provided involving concepts of the lesson discussed in the regular
instruction. This was conducted daily within two consecutive weeks or
equivalent to 12 hours under the supervision of the researcher.
The implementation of the SIM was divided according to the lessons

incorporated in the guide cards, activity cards and assessment cards. In the first
week of the study, activities in lesson 1 were answered based on the schedule
provided. Checking of answers to the activity cards and discussion were done
right after the allotted time assigned for the given session. The second lesson of
the SIM which deals with the types of chemical bonding was administered in the
second week with the same amount of time given in the first lesson of the SIM.
To ensure that the schedule was strictly followed, the science department head
and chemistry teachers observed and described what took place in the classroom
using the observers evaluation questionnaire.
After the SIM - BI was the administration of the posttest to the respondents. On
the following day the Chemistry Learning Approach Inventory (CLAI) was
again given to the respondents to determine any changes in their learning
approach after using the strategic intervention material (SIM) in chemical
bonding.

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For the final phase, the researcher administered the perception survey to gather
feedbacks from the respondents. This perception survey gave the students the
chance to express their reaction with regard to the use of the SIM. The schedule
of activities as they have been conducted in the study is presented in Table 2.
Data Analysis
All data were collected and served as the basis to find out the effect of Strategic
Intervention Material Based Instruction on the learning approach and
performance of students in Chemistry. Data were tabulated, tallied, organized,
statistically treated and analyzed.Using the Chemistry Learning Approach
Inventory (CLAI) questionnaires, the researcher was able to classify students as
to what learning approach they adopt before and after the implementation of the
Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM BI). The mean scores
of the respondents in the CLAI was the basis for identifying their learning
approach. Prior to the computation of the mean scores of the respondents, the

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ratings given to negative items were subtracted from five. The total scores were
added and the mean score was computed. Students with a mean score of 2.50
were classified as deep learners and those with a mean score of < 2.50 were
classified as surface learners. The learning approach profile was presented using
a pie chart.
The performance of the respondents was measured based on their scores in the
Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT). Descriptive statistics was employed. Pretest
and posttest scores of deep and surface learners were compared in terms of the
highest and the lowest scores, mean scores, and standard deviation. The data
were also used inferential statistics specifically t test for dependent samples to
find out if there is a significant difference in the performance of the respondents
categorized as deep and surface learners evaluated at 0.05 level of significance.
All data in the students performance is presented in a tabular form.
Students perception about the use of the SIM - BI was tabulated. The survey
utilized scales from 1 4 with their equivalent remarks or descriptions.
Frequency of responses by the respondents were tallied and presented also in
tabular form. Weighted mean for each statement and the overall weighted mean
were computed. This was done by adding product of the number of responses in
each scale and divided by the number of respondents. The overall weighted
mean was computed by getting the average of all the weighted means.
Qualitative interpretations were based on the weighted mean computed using
the ranges: 1 1.49 (Strongly disagree); 1.5 2.49 (Disagree); 2.5 3.49 (Agree);
and 3.5 4.0 (Strongly agree). All data were fed into SPS version 11.0 statistical
software.
Profile of Students in Chemistry

The Chemistry Learning Approach Inventory (CLAI) was given before and after
the SIM - BI. The mean score of each student was the basis for classifying the
learning approach the/she adopts in Chemistry. A mean score of 2.5 and < 2.5
classified the respondents as deep learner and surface learner respectively. Out
of 80 respondents, 27 (33.75%) were classified as deep learners and 53 (66.25%)
were categorized as surface learners before exposing the respondents to
Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM - BI). It is evident that
majority of the respondents adopted the surface approach in learning the subject
area.
However, when students were exposed to SIM BI, there is a change in the
numbers of deep and surface learners. Prior to the implementation of the SIM
BI, majority of the respondents adopted the surface approach of learning. As
revealed in figure 3, there is a change in the learning approach profile of the
respondents. From 53 students adopting the surface approach it decreased to 24
after the SIM BI. This indicates that 29 surface learners transformed into deep
learners. Further, the number of deep learners increased by 29. These were the
surface learners before SIM BI. However, three deep learners before SIM BI
became surface learners after SIM BI. These three students were absent for 4

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sessions during the duration of the study and they were not able to complete
some activities in the SIM.
This result agreed with the statement of Biggs as mentioned in Daluz (2003) that
approaches to learning are not necessarily exclusive. Students may adopt
different approaches according to the tasks, the course or the teaching context.
Learning approaches are not stable individual traits, although some students
will tend toward taking a deep approach while others will tend taking toward
surface approach. Biggs further stated that good teaching can motivate and
influence students to change their learning approach from surface to deep
approach of learning.It can be deduced that the changes in the learning
approach from surface to deep approach transformed students from being
passive to active, uncritical to critical thinker by examining facts and ideas,
relating new to previous lessons and from showing disinterest to personal
interest as mentioned in Miguel (2012) from the table of compilation of the
characteristics of deep and surface learner by Biggs (1999) and Ramsden (1992).
The result also conformed with the statements of Biggs that good teaching
served as encouragement of deep approach to learning. In the course of the
study, the researcher observed that in completing the tasks or activities provided
in the SIM - BI, respondents reviewed previous guide cards of the SIM that
helped them answer the task of the day. In this case, students connected the
previous to the present lesson which is an indicator of adopting the deep
approach of learning.
Guide questions provided in the SIM were also considered by the researcher as
one of the factors that transformed surface learner to deep learner. Guide
questions under the guide cards and activity cards of the SIM were given higher
points compared to the completion of tables. Students, therefore, are forced to
read and comprehend every detail of this section of the SIM for them to answer
and earn higher points.
Performance of Deep and Surface learners in the Chemistry Achievement Test

(CAT) Before and After Exposure to SIM BI. Performance of the students using
different approach to learning was determined using the Chemistry
Achievement Test which served as the pretest and posttest of the study. Table 3
gives the summary of the descriptive statistics of the pretest and posttest scores
of the students in CAT in terms of mean scores, standard deviation, highest and
lowest scores.

