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Vol.16 No.2
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VOLUME 16 NUMBER 2 February 2017
Table of Contents
Bug-In-Ear Technology to Enhance Preservice Teacher Training: Peer Versus Instructor Feedback .......................... 1
Nikki L. Hollett, Sheri J. Brock and Vanessa Hinton
The Necessity for Assessment and Management of Speech, Language and Communication Needs to Take
Account of Cultural and Multilingual Diversity .............................................................................................................. 11
Jonathan Glazzard
A Simulation-Based Model for Teaching Business Writing: Exploration and Applications ...................................... 35
Dr. Andrew Szanajda and Dr. Fang-Chun Ou
An Exploration of Culturally Grounded Youth Suicide Prevention Programs for Native American and African
American Youth .................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Rhonda G. Bluehen-Unger, Deborah A. Stiles, Jameca Falconer, Tammy R. Grant, Ericka J. Boney and Kelly K. Brunner
SThe Feature of ATR and ATR Harmony in NiloSaharan Languages of Ethiopia ...................................................... 62
Wakweya Olani Gobena
1
Introduction
Earbud technology has been used to help individuals gain the applied skills
needed to be successful in the workforce for over 60 years (Ottley & Hanline,
2014). This kind of technology is referred to as a Bug-In-Ear (BIE) device or a
Whisper-In-My-Ear (WIME) device (Farrell & Chandler, 2008), in which trainees
insert the device into their ear, and the trainer or observer can speak to the
trainee through the microphone on the transmitter. With BIE the trainee is not
able to speak back to the trainer at the transmitter and the trainer does not have
Combining BIE with a virtual network can enable immediate feedback from
remote locations (Gibson & Musti-Rao, 2016). Webcam and Skype are examples
of technological advancements that make supervision of PST more convenient
and realistic. Individuals can set up a webcam to face the classroom or gym,
while the teachers or professors supervising can be in another classroom or
school. Videoconferencing has been used in rural and international locations
providing accessibility to those who are limited with resources and are isolated
(Alger & Kopcha, 2009; Bullock, Gable, & Mohr, 2008; Scheeler, McKinnon, &
Stout, 2012). More recently eCoaching or electronic coaching has been used for
simultaneous supervision through the internet to the PST to provide immediate
feedback during teaching (Coogle, Rahn, & Ottley, 2015; Regan, Weiss, &
Evmenova, 2017; Rock et al., 2014; Scheeler et al., 2010).
Background
In this section, we aim to review the literature in classroom and physical
education settings that have incorporated BIE technology into research designs.
Justifications for the use of performance feedback and sector changes as the
outcomes measured will conclude this part of the article.
initiated communication was lower than the CT. The PST developed her skills as
a teacher through the initiation of communication.
Over time, the student teachers teaching behaviors indicated that she
had assumed ownership of the class in every facet and had adopted the
cooperating teachers ideas such as beginning-of-lesson fitness games, time
saving equipment-distribution routines, and organization of students for
class that prevented or reduced off-task behavior and increased activity
time (Kahan, 2002, p.95).
Kahan (2002) found the PST showed higher satisfaction when receiving instant
feedback during the lesson. It was also stated the PST took ownership of the
classes and was more comfortable after receiving peer coaching via wireless ear-
buds. PST reported that the discretion, immediacy, and feedback were
cooperative, supportive, and offered great value to her teaching (Kahan, 2002).
Furthermore, Fry and Hin (2006) used interactive wireless technology to allow
PST (n= 21) to communicate with each other throughout their lessons, while
measuring satisfaction in the role of a teacher and coach. The PST were enrolled
in a Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) program and were required
to teach daily lessons over a four-week period. Data from a questionnaire
reported PST had higher levels of satisfaction at the end of the four-week
teaching block in the amount of communication (3.25 to 3.76), the content of
communication (3.85 to 4.00), and satisfaction with the role as a student teacher
(3.70 to 4.00). Results support PST being generally satisfied using the technology
during their teaching experiences.
performance and to basic class conduct (van der Mars et al., 1995). van der Mars
and his colleagues (1995) also measured the amount of sector changes by student
teachers through the use of video recording and found that on average, the
teachers changed sectors 6.05 times per minute.
Methodology
Sample
Participants included 16 PST (Mage=21, M=9, F=7) enrolled in an introductory
physical education methods course at a university in the southeastern United
States. PST had no teaching experience prior to enrolling in this course. As part
of the course, PST were required to teach 12 lessons consisting of fundamental
motor skill instruction to children in K-2nd grade, each lesson with a duration of
15 minutes. PST videotaped all lessons and submitted them to the instructor at
the end of the semester. Approval was granted by the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) to conduct the research study.
Design
Using a quasi-experimental design, PST were systematically assigned to one of
three conditions: (1) instructor verbal cueing prompts from the instructor; (2)
peer verbal cueing prompts from a peer; or (3) control no prompts. PST wore
a BIE and wireless receiver clipped to their belt, while the instructor/peer
provided verbal prompts by speaking into a wireless microphone transmitter.
The BIE allowed the PST to hear feedback from the instructor/peer in response
to their teaching performance. PST were provided with two brief statements
concerning movement and feedback at the end of each minute which included
one of the following dichotomous statements: Good movement or move
around and good performance feedback or give performance feedback. The
intervention required feedback to be delivered immediately to the PST by the
instructor or a peer. Additionally, individual interviews were conducted with
each PST.