113
The highest score in the pretest of the surface learners is 14 while the deep
learners is 12. The highest score in the posttest of the surface learners is 28 while
the deep learners is 29. Standard deviation shows that the scores in the posttest
are more scattered around its respective mean from the pretest in both types of
learners (deep: 1.99, 4.49; surface: 1.84, 3.73) From table 3, it can be noted that
there was a considerable increase in the mean score of the two different types of
learners after using the SIM in chemical bonding. Deep learners posted lower
mean scores in the pretest compared to the surface learners with mean scores of
8.85 and 9.75, respectively. However, in the posttest deep learners registered a
higher mean score with a slight difference than the surface learners. The latter
obtained a mean score of 21.15 ;while, the former got 21.70. This implies that
both deep and surface learners performed better when taught using the SIM - BI.
Findings of this study confirm that findings of Togonon (2011) that SIM
enhances students achievement.
Comparison of the Means in the Pretest of Deep and Surface Learners

The respondents of the study were pretested to determine their prior knowledge
on the subject matter before the SIM - BI. The table below shows the results of
the pretest between the two groups of learners treated with independent t - test.
The table above shows the mean scores in the pretest of deep and surface
learners. The deep learners obtained 8.85 while the surface learners got a mean

114
score of 9.75. The standard deviations of the two scores are equivalent to 1.99 for
the deep learners and 1.83 for the surface learners. The t-test for independent
samples revealed a t-value of 1.97 and p value of 0.055. The computed p-value
associated with the test statistics is higher than the level of significance set in the
study (p>0.05), therefore, the difference in the mean pretest scores of the two
groups of learners is not significant. This result implies that at the start of the
study, the prior knowledge of surface learners and deep learners are more or
less comparable.
Comparison of the Means in the Posttest of Deep and Surface Learners

The same achievement test was used to determine the performance of the
students after exposure to SIM - BI. Table 5 shows the results of the posttest of
the two groups of learners treated with independent t test.
The above table reveals the posttest mean scores of the deep and surface learners
in the Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT. The deep learners obtained a mean
score of 21.70 and 21.15 for the surface learners. Based on the mean score, it can
be noted that deep learners got a higher mean score than the surface learners.
The computed t-value is 0.551 and the p-value is 0.585. The computed p-value is
greater than the level of significance set in the study (p > 0.05), thus, the
difference is not significant. This indicates that the two types of learners
performed equally well after SIM BI. This also indicates that the Strategic
Intervention Material is an effective instructional material for both types of
learners. This result conformed with the statement of Ramsden as mentioned in
Daluz (2003) that surface approach should not be viewed as a learning approach
adopted only by weaker students and deep approach are for highly competent
ones.
Comparison of the Pretest Mean and Posttest Mean of Deep and Surface
learners
The mean difference between the scores in pretest and posttest in the Chemistry
Achievement Test (CAT) was used to measure the knowledge gained by the
respondents with the aid of SIM. Table 6 below summarizes the pretest and
posttest mean scores of the two different types of learners using the t-test.

115
The computation result indicated that there is a significant increase in the gain
scores obtained by the deep learners which is equivalent to 12.85 points from the
21.70 and 8.85 mean scores of the posttest and pretest, respectively. The t-test for
paired samples results to a t-value of 15.92 and a p-value of 0.000. This means
that the difference between the posttest and pretest is significant.
In the same table, it is also shown that there is a difference between the pretest
and posttest mean scores of the surface learners. Surface learners posted a gain
score of 11.40 points. This gain score is considered significant based on the t-test
results. The computed t-value and p-value are 22.864 and 0.000, respectively.
The p-value is less than the level of significance set in the study (p<0.05),
therefore, the difference between the mean scores in the pretest and posttest of
the surface learners is significant. This could mean that both deep and surface
learners exposed to SIM - BI achieved better. The findings also confirmed the
findings of the studies done by Miguel (2012), Estacio (2008), and Soberano
(2010).
In as much as the SIM - BI made use of a number of exercises, it could be

speculated that the instruction had established a learning atmosphere suitable to
the learning approach of the students. Furthermore, the presentation in the SIM -
BI has motivating capabilities that demands attention and creates strong impact
to the learners. The SIM - BI could provide effective communication and proper
instruction matched with the learning needs of the students.
Students Perception on the Use of the Strategic Intervention Material

Students perception on the use of the SIM was gathered through the perception
survey questionnaire. The survey consisted of 10 statements about the SIM and
utilized a four - point rating scale with corresponding qualitative interpretations.
It was given after the posttest of the study. Table 7 summarizes the results of the
survey.

116
The table shows the frequency of responses of the respondents in each

statement. Based on the result, the first question yielded the highest mean score
3.9 interpreted as strongly agree. Out of 80, 73 respondents responded strongly
agree and 7 agreed that the SIM - BI helped them understand the lesson covered.
The results indicate that SIM - BI is a useful teaching strategy, thereby,
increasing the students level of understanding as mentioned in Dy (2011).
Second in the rank is question number 10 with a mean rating of 3.8 (strongly
agree). Majority of the sample strongly agreed that they want to use SIM not
only for remediation purposes but in a regular classroom teaching. The high
rating of this question can be attributed to the fact that the students enjoyed
reading and doing all tasks and activities provided in the SIM as stated in
question 8. Meanwhile, third among the perceptions with a shared mean rating
of 3.7 were obtained by statements 2, 7, and 8. Respondents strongly agreed that
the presentation of the concepts are clear and fitted to their needs, they enjoyed
reading and doing all the activities, and the SIM used words that are fitted to
their reading and comprehension ability. The concepts of chemical bonding in
the SIM were designed by the researcher in a simple manner based on the

117
guidelines and principles on SIM construction set by the DepEd during seminars
and contests.
Moreover, based on the experience of the researcher in the duration of the study,
there were students who requested to bring home the SIM for them to answer
the activities during Saturday and Sunday. These perceptions conformed with
the study of Hamm (2009) that the reason for the transformation into deep
approach adopted by the learners was that they had enjoyable and rewarding
experiences. The remediation and transformation of 29 surface learners into
deep learners may be attributed to this statement.
Next in the rank were statements number 5 and 9 with a mean rating of 3.6
(strongly agree) followed by question number 3 which obtained a mean rating of
3.5 (strongly agree). The fifth statement refers to the time allotment for each
lesson. Students strongly agreed that adequate time was given to them to
accomplish all activities or exercises in a given session. Statements 4 and 6
obtained the lowest mean rating of 3.2 (agree). Respondents agreed that they
learned some useful information in the SIM not mentioned in a regular
classroom teaching and activities and tasks given in the SIM made were easy.
This lowest mean rating can be attributed to the nature of the SIM which is
activity based compared to the regular classroom teaching which is a lecture
based method, where all information about the topic are already given.
The overall mean rating of the respondents is 3.6 interpreted as strongly agree.
This is an indication that the SIM is an effective tool in teaching to enhanced
students performance and to improve their views about Chemistry.
Comments and Suggestions of Students Sample on the SIM

To further validate the result of the SPQ, comments and suggestions were
gathered from the respondents. The extracts of the actual comments and
suggestions from the respondents are presented in Table 8.

118
Based on the comments and suggestions of the respondents, the SIM really
helped the students improve their performance in chemical bonding as one of
the least mastered skills in Chemistry. Students are looking forward that SIM
will also be given not only in Chemistry but also in other science subjects
involving difficult topics. SIM must use words that are suited to the reading
comprehension of the students that need remediation for a particular topic.
Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
1. Most of the students adopted the deep learners approach after the
exposure to the SIM BI. Some of the surface learners adopted the deep learners
approach while a few deep learners adopted the surface learners approach. The
SIM BI has capability of influencing the learning approach of the students in
Chemistry.

119
2. The use of Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM BI)

enhances the performance of students in Chemistry regardless of learning
approach adopted.
3. The deep and surface learners performed equally well after exposure to
Strategic Intervention Material Based Instruction (SIM BI).
4. Deep and surface learners have a positive perception on the use of
Strategic Intervention Material (SIM). Students find it enjoyable, interesting, and
contributing positive attitude towards Chemistry.
Based on the findings of the study and conclusions drawn, the following are
hereby recommended:
1. Use SIM Based Instruction (SIM BI) in other topics in Chemistry to
further validate the result of the study.
2. Conduct a similar studies on the use of SIM Based Instruction (SIM
BI) in other discipline to confirm the results of the study.
3. Use SIM as remediation material to enhance the achievement of surface
learners.
4. Conduct further studies in SIM - BI using respondents in tertiary level to
confirm its effectiveness in promoting deep learning approach and its
applicability to Chemistry teaching.
5. Encourage administrators, science supervisors and teachers to make SIM
in all topics not only the least mastered skills in a given subject area.
6. Teachers shall be provided with more seminars, workshops on the
principles of SIM construction.
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124

Vol. 2, No.1 pp. 124-136, February 2014
The Perceived Influence of Learning

Environment on Design Student Imagination
Ju-Sen Lin
FoGuang University
Yilan, Taiwan
Chaoyun Liang
National Taiwan University
Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract.This study was aimed to analyze the perceived influence of

learning environment on design student imagination in different design
phases. Participants (n = 1,004) involved in this study were design
school students from ten universities across Taiwan. Influences in the
learning environment were deconstructed into four factors: physical
component, organizational measure, social climate, and human
aggregate. Our results indicated that social climate was claimed to be the
greatest influential factor, followed by organizational measure, human
aggregate, and finally physical component. These various effects were seen
in the design process, especially in the phase of problem definition and
design analysis, and with a lesser effect in the phase of detailed design
and communication.
Keywords: design education; design process; imagination

stimulation;learning environment.
Introduction
The key to the success of the design lies in the capacity of creative thinking.
Imagination is the basis for cultivating creative thinking, and thus the driving
force of innovation (Finke, 1996). Creativity-related research has progressed for
many years, but the understandings of imagination and the imagination process
still remain unclear. So far, few studies have clearly discussed how imagination
manifests itself, let alone developed an evaluation tool for assessing imagination
stimulation in the design field (Liang, Chang, Chang, & Lin, 2012). In this study,
imagination refers to the process of transforming the inner imagery of design
school students when they face a design task. Such images are usually
developed from the individuals image memory and shaped into something
new.The purpose of this study is to analyze the perceived influence of learning
environment on design student imagination in different design phases.
Generally speaking, the design process can be divided into three major phases:
problem definition and design analysis, concept development and prototyping,