Data analysis
A research assistant without association with the methods course was
responsible for coding all lessons for movement/sector changes (SC) and
performance feedback (PFB). Sector changes were measured by the amount of
movement throughout the lesson by the PST. All of the teaching areas were
divided into four sectors by paint, tape, etc. PST were not informed of why the
teaching area was divided into sections. Performance feedback was recorded
when PST gave feedback relating to the students performance. For example,
Nice job keeping your elbow up. Performance feedback was coded when the
PST gave feedback to a group or individual regarding the performance of the
activity or game. Performance feedback was not recorded when the PST was
explaining instructions. Inter-rater reliability was established by the primary
researcher and research assistant on four occasions: SC (97.8%); and PFB
(95.4%). Data were converted to rate per minute to normalize lesson lengths. A
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted using SPSS
version 22. Interview data were transcribed and subject to standard qualitative
methods in order to generate themes (Patton, 1990).
Results
Overall, PST receiving verbal prompts performed more sector changes (peer 3.55;
instructor 3.8) and gave more performance feedback statements per minute (peer
.85; instructor 1.14) than PST who received no verbal prompts (control = 2.31; .55)
(see Figure 1).
Results indicated significant differences for the instructor condition only, Wilks
= 0.656, F6, 62= 2.4, p < .05. Specifically, univariate analysis signified PST gave
more performance feedback when the instructor provided cues (F 2, 33 = 8.5,
p=0.001). Post Hoc comparisons using Bonferroni indicated the mean score of
performance based feedback for the instructor condition (M = 1.14, SD = .33) was
significantly higher than the peer condition (M = .81, SD = .30) and the control
condition (M = .61, SD = .31). It is important to note the mean score was higher
for the peer condition compared to the control condition, even though there was
not statistical significance.
Interview data revealed the following dominant themes: (1) PST focused
more on teaching when using BIE technology; (2) using BIE was sometimes
distracting; (3) suggestions for improved implementation; and (4) differences in
peer and instructor verbal cueing. Pseudonyms were used to maintain
anonymity.
Theme 1: All 16 PST said they were more focused on teaching when
receiving verbal prompts. One PST stated, When I went back and watched the
videos, I could tell after directions [prompts] were given I would give more
feedback and move around more. Another PST explained, My best lesson was
with the earbud in. Its good to have someone keep you on track. Other
Theme 2: 50% of the PST stated using the BIE device was sometimes
distracting. In an interview one PST explained how the verbal prompts
interrupted their teaching:
Another PST added, When someone was talking in my ear when I was talking
it threw me off. Other comments addressed distractions related to the actual
BIE device. A PST stated, The cords to the earpiece always seemed to get in my
way. Similarly, a PST noted, The ear piece would fall out sometimes and I
thought that took away from the kids time, and The ear bud was annoying
when constant static was coming through your ear. Other PST seemed to be
less distracted and made alternative comments such as, It was a little difficult at
first to adjust to the ear piece being in your ear as you are teaching but
eventually you get used to it and almost do not notice it.
The "Ear-Bud" device was interesting. I liked it the best when I did it
with Dr. Anderson. It helped me keep on my toes about keep moving
around and not just standing in one spot of the room. It also helped with
giving the kids feedback. When I did it with my partner it wasn't as
efficient as doing it with Dr. Anderson.
Another PST concurred by stating, I liked it the best when I did it with Dr.
Anderson. A PST added, It did make me a little more nervous when the
instructor would talk to me but it really made me focus on what I was doing.
One PST mentioned receiving verbal prompts but was less partial by noting,
The ear bud was great with either my partner or Dr. Anderson. I have to
admit that I was pretty nervous when I did it with Dr. Anderson, but that was
expected.
Discussion
(3.55; 3.8) and performance feedback (.85; 1.14) respectively. This finding raises
an important implication for using BIE technology in teacher training,
particularly in teaching methods courses. Typically, the ability of the instructor
to give immediate verbal prompts using BIE technology during a teaching
episode is limited due to the pupil/teacher ratio in the course. Determining that
peers can give comparable verbal prompts to the instructor on specified teaching
criteria is relevant and essential in maximizing effective teacher development.
One caveat to note, is three PST in this study did prefer instructor prompts to
peer prompts, though this preference did not appear to influence performance.
Conclusion
The results of this study show selected teaching behaviors can be increased
when PST receive verbal cues using ear bud devices. However, effectiveness can
vary slightly based on whether cues are given by a peer or instructor. An
increase in targeted teaching behaviors were evident in all three conditions, but
most prevalent with instructor verbal cues. Peer cues also noted an increase in
use of targeted teaching behaviors, but not significantly like the instructor
prompted cues. Overall, interviews showed PST felt positively about their
experience using BIE, but also pointed out how future use could be improved to
provide fewer distractions. Looking forward, even with past research utilizing
wireless devices and video recording to observe teachers effectiveness, it is still
unsafe to say if teachers are maintaining the effective behaviors they have
learned. Future research should explore whether pre-service physical education
teachers are retaining and continuing to implement effective teaching behaviors
after intervention has occurred. Lengthening the time of intervention, and re-
evaluating months after intervention may allow PST to show their true
effectiveness in teaching. BIE technology serves as an appropriate
communication device for advancing effective teaching methods in teacher
preparation programs.
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Jonathan Glazzard
Leeds Trinity University
Leeds, England
Abstract. This paper argues for the need for a culturally responsive
approach to the identification, assessment and intervention processes for
multilingual children with speech, language and communication
impairment. It highlights the potential for misdiagnosis and identifies
the specific difficulties which may be evident and thus, potential
indicators of language impairment as opposed to language difference.
The paper critiques the standardised tests which are often used by
therapists in the formal diagnosis process and argues that dynamic
assessment offers the best potential for an accurate diagnosis.