125
and detailed design and communication (Shneiderman, 2000; Peffers et al.,

2006).
Learning environment
The college campus can be divided into four dimensions: its physical
components and design, its dominant human characteristics, the organizational
structures that serve its purposes, and the participants constructions of its social
climates (American College Personnel Association, 1994). The physical component
of a campus consists of its natural environment (geographic location, weather,
and temperature) and man-made environment (architecture, signs, sound,
grassy spaces, learning facilities, and messages sent to its inhabitants). These two
components define space for activities and events, thereby encouraging some
phenomena while limiting others (Strange, 2003). Social climate focuses on the
subjective views and experiences of participant observers, assuming that
environments are understood best through the collective perceptions of the
individuals within them. (Strange& Banning, 2001, p. 86) This dimension
usually has intrinsic influence (such as members motivations) as well as
external impact (such as control over the members) (Peterson & Spencer, 1990).
With respect to organizational measure, the complex nature of universities results

in the need to maintain a sense of order and generate various arrangements that
define the organizational characteristics of an environment. As a result of this
need, rules and regulations are formed, rewards systems are developed, and
reports become necessary for resource allocation (Strange, 2003). Such
organizational measures could raise or lower the morale of participants. Human
aggregate is the collective characteristics of people who inhabit the environment.
Whether demographic or psychosocial, this dimension creates features in an
environment that reflect varying degrees of differentiation and consistency
(Strange& Banning, 2001). The human aggregate dimension is reflected in
organizational culture, tradition, or style (Huebner &Lawson, 1990). These
features affect the students performance, restrict their behaviors, and produces
a stable impression of the school (Peterson & Spencer, 1990).
Imagination
Passmore (1985) held that imagination is the capacity to think up and think
through alternatives. Imagination enables people to go beyond actual experience
and construct alternative possibilities, in which the fragmented situation is a
meaningful whole. Trotman (2006) indicated that imagination is an essential
human capacity in various activities such as the pursuit of creativity and
innovation, the symbolic expression of ideas, and critical thinking. In other
words, imagination is the internal imagery of a creator whereas creativity and
creations are the outward manifestation of imagination. Imagination can also be
viewed as the process of transforming an existing memory into a new form.
Reichling (1990) indicated that imagination runs through three levels: fantasy or
magical imagination, reproductive or literal imagination, and metaphorical and
paradoxical imagination. At the level of fantasy or magical imagination, the
initial stage of imaginative development, perception is dominant. The imagined

126
object may be seen or touched within the mind of an individual. At the level
of reproductive or literal imagination, perception and reasoning are combined
together, but intuition is largely absent. Objects at this level are imagined as they
exist in concrete and observable forms. At the level of metaphorical and
paradoxical imagination, the addition of intuition brings the last facet of
imagination together with perception, thinking, and feeling. This combination
yields the full development of imagination as a power of the whole human
consciousness.
Trotman (2006) claimed that imagination engagement can be seen as situated

practices. Trotman further proposed six situated practices: solitary imagination,
contemplative imagination, imaginative correspondence, contributory
imagination, imaginative dissonance, and reciprocal collective imagination.
Solitary imagination is a necessary prerequisite of imaginative experience, and is
identified as the critical agency for facilitating learning, thinking, and
innovation. Contemplative imagination is a moment of conscious engagement in
the deep subjective life world. In the situated practice of imaginative
correspondence, imaginative experience enters the realm of an inter-subjective
world in which the world is one that is shared and interpreted by others.
Incontributory imagination, individuals have opportunities to make their unique
contributions to a shared project. An exchange in imaginative disagreement
leads to the situated practice of imaginative dissonance. Imaginative dissonance is
followed by the situated practice of reciprocal collective imagination, which
Trotman indicates is characterized by community, unity, mutuality, reflexivity,
and connectivity.
Passmore (1985) held that teachers should provide students with alternative
thinking and diverse life experiences, thus stimulating imagination. Bscher,
Eriksen, Kristensen, and Mogensen (2004) took concepts such as work
environment, resources, and design tasks as variables and sought out the best
combinations for designers to utilize their imagination and improve their cross-
field capabilities. These studies demonstrated that imagination stimulation is
closely related to the designers work environment and the societal environment
outside of the task.
Method
Since measures of the influence that environmental factors had on imagination
stimulation in different design phases were unavailable, new scales needed to be
developed for this study. Based upon the literature review, items were created to
represent the issues identified. All these 27 preliminary items addressed various
environmental influences and were grouped into four dimensions, namely
physical component, social climate, organizational measure, and human
aggregate.In order to make the standpoints of the surveyed clearer, the items
were measured using 4-point Likert scales, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to
4 = strongly agree. The scale was pre-tested by over 200 college students and
then verified by preliminary validation analyses.