Introduction
This paper argues for the need for a culturally responsive approach to the
identification, assessment and intervention processes for multilingual children
with speech, language and communication impairment. It highlights the
potential for misdiagnosis and identifies the specific difficulties which may be
evident and thus, potential indicators of language impairment as opposed to
language difference. The paper critiques the standardised tests which are often
used by therapists in the formal diagnosis process and argues that dynamic
assessment offers the best potential for an accurate diagnosis.
Studies have found evidence of cultural bias in tests (Sattler, 2001). Thus,
cultural content and culturally specific knowledge is often embedded into test
items (Warren, 2006) and this can detrimentally impact on the performance of
children from multilingual backgrounds (Schon et al, 2008). This can result in
the disproportionate representation of students from minority ethnic
backgrounds in special education which has been a concern for over 30 years
(Strand and Lindsay, 2009).
Many standardised tests available for speech and language therapists are
monolingual (Goral and Conner, 2013). The standardised norms are based on
monolingual native speakers of English, whilst some tests are normed with
monolingual speakers of another language (Goral and Conner, 2013). According
to Bedore and Pena (2008) the result is that bilingual children are often
inappropriately compared to a monolingual norm (p.19). There are relatively
few standardised tests which provide normative data from multilingual
individuals (Goral and Conner, 2013) and given the heterogeneous nature of the
multilingual population it would be extremely challenging to be able to find a
test which is based on normative data which matches the multilingual
individual being tested. Most tests are normed on monolingual individuals
(McLeod and Verdon, 2014), which calls into question the validity of the results
when the test is used on someone who is multilingual. There are also specific
debates about the language proficiency of those administering the tests and the
acceptability of code-switching during the assessment (Goral and Conner, 2013).
There are few bilingual clinicians (Pena et al, 2014) which automatically places
this group at a disadvantage.
To address some of these issues the use of translation in test adaption and the
development of local norms are common solutions (Bedore and Pena, 2008; Stow
and Dodd, 2003; Taylor and Payne, 1983). However, these solutions are not
unproblematic. Direct translation of tests into other languages assumes that
language development is consistent across languages, which cannot be assumed
(Bedore and Pena, 2008). Although there are similarities in language acquisition
across languages there are differences which can affect test performance (Bedore
and Pena, 2008). For example, research has found that prepositions are more
difficult in Spanish than in English (Zimmerman et al, 2002).
Most tests of language ability in English fail to meet the criteria for accurate
diagnosis of language impairment (Spaulding et al, 2006). Tests which do
accurately meet the criteria for accurate diagnosis select the items that children
with language impairment find the most difficult (Perona et al, 2005). Most
vocabulary tasks are not sufficiently challenging (Bedore and Pena, 2008
Dynamic Assessment
Dynamic Assessment (DA) has been recommended as a strategy for assessing
speech, language and communication needs in children from linguistically and
culturally diverse populations (Hasson and Joffe, 2007). This approach is
considered to minimise assessment bias due to lack of exposure to language
(Laing and Kamhi, 2003) because the approach does not measure static
knowledge which is subject to linguistic and cultural bias (Pena et al, 2014).
Instead, DA focuses on the learning process rather than norm comparisons (Pena
et al, 2014). It is the most commonly applied assessment approach for assessing
children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Laing and
Kamhi, 2003) and research has suggested the value of this approach in assessing
word learning (Pena et al, 2001), narrative production (Kramar et al, 2009) and
categorisation (Ukrainetz et al, 2000).
It is critical that speech and language therapists are able to demonstrate cultural
understanding to enable them to work effectively with different cultural groups
(Bellon-Harn and Garrett, 2008). The starting point for this is for therapists to
develop an awareness of their own cultural assumptions and to increase their
knowledge of the values held by different cultural groups (Garrett & Pichette,
2000). This will enable therapists to understand more accurately the specific
The professional values of a therapist may not align with traditional family
values. Whilst the therapist may view speech, language and communication
difficulties as requiring specific intervention, family members may view these
needs as an essential part of the childs identity (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Some cultural groups do not believe that they have a right to interfere with the
childs biological characteristics and may seek spiritual intervention rather than
clinical intervention (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008) to help the child. Other
cultures may believe that clinical intervention may be counter-productive to the
development of a positive and productive life (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Clearly, where cultural and professional values clash, the speech and language
therapist plays a critical mediating role to help family members understand the
necessity for clinical intervention. Some cultural groups may be reluctant for
therapists to refer to child onto additional services due to fears that this might
make the problem worse and they may believe that the problem will resolve
itself (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008). In cases like this it is critical that the
therapist establishes positive relationships with families in order to gain their
permission for referral (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
advocates for their child and play a full role in any decision-making processes
(Parette, Chuang & Huer, 2004).
Essentially, families need to trust the therapist. They need to be able to trust that
the therapist is working in their childs best interests (Bellon-Harn & Garrett,
2008). Therapists can establish this trust by explaining to families why specific
interventions are needed. In the absence of this understanding, cultural mistrust
can develop (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008) and families may choose not to
participate in interventions which should be carried out in the home (Kaylanpur
et al, 2000). Although families may not openly challenge the therapist for fear of
being viewed as disrespectful (Hwa-Froelich & Wesby, 2003), cultural mistrust
can manifests itself in families not complying with the recommendations made
by the therapist. There is also potential for families to misinterpret the
recommendations, resulting in families implementing interventions in the home
in ways which do not address the identified need.
Families from some cultural groups are likely to find the experience of working
with a speech and language therapist stressful (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Some of this stress may be caused by families not understanding what the
therapist is attempting to achieve. Additionally, families may not understand
how the clinical intervention will support the child in achieving long-term
aspirations which families have for their child. The therapist therefore has a
critical role to play in establishing positive relationships based on trust,
sensitivity and empathy. The therapist should always seek to minimise stress for
families by explaining clearly how the intervention will benefit the child. The
importance of therapists listening actively and attentively to multilingual
parents has been emphasised in the literature (Verdon et al, 2015), including the
need for the therapist to gain specific knowledge of dialectal variations (Verdon
et al, 2015). Ultimately, the family, their culture and associated values, will
determine what they want for their child (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Involving families in open discussions which provide them with opportunities
to share their own views and experiences of their child is one way of ensuring
that therapists deliver a culturally responsive service (Sue & Sue, 2003).
Intervention
Conclusion
This paper has argued that difficulties in relation to speech, language and
communication impairment are evident in both the home language (L1) and the
target language (L2) and therefore assessments of childrens performance in both
languages is necessary for an accurate assessment. The paper has also argued
that proficiency in L2 is affected by variables such as type and length of
exposure to the second language as well as the age of the child and dynamic
rather than static assessment enables therapists to ascertain the rate of progress
over time as well as making it possible to assess language use within social and
cultural contexts. This paper argues that therapists need to develop cultural
knowledge, sensitivity and empathy when working with clients from
multilingual populations. Values in relation to intervention may not be shared
across cultures and the therapist will need to convince the family that
intervention is necessary to support the child. This process is not unproblematic,
given that families may be suspicious about the therapists motivations.
However, a complete assessment cannot take place without including the
perspectives of the parents. This paper has argued that therapists may wish to
consider adopting a community approach to assessment and identification in
order to support parents through the graduated response.
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Li Ju Chen
Chang Gung University
Taoyuan, Taiwan
Introduction
Low employment of IWDs (Individuals with disabilities) is a problem prevalent
in many countries all over the world. In the United States, 81 per cent of the
overall population were employed, compared to only 32 per cent of IWDs
(Carter et al., 2010). A survey of the Association of Graduate Careers Advisory
Services in England noted that most IWD graduates were less able to enter into
professional and full time employment than the general working-age population
(Piggott & Houghton, 2007). In Taiwan, 22.5 per cent of IWDs over 15 years of
age were employed while the unemployment rate was 4.14 per cent for all adults
(Yang, 2009). Compared with the general working-age population, the poor
employment achievement of IWDs is a concern in many countries (Carter et al.,
2010; Ju et al., 2012; Piggott & Houghton, 2007). Is lower employment rate the
fate of IWDs?
There are two dimensions that are commonly mentioned about the factors
underlying IWDs poor employment performance. The first dimension is the
barriers caused by personal physiological conditions, including the level and
category of the disability. If the disability status is the only critical factor in poor
rates of gaining employment, there appears to be a direct explanation: the IWDs
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
In 1928, W. I. Thomas proposed a sociological perspective idea that was later
conceptualised as a self-fulfilling prophecy: the situation finally realised into
the true when a person defined an affair is that meaning. What a person expects
in advance is what he or she subsequently realises. Outcomes are associated
with ones expectations. This argument was much questioned initially: could an
incorrect belief identified at the beginning actually become true in the
consequence just because many people believed it, or because the incorrect belief
was very strong (Wineburg, 1987)? It was with none scientific justification. In
1948, when Robert K. Merton first proposed the term self-fulfilling prophecy, the
theoretical concept was systematically developed. Since the 1980s, many
scholars and practitioners have believed that the self-fulfilling prophecy is a
considerable force and a widespread phenomenon in society (Madon et al., 1997).
Since then, this magical viewpoint has been widely discussed in the stock
market, the state of war, crime, etc., and has branched out into the fields of
economics, psychology, politics, education and elsewhere.
Thomas (1928) and Merton (1948) explained how the self-fulfilling prophecy
works from a psychological viewpoint. According to Merton:
Men respond not only to the objective features of a situation, but also,
and at times primarily, to the meaning this situation has for them. And
once they have assigned some meaning to the situation, their
consequent behaviour and some of the consequences of that behaviour
are determined by the ascribed meaning. (p. 194)
Thomas (1928) and Merton (1948) stated that once a meaning was attached to a
situation, ones subsequent behavior and its consequences were affected by the
meaning attributed. Merton pointed out that when a mistaken belief is held by a
person or a group of people, the mistaken belief becomes true in the end. This
rule can explain social issues, including the financial meltdown, medical effects
and racial discrimination problems.
A self-fulfilling prophecy has two dimensions: one is that social beliefs, whether
true or false, lead to the masses following blindly; an incorrect evaluation
towards an event or person by the group encourages people to think in a
particular way. The common expectations allow for potential social mobility and
then affects individuals actions. Social beliefs ultimately create the results
expected by the majority. Another dimension of self-fulfilling prophecy is
personal inner conviction; this inherent belief is moulded by prevailing social
beliefs or by self-criticism. In either case, it will affect the individuals intrinsic
motivation to act, deprive of his or her activities and eventually affect the
performance outcome. Although ones individual actions is impacted by his or
her belief directly in this process, actions are still profoundly impacted by the
belief in the society. As shown in Figure 1, A impacts B, and B impacts C; this
appears as a series of impacts. Here is thinking about whether it is possible to
skip A and examine the impact of B on C directly. The self-fulfilling prophecy
effect on the outcome of an event will have a different meaning.
performance
outcome
Mass mobility Individual action
A B C
Physiological Conditions
Personal physiological conditions such as disability type and level are thought of
as obstacles to ones employment. Individuals with mild or physical disabilities
have better development while individuals with severe disabilities, emotional
disabilities, mental disabilities or multiple disabilities have poorer performance
(Carter et al., 2010; Winn & Hay, 2009). If the physiological obstacle is the cause
of poor development, IWDs will attain limited progress in employment as the
disability condition is hard to change and it is meaningless to work hard.