127
Participants involved in this study were students from ten universities across
Taiwan. Students had to satisfy two requirements in order to participate for this
study. First, students must have been a design major. Second, students must
have had at least sophomore standing prior to the study. In the first phase, a
total of 1,004 valid samples were collected, including 294 sophomores, 300
juniors, 277 seniors, and 133 in their master programs. There were 277 male and
727 female. The demographical data of the other two phases are presented in
Table 1. Because the participants were not forced to contribute in all the three
phases, the numbers of participants differed slightly between each phase.
The questionnaire asked participants to determine the strength of influence that

each identified environmental factor had on their imagination in the current
design phase. The questionnaire was distributed to the participants in three
different periods. The first period, the phase of problem definition and design
analysis, was during the first two weeks of October 2011. The second period, the
phase of concept development and prototyping took place in the final two
weeks of November 2011. The third and final period, the phase of detailed
design and communication, was during the middle two weeks of January 2012.
Each survey was conducted by trained graduate assistants who were
accompanied by the course instructor.
Three items were dropped from the scale due to low factor loading (< .3): the
congestion of messages in the learning environment, the route and pattern
planning of the learning environment, and the location of the learning
environment on campus. Based on the satisfactorily analytical results, a total of
24 items were chosen to construct the formal questionnaire. The measured items
were organized by item analysis on the mean (2.77-3.54), standard deviation (>
.75), skewness (< 1), extreme value test results (p < .05, t > 1.96), correlation
coefficients (> .3), and factor loading values (> .3) of the data acquired during the
formal survey. The environmental influence scale was found to be reliable (refer
to Table 1).
Table 1: Analysis of the demographical data and Cronbachs

Demographical data & Phase 1 (n = 1,004) Phase 2 (n = 974) Phase 3 (n = 943)
Gender
Male/ Female 27727.6%/ 29330%/ 26628.2%/
72772.4% 68170% 67771.8%
Grade
Sophomore/ junior 29429.3%/ 25225.9%/ 28229.9%/
Senior/ master 30029.9% 29230% 29631.4%
27727.6%/ 30030.8%/ 25226.7%/
13313.2% 13013.3% 11312%
Cronbachs
Whole/ item .891/ .884-.891 .913/ .907-.912 .903/ .897-.910
Results
Factor analysis results indicated that the 24 items could be organized into four
environmental factors. The first one, physical component, a six-item scale,
measured the degree to which participants considered the facilities and
messages in an environment would stimulate imagination. The second one,

128
organizational measure, a six-item scale, assessed participant perceptions of the

influence from the institutional structure and organizational measures. The third
one, social climate, a seven-item scale, measured the extent of which participants
reported being influenced by the climate of the class. The fourth one, human
aggregate, a five-item scale, indicated the degree to which participants felt that
their imagination was influenced by the organizational culture, tradition, or
style. Reliability estimates were satisfactory and are reported with factor
loadings in Table 2. Four extracted factors explained a cumulative variance of
52.68%.
An independent samples t-test (95% CI) was conducted to compare gender

differences. The statistics showed that there was no significant difference
between genders in the three phases. However, the statistics also showed that
the item teachers respect for individual differences in the second phase
achieved a significant level (p = .002 < .01). ANOVA was continually conducted
to compare the effect of environmental factors on participant imagination
stimulation between students of different grades. The study found that there
was a significant effect of environment factors on imagination stimulation at the
p< .05 level for the four conditions in all three phases.
In the first phase, the results of Scheff test showed that the mean of sophomores
(M = 3.18, SD = .44) was significantly greater than that of Masters students (M =
3.01, SD = .484) in physical component. The same was also true in organizational
measure (M = 3.42, SD = .460 compared to M = 3.28, SD = .507). The mean of
juniors (M = 3.45, SD = .430) was significantly greater than that of seniors (M =
3.32, SD = .471) and Masters students (M = 3.32, SD = .456) in social climate.
Finally, the mean of sophomores (M = 3.45, SD = .439) was significantly greater
than those of seniorsand Masters students in social climate as well. In the second
phase, Scheff post hoc comparison test showed significant differences between
the means of juniors and those of seniors and Masters students in both social
climate and human aggregate. In the third phase, the results showed significant
differences between the mean of sophomoresand that of seniors in social climate
(see Table 3).
Furthermore, the results of the Scheff post hoc test indicated that means of both
phase 1 (M = 3.112, SD = .460) and phase 2 (M = 3.108, SD = .498) were greater
than that of phase 3 (M = 3.051, SD = .497) in physical component. In organizational
measure, means of both phase 1 (M = 3.357, SD = .477) and phase 2 (M = 3.331,
SD = .490) were also significantly greater than that of phase 3 (M = 3.239, SD =
.527). In addition, the mean of phase 1 (M = 3.396, SD = .451) was significantly
greater than that of phase 2 (M = 3.320, SD = .470), which itself was greater than
the mean of phase 3 (M = 3.254, SD = .479) in social climate. The related results
are reported in Table 4.