However, some studies have suggested that no relationship exists between
employment status and physiological conditions for IWDs (Chen 2013; Bishop,
2005).
Social Conditions
Much of the discussion on social conditions is about discrimination (Ju et al.,
2012; Piggott & Houghton, 2007; Roessler et al., 2007). These studies have
repeatedly pointed out that discrimination and prejudiced attitudes towards
IWDs result in severely impaired social participation, which is the critical reason
for IWDs poor gaining employment. To protect IWDs employment rights, many
countries have set up social welfare policies, or job rights protection regulations
to promote IWDs employment opportunities. At present, welfare and rights
policies for the promotion of IWDs employment, such as the 1963 Vocational
Education Act, and the 1984 Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of
Rights Act in the United States, and the Disability Welfare Act in 1980 in Taiwan,
have been in place for decades. However, these policies still cannot completely
resolve the obstacles to IWDs gaining employment (Chen, 2015; Winn & Hay,
2009). So far the employment rate of IWDs is much lower than that of the
average person. Clearly, social welfare policy alone is still not the only solution
to IWDs employment issues.
State of Mind
Scholars believe that the social support system and ASE are important factors for
developing IWDs employment potential (Roessler et al., 2007; Winn & Hay,
2009). IWDs may believe that society has not accepted them and shape negative
self-expectations during the seeking employment process (Hopkins, 2011).
Hopkins pointed out that an IWDs expectation is affected by the experiences of
disability sake. In addition, IWDs may believe that the IWD welfare and rights
protection policies mean that they are a social burden and make less
contribution to society. Holding this belief strengthens their convictions about
community charity and leads to a negative mental state.
Actions of IWDs
The actions of IWDs are affected by their disabilities, which thereby affects their
progress in employment (Chen, 2013; Babbitt & White, 2002).
1. Disability itself: Strauser et al. (2006) found that IWDs believed
disabilities had a great impact on their career orientation. Hitchings et al.
(2001) indicated that the disability type and its severity affected one's
performance. Impairments such as physical disabilities, hearing
impairments and severe learning disabilities often placed restrictions on
movement and reduced exploratory behaviour in career development.
2. Academic performance: Some IWDs do not perform well in academic
settings. They may have a comprehensive cognitive disability or have
restrictions in learning inputs such as auditory stimuli, visual cues or
operating performance. These often result in IWDs having poor academic
or professional achievement that affects their career development.
3. Career activities: As with most people, IWDs who had a clear goal or took
aggressive action towards their potential career had clearer career
orientations and better achievement (Hitchings et al., 2001). These actions
were encouraged in a career exploration process that included career
scaling, workplace visits or gaining work experiences (Alverson et al.,
2010). Employers often worry about IWDs work ability and this reduces
their willingness to hire. Without work experience to prove work ability,
IWDs will limit their employment opportunities (Kang et al., 2010; Piggott
& Houghton, 2007; Winn & Hay, 2009). IWDs often take time for medical
treatment or resist taking action because of psychological problems. These
factors reduce positive actions in IWDs professional life (Chen, 2015;
Piggott & Houghton, 2007).
From one point of view, IWDs employment status is impacted by their
disabilities: disabilities impact on social opportunities, personal psychological
states and the actions that determine individual employability and subsequent
employment achievements. However, from another angle, one should not look
at how the disability is an obstacle to social survival opportunities or its effects
on employment, but instead look at how employment achievement is impacted
by personal mental states and their related actions. Figure 2 shows a similar, but
more nuanced perspective than Figure 1, where A has an impact on B, and B has
an impact on C. It is feasible to see the impact of B on C directly. If the social
conditions are set aside, it is possible to review how an IWDs action directly
impacts on his or her employment activities. A surprising argument can be
made concerning the self-fulfilling prophecy, which offers an analysis that goes
beyond the traditional view of employment development.
type Psychology
Disability Employment
level
Employability
outcome
Action
C
Social conditions
B
A
Figure 2: How disability impacts IWDs employment development
prophecy effect occurs more severely in IWDs because they have greater
sensitivity about feeling accepted.
general college graduates employment rate of 83.5 per cent in Taiwan (Chen,
2015; Ministry of Education, 2006). If IWDs considered themselves unaccepted
by society and the workplace, they reduced their efforts and were less
employable, which resulted in difficulties in acquiring a job. Given the
self-fulfilling prophecy effect, ASE was not a direct cause in gaining a job or not;
rather it was the action formed by the beliefs that affected an IWDs
employability, and thereby affected their employment outcomes.
Employment outcome
Expectations
expectancy
information
Society
Outside
Employability
Self concept
cognition
Inside
Attitudes
Strategies
Plans
Societys
expectations
Self concept
Actions
Personal
experience
Conclusion
IWDs employment issues were much discussed according to the social model
that has prevailed in past decades. It is thought that others prejudices against
IWDs have created barriers and discrimination, resulting in difficulties for IWDs
to participate fully in society. Unwelcoming and inadequately accessible
facilities among employers have led IWDs to have much lower employment
rates than the others. This article does not deny that these social factors have an
impact on IWDs employment. However, the history of the social factors
involved is a long one, and difficult for individuals to confront. For social
changes to give IWDs fair employment conditions, IWDs should patiently look
forward to the government establishing employment policies that initiates
public acceptance, at least, with apparent acceptance. On the other hand, a factor
which an individual can control is keeping any negative attitudes to himself or
herself away. According to research and the self-fulfilling prophecy, it seems
that IWDs negative self-perceptions and projections lead to their employment
prospects being difficult to develop. Therefore, changing the individuals
attitude is the most direct and promising strategy for promoting IWD progress
in employment.