129
Table 2: Factor analysis of learning environment in the three design phases

Factor/Item Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Factor 1: Physical component .686 .776 .780
1. Environmental factors such as: materials, colors, furnishings, and other interior .626 .627 .667 .732 .658 .740
design
2. Environmental factors such as: lighting, sound, ventilation, and other .569 .642 .657 .731 .601 .752
infrastructure design
3. Equipment, media, and tools provided by the department .507 .625 .571 .732 .603 .733
4. Public spaces for exhibitions and discussion .465 .643 .526 .745 .557 744
5. Dynamic audiovisual stimuli (such as story, rhythm, sound, and movement of .372 .660 .494 .757 .477 .759
movies)
6. Static visual stimuli (such as content, composition, line, color, and proportion of .318 .673 .486 .756 .494 .753
images)
Factor 2: Organizational measure .780 .806 .734
7. Teachers encouragement and praise for taking risk .702 .727 .706 .757 .779 .655
8. Opportunities provided by teachers for concentration and solitary thinking .639 .720 .653 .755 .659 .666
9. Teachers tolerance for error .639 .746 .622 .770 .599 .681
10. Explanation and guidance offered by teachers during the design process .489 .758 .420 .794 .205 .797
11. A personal space for creation provided by the department .451 .749 .422 .775 .409 .686
12. Rich learning resources provided by the department .306 .778 .254 .799 .289 .702
Factor 3: Social climate .816 .828 .830
13. The willingness to accept challenges in class .705 .784 .657 .801 .640 .801
14. Competitive learning climate .617 .803 .598 .820 .544 .821
15. Teachers attention over the design process .507 .781 .502 .800 .569 .798
16. Climate of respecting diversity and free expression in class .475 .796 .484 .803 .491 .805
17. Mutual support between teachers and classmates .468 .780 .466 .800 .524 .801
18. Communication and discussion with classmates .457 .792 .559 .802 .555 .807
19. Pleasant learning climate .310 .806 .450 .811 .461 .813
Factor 4: Human aggregate .783 .811 .794
20. There is a tradition of encouraging imagination in the department .700 .718 .766 .753 .674 .741
21. There is a culture on campus of putting imagination into practice .665 .741 .599 .783 .619 .765
22. Teachers and classmates are willing to share and provide constructive feedback .511 .750 .559 .769 .549 .751
23. Teachers respect for individual differences .495 .741 .467 .776 .515 .755
24. Teachers demand on students taking initiative .433 .760 .421 .790 .445 .765

130
Table 3:ANOVA and Scheff tests of grade differences (environmental factors)

Factor Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
F Sig. Scheff F Sig. Scheff F Sig. Scheff
Physical component 5.072 .002 2> 5
Organizational measure 3.106 .026 2> 5 .937 .422
Social climate 6.485 .000 2, 3> 4; 2, 3> 5 8.426 .000 3> 4; 3> 5 3.135 .025 2> 4
Human aggregate .530 .662 7.024 .000 3> 4; 3> 5 1.225 .299
*p< .05; 2 = sophomore, 3 = junior, 4 = senior, 5 = master.
Table 4:Scheff tests of phase differences in the three design phases

Factor/Item Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 F Sig. Scheff
M SD M SD M SD
Physical component 3.112 .460 3.108 .498 3.051 .497 5.079 .006** 1 >3; 2 >3
1. 3.47 .768 3.38 .743 3.28 .736 20.252 .000*** 1 >2; 1 >3; 2 >3
2. 3.37 .748 3.31 .726 3.20 .708 16.022 .000*** 1 >3; 2 >3
3. 3.12 .647 3.18 .647 3.13 .692
4. 3.01 .788 3.01 .775 2.96 .729 1.781 .169
5. 2.95 .648 2.96 .656 2.96 .693 .297 .743
6. 2.77 .808 2.81 .795 2.78 .763 .919 .399
Organizational measure 3.357 .477 3.331 .490 3.239 .527 15.003 .000*** 1 >3; 2 >3
7. 3.51 .704 3.43 .717 3.33 .713
8. 3.45 .665 3.42 .638 3.32 1.173 12.048 .000*** 1 >3; 2 >3
9. 3.39 .623 3.34 .662 3.27 .693 6.775 .001** 1 > 3
10. 3.37 .772 3.36 .741 3.20 .735 8.710 .000*** 1 >3; 2 >3
11. 3.29 .626 3.30 .651 3.22 .673 2.468 .085
12. 3.14 .717 3.13 .714 3.10 .712 .049 .952
Social climate 3.396 .451 3.320 .470 3.254 .479 22.385 .000*** 1 >3; 1 >2; 2 > 3
13. 3.54 .655 3.44 .681 3.39 .688 9.731 .000*** 1 >2; 1 >3
14. 3.52 .719 3.45 714 3.36 .708 12.492 .000*** 1 >3; 2 > 3
15. 3.52 .581 3.43 .621 3.32 .647 22.201 .000*** 1 >2; 1 >3; 2 >3
16. 3.41 .658 3.32 .660 3.26 .696 12.344 .000*** 1 >2; 1 > 3
17. 3.38 .595 3.34 .617 3.26 .638 8.578 .000*** 1 >3; 2 >3
18. 3.20 .622 3.14 .657 3.10 .671 1.276 .279
19. 3.20 .733 3.10 .729 3.08 .716 3.176 .042
Human agregate 3.251 .520 3.221 .536 3.150 .520 9.358 .000*** 1 >3; 2 >3
20. 3.45 .694 3.36 .701 3.26 .685 21.300 .000*** 1 >2; 1 >3; 2 >3
21. 3.38 .662 3.34 .667 3.26 .691 8.195 .000*** 1 >3; 2 >3
22. 3.24 .640 3.21 .663 3.13 .669 5.546 .004** 1 >3
23. 3.12 .709 3.13 .705 3.08 .716 1.198 .302
24. 3.07 .831 3.06 .809 3.03 756
*p< .05. **p< .01. ***p< .001; 1 = phase one, 2 = phase two, 3 = phase three
Discussion
Environmental factors of stimulating imagination
Overall, social climate was claimed to have the greatest effect on student
imagination, followed by organizational measure, and human aggregate. Although
physical component had the least effect, its mean (3.112) was high enough to be
considered influential. This result suggested that a soft mechanism like a
welcoming climate is the most powerful stimulus to facilitate imagination.
Harder factors like institutional measures, intangible factors such as tradition or
culture, and physical factors like space and its facilities, are also proved
themselves to be effective facilitators.
In the first phase of design process, our data showed that the top eight
influential items on student imagination are discussion with classmates,
pleasant learning climate, climate of free expression, encouragement for
taking risk, dynamic audiovisual stimuli, opportunities for solitary
thinking, sharing constructive feedback, and mutual support. This result is