A statistic shows that from 1985, when the self-fulfilling prophecy was first
analysed and discussed, nearly 400 related articles explored the effects of
self-fulfilling prophecy in educational environments (Wineburg, 1987). Now, 30
years later, this topic is discussed in depth in other disciplines. However, the
self-fulfilling prophecy was never applied to IWDs poor employment
performance issues. The employment research pointed out that there is a
significant relationship between IWDs successful employment after graduation
and their convictions about ASE of IWDs before graduating. Of course, this
conviction is not a direct factor concerning whether a person is successfully
employed, but it is the driving force behind working hard or giving up. Thus
shaping ones employability differently and shape a different performance
outcome in the workplace. In an employment transition service, IWDs should
actively establish themselves as moving forward. To motivate IWDs to actively
cultivate employability, namely, to strengthen the link between B and C in
Figures 1 and 2, IWDs need to expect promising employment development.
As an advocate in Readers Digest once said: Self-fulfilling prophecy the key
to success. It was proved this magical power can greatly enhance one to have the
intelligence, willpower and competitiveness to the success. The secret is: to
expect (P34, Good & Brophy, 1977, cited in Wineburg, 1987). An individuals
behaviour tends to be influenced by his or her personal conviction: If a person
thinks of oneself as others think of him (or her), that is what he (or she) becomes.
References
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disability: Preliminary analysis of a conceptual and theoretical synthesis.
Introduction
Writing skills when engaging in doing business is an increasingly
important skill owing to the volume of communications. Content knowledge of
the field in which the business is making its mark is certainly important for any
successful businessperson, but it is certain that communication is even more
crucial for business success. Business today is more visible than ever before.
Companies and corporate entities are accessible to their customers, for better or
worse, and this has led to an increase in the amount of communication necessary
by what were previously often faceless corporations in the eyes of the consumer.
Brand presence will likely likewise demonstrate social media presence in
multiple forms, complete with customer interaction on a day by day and
Literature Review
The intersection of business writing and authentic assessment has not
been explored extensively in the scholarly literature on either topic, while both
of these topics have been individually studied at in detail. However, these areas
discipline in itself has much to do with successful business writing, and the
teaching of good writing begins with the teaching of writing mechanics.
The importance of English mechanics instruction as part of the business
writing learning process cannot be overstated. Weldy, Maes, & Harris (2014)
noted that first year university students recognise the importance of business
writing, but they also tend to undervalue it, as well as consider that their skills
are sufficiently suitable without there being a need for a great deal of further
instruction. Their research presented a two-semester focused writing program
that focused on a five-step writing process, in which students completed ten
assignments. Students' understanding of the academic importance of business
writing, as well as their grammar and the organisation of their writing,
improved significantly at the end of this program, thus demonstrating the idea
that teaching business writing along with teaching how important it is has a
very significant component of conventional English teaching. When students are
taught business writing with a process that necessitates careful use of language,
much as they might be in a basic English class, they not only become better
writers who are skilled at one way communication, but also with a greater
understanding of the importance of business writing. Clear, prescriptive
techniques for improving their writing, such as the 3D Writing Heuristic put
forward by Hershey (2007) help students write more clearly and can provide
students with specific directions to follow in order to become better writers.
Washington (2014) makes an explicit connection between the
globalisation of business and effective written communication, demonstrating
the importance of written work for businesspeople in the twenty-first century.
Effective writing skills are becoming more of a focus in business education
programs throughout the United States, with three essential factors being
identified: teaching writing to international students, faculty attitudes toward
the teaching of writing, and workplace writing experience. Collaboration
between business and English faculty and departments addresses all of these
matters. International students can receive the explicit instruction in grammar
and mechanics that they often need, faculty attitudes toward writing are
improved with greater transparency and collaboration among faculty members,
and workplace-type writing can be undertaken as part of class work
assignments within this new model. English writing instruction in the
traditional sense thus has an important role to play in terms of teaching students
to write specifically in business contexts.
According to Reardon (2015), 84% of students believe that their writing is
adequate for the workplace without explicit instruction in either writing or
business writing in particular, but it is clear that interventions such as those
created by Weldy, Maes, & Harris can greatly improve students' skills. Stowers
& Barker (2003) noted the same situation as Reardon - students believe that their
writing skills are sufficiently useful for the workplace, although neither
professors nor, more significantly, business owners who might hire them agree
with this assessment. Stowers and Barker posit that motivation is a crucial part
of having business students write better, and their work indicates that one way
to motivate students is through the use of technology in the classroom.
on each other's writing. The resulting product can be used by future classes and
students. This kind of writing, with its peer-editing component, is especially
helpful for L2 learners, and wiki-based collaboration, along with cloud-based
collaboration, is supported among practitioners as the best practices for business
writing. Computers and technology clearly have a role to play in terms of
learning to write in the business context, and this is further amplified by the
work of Chang (2016), who examined e-learning as a teaching modality for
aspiring entrepreneurs in Taiwan. His study found that students who went
through an e-learning based training created better business plans, and noted
that team-based learning, when led effectively, can lead to the achievement of
learning goals. The burgeoning utility of the internet in teaching business
writing is clearly evident, which is advisable, especially given how much
business students will use online tools in their future careers. The real-world
applications are evident.
assessment as students are tasked to create and complete the same items and
tasks they would in a real world career context.
One way to increase the authenticity of both formative and summative
assessment for twenty-first century learners in particular is by using technology
as part of the assessment process, and not just of the learning process, as is
discussed above. Spector et al (2016) discuss how technology can make
assessment more engaging for today's students in large part because it resembles
what they will do in a real world workplace. Problem-based and inquiry-based
learning, in which students learn organically and are assessed in ways that make
sense in the real world, are, according to the study group that produced this
study, the best practices for modern, tech-savvy learners.
Experiential learning functions in conjunction with authentic assessment,
and this is especially true in a business context. When so much of what students
are learning is going to be used directly in the real world, learning by doing, and
being assessed on the products they create, can be extremely helpful for
students. Deeter-Schmelz (2015) discusses a unique corporate and academic
integrated partnership in which students in a sales management course
underwent a combination of role play, traditional learning of course content,
and real-world application through interaction with corporate partners in order
to learn business writing skills. These elements created an effective project in
which students were able to learn and then to apply new skills in an authentic
manner. This type of learning and assessment therefore definitely has a purpose,
specifically in a business English classroom.
students must perform in such a simulation for it to be consistent with the best
practices, as presented in the current literature. The simulation described below
attempts to combine these elements into a cohesive model for assessing business
writing via simulation activity.
Assigning Roles
Students will be presented with a list of the various products that will be
expected of them, as described above, and be asked to divide up the separate
tasks among the members of the team. They will then be asked to each produce
a written rationale explaining why they have taken on their particular role and
how this will contribute to the team's success. This will allow students to
practice compositional writing outside of the regular parametres of business
communication. Students should upload these files to the cloud folder the
instructor has set up for each team, and should edit and comment on each
others work. One aspect of the assessment of this stage of the project should
involve whether or not students commented on and edited others' work, and
whether or not students made changes to their own work in conformity with the
comments that had been given to them. This can be tracked in a cloud-based
editing program, such as Google Docs.
The Presentation
The presentation should include slides or PowerPoint, with the number
of slides or length of the presentation being is at professor's discretion, and this
might be one way to differentiate this project for different levels of learners. For
example, an MBA group would do a different length and depth of presentation
material than would a group of first year university students in an introductory
class. The slides should come with speakers' notes as well as with handouts or
materials that would be given to potential investors.
Like other documents created, these should be edited by all of the
students. The students involved in the creation of these particular materials
should also submit a reflection document, which could take the form of a
narrative in which they describe their choices and the way they went about the
task, as well as discuss what they learned. Narrative writing is one of the
conventions of composition that usually falls outside the parametres of business
writing, but practice doing this can make for more literate and articulate
students who are overall better communicators.
Social Media
The next stage of the project relates to using social media. In today's
internet-driven business environment, it is important for brands to maintain
social media presence. Brands go so far as to pay social media "influencers" to
promote their products in subtle ways, such as by featuring them in photos on
Instagram or videos on SnapChat. There appear to be an ever-growing number
of platforms, and these represent both an opportunity and a set of potential
pitfalls for products and brands, since interaction with customers, for better or
worse, is quicker, easier, and more public. In terms of the simulation exercise,
social media strategising presents a way for students to explore these trends and
for them to learn to further communicate in business terms.
This task will consist of a written out social media plan, including
discussion of which platforms to use, what kind of tone to take, post frequency,
plans for growing social media presence, etc. This will be written as a
comprehensive plan, and then the material will be vetted and become the subject
of a shorter form of communication in the format of a memo in order to give
students practice in writing this form. The memo and the fully described social
media plan will both become part of the collaborative folder, and all group
members will, as with other products, be responsible for editing and
proofreading each other's work, while leaving constructive comments.
skills as well. For these learners, the intersection of writing and speaking can
benefit both skill sets.
Assessment
This project can be assessed in a number of ways, depending on what
aspects of business communication and writing the professor would like any
given group to focus on. It could even be done more than once, as an
introductory project and a capstone project for a year long course of study, with
different products or simulated services, for example, and the two experiences
being compared.
Within the simulation, there are opportunities for formative assessment
by virtue of the writing products that each student turns in at the start along
with the role assignments. They also should receive grades and feedback based
on the commenting and editing they do of their peers work.
It is important to note that assessment should be as collaborative as
possible in order to realistically resemble the authentic assessments that students
will face when they are in the workplace: the feeling should be that of going
back and forth on a project with a supervisor, rather than the usual professor-
student dynamic. This adds to the reality of the simulation and also gets
students to be more cognizant of their writing skill level (which the literature
showed many overestimate), and of the importance of business writing and
communications.
Along with grades taken throughout the process for separate
assignments, the final product of the activity is the entire portfolio of documents
in final draft form, including the presentation, business plan, and all other
elements detailed above. This can be a group grade, so that every member of the
group receives the same amount of credit. This project is designed for students
to get a combination of peer feedback, instructor feedback, individual formative
and summative assessment, and group assessment, which are all to be based on
their various writing and communication tasks.
Conclusion
It is clear that simulations have an undeniably important place in the
teaching of business practices, and this can certainly be extended to business
writing. Business writing is one of the most important skills that todays
students need to learn, since communication is becoming increasingly more
important as the business world becomes more globally focused and
collaboration from office to office, and even country to country becomes more
common as a result of increased pace of globalization, such as outsourcing of
production by head offices to other countries. Taiwanese corporations shifting
production to China or Vietnam are currently prime examples, and therefore
this evaluation method could be of specific interest to Taiwanese business
English instructors and students.