131
consistent with both environment-related (e.g. encouraging climate, audiovisual

stimuli) and imagination-related literatures (e.g. solitary vs. reciprocal collective,
correspondence and contributory) reviewed earlier.
In the second phase, the most influential items include pleasant learning
climate, discussion with classmates, climate of free expression,
encouragement for taking risk, opportunities for solitary thinking,
dynamic audiovisual stimuli, rich learning resources, and sharing
constructive feedback. The item mutual support was dropped, partially due
to the emphasis on the personal attribute of an individual imagination during
this phase of design. The newly added item rich learning resources reflected
the need of external stimuli (such as related cases, seniors examples,
competition messages) for the students in the design school.
According to the analysis, the seven most influential items in the third phase are
discussion with classmates, pleasant learning climate, encouragement for
taking risk, climate of free expression, opportunities for solitary thinking,
dynamic audiovisual stimuli, and a personal space for creation. The item
sharing constructive feedback was dropped between phase two and phase
three, possibly because the feedback might not be acknowledged within the
busy schedule during the phase three. The addition of the item a personal
space implied that the third phase is a time for detailed design. These results
confirm the findings of the previous study (Liang, Hsu, & Chang, 2013; Liang,
Hsu, Huang, & Chen, 2012), especially in the aspect of environmental factors.
The results indicated that there was no significant difference on the influence of
environmental factors between male and female participants according to the t-
test. However, environmental factors had greater influence on sophomores than
on seniors and Masters students. This phenomenon was more evident in the
first and third phases. The learning environment, especially social climate and
human aggregate, had significant effects on the juniors in the second phase. Our
results also suggested that special attention should be paid to physical component
for sophomores in the first design phase, and social climate and human aggregate
to juniors in the second phase.
Taken together, these results suggested that environmental factors have

significant effects on imagination stimulation, especially in the first two phases.
The factor of social climateand its items in the phase one is particularly
influential. This implied that a set of unique instructional strategies applied
during the phase one could be particularly beneficial to students. The results
also echoed the study done by Bscher et al. (2004) in which work environment,
tools to be used, and the nature of the task were sought out to form the best
combinations for designers to utilize their imagination.
Imagination stimulation in the three phases

It should be restated that the first phase in the design process is the phase of
problem definition and design analysis, the second phase is the phase of concept
development and prototyping, and the third phase is the phase of detailed

132
design and communication. The results of this study are compatible with the
nature and reality of design education. For example, discussion with classmates
is important for stimulating imagination in the phase one in order to clarify the
design task. Having a pleasant learning climate and rich learning resources are
critical for concept development in the phase two. Opportunities for solitary
thinking and a personal space for creation are crucial for detailed design in the
third phase.
In order to clarify the design problem and assigned task, students in the first
phase usually need to go back and forth between discussing with classmates and
solitary thinking. Diverse audiovisual stimuli serve as vehicle for stimulating
imagination, and a pleasant, encouraging and respecting climate facilitates this
stimulation. Mutual support from both teachers and classmates, in the form of
idea sharing or feedback, is always welcomed. According to our results, the
scenario constructed above is especially crucial forsophomore students. Our
data also showed that the physical environment is not the dominant factor in
stimulating student imagination, but it should not become an excuse not to
improve learning facilities and enhance learning resources.
The nature of the first phase involves both imagery and analysis. Proceeding
from this paradoxical stage to the next one, the phase of concept development
and prototyping, there was a trend of increasing importance on the items
opportunities for solitary thinking, and rich learning resources. At the same
time, the weights of climate of free expression,sharing constructive
feedback, mutual support between teachers and classmates were slightly
diminished. It might imply that students demand more referential material and
time for scanning through ideas during this phase. The results revealed that
constructive feedback along with a climate of respect and support are still
needed to stimulate student imagination.
In the reality, the acts of concept development and prototyping dominate the
second phase of the design process. According to the analysis of this study,
special attention should be paid to junior students in the factors of social climate
and human aggregate in this phase, especially through having a competitive and
challenging climate and opportunities for discussion. The instructors, in this
phase, should keep an open mind and take a more flexible standpoint in order to
stimulate student imagination. In addition, sufficient referential resources and
constructive feedback should be provided under a mutually respectful climate.
In the transition to the phase three, the importance of the items opportunities
for solitary thinking, a personal space for creation, and teachers attention
over the design process was increased. These changes reflect a switch from
prototyping to detailed design in a typical design process. Students may need
more room for themselves during this period. However, it is ironic that student
imagination could be enhanced if their instructors closely observe them through
the process. In addition, the weights of climate of free expression and sharing
constructive feedback were lessened. It implied that free expression and

133
constructive feedback might not be as important as in the previous phases due

to time constraints.
The final phase is the time to examine the execution and completion of the
design task. It is also a time to demonstrate a students marketing ability. In
order to facilitate imagination, our data showed that students in this phase
continually discuss the task with classmates, and demand opportunities for
solitary concentration and contemplation. A variety of audiovisual stimuli and
personal space for creation is expected. A pleasant, encouraging, and respectful
climate is still needed. As students devalued free expression and constructive
feedback, it is interesting to learn that the need for mutual support between
teachers and classmates grew.
Taken together, our results suggest that environmental factors not only have
significant effects on imagination stimulation, but also have varying effects
during the three phases of design process. Particularly, the effect of social climate,
the most influential dimension, in the first phase was significantly greater than
in the other phases. This phenomenon was also observed with the factors of
organizational measure, human aggregate, and physical component. The only
difference was that the effect of human aggregatein the phase two was
significantly greater than in the phase three. This study concluded that
environmental factors have significant effects on imagination stimulation for
students in the design field, especially in the phase of problem definition and
design analysis, and have significantly smaller effects on the phase of detailed
design and communication.
This study also concluded that the student imagination in design field runs
through the three imagination levels as described by Reichling (1990). These
three levels were witnessed in each phase, sometimes intertwining without a
particular sequence. In addition, the research team observed that students in the
design field continually encountered the six situated practices claimed by
Trotman (2006) throughout the design process. The situated practices are
bounded by context and situation rather than design phase. As can be seen in
Figure 1, a design process is composed of three phases. These designer-centered
phases do not have strict boundaries. Each environmental factor has its unique
influence in every design phase. In Figure 1, the size of each factor and its
distance to the designer represent the respective influence that the factor holds.
The designer in each phase travels back and forth on different imagination
levels, and encounters all six situated practices. The imagination of a designer in
the three design phases is continually creating and refining. The inventions and
refinements in each phase in turn shape those in the next phase as presented in
the following conceptual framework.

134
Figure 1: Conceptual framework of imagination stimulation by environments

in the three phases
Notes:
1. Level 1: fantasy/magical; Level 2: reproductive/literal; Level 3:
metaphorical/paradoxical (Reichling, 1990).
2. SP (Situated Practice) 1: solitary, SP 2: contemplative, SP 3: correspondent, SP 4:
contributory, SP 5: dissonant, SP 6: reciprocal collective (as proposed by Trotman).
Closing Remarks
Compared to concepts such as personality traits and individual psychology,
external environments are factors which are easier to grasp and shape. It is also
easier to adjust the learning environment with different instructional strategies
than to change an individuals traits or psychological states.
It should be noted that the research target of this study is students in the design
field. It is expected that the reactions of this target population would differ from
those of professional designers in the real world. This study, however, can serve
as a stepping stone for inquiring into the imagination of professional designers.
The study of the expected gap between naive designers and professional ones
can lend insights for design educators to restructure or reinvent their curriculum
and learning environments.
An excellent designer who is capable of simulating invisible possibilities is only

able to because he or she has an exceptional imagination. How do we help our
students construct imagery through the external learning environment? How do
we help them facilitate the development of these memories? How do we help
them translate their images into professional design capabilities? What
instructional strategies can be adjusted and/or invented from this study? How
can these strategies be implemented? All of these are crucial challenges for us, as
educators in the design fields, to face.

135
Acknowledgments
The current study is part of the research project (NSC98-2511-S-155-005-MY2) supported
by Taiwans National Science Council. The authors would like to extend their gratitude
to the insightful suggestions of anonymous IJLTER reviewers. Correspondence
concerning this article should be addressed to Chaoyun Liang, Department of Bio-
Industry Communication and Development, National Taiwan University, Taiwan.
Electronic mail may be sent tocliang@ntu.edu.tw.
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IJLTER.

Influential Factors and Their Correlation on Student Imagination ................................................................................ 54

Influencing Tax Compliance in SMEs through the Use of ICTs .................................................................................... 80

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The Impact of Culture and Language Sensitive

Marie Paz E. Morales

Abstract. The study was designed to determine gains in student concept

Keywords: Cultural Profiling; Culture Sensitivity; Language Sensitivity;

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The Philippines new basic education curriculum envisions education as going

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

government agency managing science education in the country has started to

Framework and Literature

Cultural Profile of Learners

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The forms of epistemological beliefs in learning and academic development

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

relativist until the individual attains commitment within relativism.

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

influence students thinking which would result to non-critical and non-creative

Instructional Congruence Framework

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The instrument for determination of epistemological beliefs is a thirty-item

In general, I think that

Development of culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Wiggins and McTighes (2005) Understanding by Design framework influenced

Descriptive and quantitative content validation of the culture and language

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

In addition, coding and analysis of verbatim answers of students in the activities

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Table 2: Participants of the Study

Implementing culture and language sensitive curriculum materials in physics

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

To determine how effective the culture and language sensitive curriculum on

Results and Discussion

Cultural Profiling of Learners

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Table 3: Cultural Profile of Learners

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Student Concept Attainment

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Table 4. Paired Sample t-test of Concept Tests for Experimental Group

The implementation of the culture and language sensitive curriculum materials

Table 5. Proficiency Level of the Experimental Group using CS-CMIPs

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Complementary to the results of the pre-test and post-test gain of the

Table 6. Summary of Journal Log Entries

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2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Post implementation interview conducted with several students from the

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Teacher Nato: Say sakey labat ya problema madam ta aramay araralem ya

Table 7. Comparing (t-test) Post-Test of Units 1 and 2 (CS-CMIP)

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Table 8. Comparing (t-test) the Departmental Test

Table 9. Comparing the Percentage of Students with Correct Responses

CS- Mean S.D.

Control (89) 37.60 42.92 28.16 32.31 0.052

2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Percentage vs Pre-Test Items