However, business writing classes often involve activities that are not
reflective of the business tasks students will have to take on in the real world.
This is where authentic assessment comes into play, since this style of evaluation
resembles tasks students may indeed have to take on in their future careers.
Using simulation for business writing tasks specifically is not something that has
previously been examined in the existing scholarly literature, but the idea offers
a wide range of possibilities for future applications and research. The common
denominators of future studies need to be simulations designed with the best
practices of business writing instruction in mind. Specifically, all versions of this
project or related ones must use technology for both learning and assessment, as
well as teach English conventions specifically and directly. Editing, and
particularly peer editing, needs to be a part of the process within the
simulations, as well. With these practices in place, simulation can be a successful
way to teach business writing. Using simulations, it is to be hoped, can prepare
business students for future writing success in the rapidly shifting global
marketplace, in their first jobs and thereafter.
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this debris of historical trauma, family trauma, you know, stuff that can kill
your spirit, is actually raw material to make things with and to build a bridge.
You can use those materials to build a bridge over that which would destroy
you.
From Crazy Brave by Joy Harjo, Mvskoke Nation poet
i found god in myself and i loved her i loved her fiercely
From "For Colored Girls who have considered suicide when the rainbow is enuf" by
Ntozake Shange, African American poet
Poets such as Joy Harjo and Ntozake Shange recognize the connections
between suicidal ideation and cultural trauma and loss; they know about the
importance of culture, spirituality, and community support in promoting
wellness, healing, and suicide prevention. In contrast, psychologists,
psychiatrists, and public health researchers often overlook or minimize the
importance of these factors. They are more likely to focus on the rigor of
scientific studies and ignore cultural issues in youth suicide.
The insights of Harjo and Shange about suicide and suicide prevention
may be derived from their imaginations, observations, and cultural experiences;
the insights of psychologists and other scientists may be derived from new
research studies as well as systematic reviews and meta-analyses of existing
scientific studies; however, there appears to be one variable which is not
systematically integrated into these one-size-fits-all approaches. That one
variable is culture.
The authors of this article are graduate students and faculty associated
with applied educational psychology and school psychology programs that
study evidence-based interventions for social, emotional, and behavioral
challenges. In this article we explore the topic of culturally grounded suicide
prevention programs and we also chronicle how we began to question the
standard approach to youth suicide prevention.
In their article, Miller and colleagues gave one of the studies - the Zuni
Life Skills Development Program study - high praise because it was multi-
method, provided strong evidence for outcome measures, and was culturally
tailored. This study was one of two universal suicide prevention programs
they reviewed that demonstrated the highest methodological rigor and this
was the only study to adopt a culturally tailored approach to developing a
school-based suicide prevention program for us among Native American youth
(Miller et al., 2009, p. 178).
Methods
We also investigated articles and books about culture and youth suicide
that are not part of the mainstream, evidence-based scientific literature.
evaluating randomized trials, but it can also be used as a basis for reporting
systematic reviews of other types of research, particularly evaluations of
interventions (See http://www.prisma-statement.org/Default.aspx). The
review by Wei and colleagues was systematic and comprehensive and yet there
is not one mention of culture, cultural identity, or culturally informed practice.
We decided to more carefully study the second edition of the EBI Manual.
The second edition has twelve methodological indicators (rather than eight) and
includes the addition of cultural validity to existing types of research validity.
Unlike the PRISMA checklist, which does not include culture, the EBI Manual
(2nd edition) includes the importance of cultural considerations in
psychoeducational interventions.
In contrast to the earlier (1st) edition, the EBI Manual (2nd edition)
emphasizes multicultural and diversity issues. A search for cultur* in the EBI
Manual (2nd edition) yielded 141 results. The word culture(s) appears 31 times,
cultural(ly) appears 97 times, acculturation appears 9 times, social-cultural 3
times, and multicultural 1 time. Page 7 of the second edition of the EBI Manual
states, Thus, cultural validity features are included within this revision of the
Manual. Intervention studies will be evaluated to the extent that they provide
deeper descriptions of the cultures and values of those involved with the
research, including the participants, collectors of data, and researchers. The EBI
Manual (2nd edition, p. 7) requests reviewers of the empirical literature be
especially sensitive to cultural diversity and issues surrounding the context of
intervention implementation in schools and community settings. The EBI
Manual (2nd edition) does include culture, but regrettably it omits the
consideration of these central aspects of culture: religion, spirituality, and
historical trauma.
One-Size-Fits-All Approach
The article by Robinson and others (2012) does not discuss culture at all,
but their systematic review includes reviews of programs from other countries
and the review notes that, Black or African American was the race/ethnicity
of the participants in one of the studies. In fairness, the article by Cooper and
others (2011, p. 697) does mention the, important factors that contribute to teen
suicide include issues such race. And yet, merely mentioning the that race is an
important factor is not sufficient; according the EBI Manual 2nd edition (2009,
p.36), Culture is defined as the shared norms, values, beliefs, practices, and
behaviors relevant to the target population; and reflects cultural experiences that
extend beyond the traditional categories of race, ethnicity, and language to
encompass the shared experiences of any group. Cultural values have a huge
impact on how one thinks about life and death. Culture impacts how individuals
give meaning to factors that contribute to suicidal behavior.
Suicide Prevention Resource Center and the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Substances Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
(SAMHSA). (http://www.sprc.org/bpr/section-i-evidence-based-
programs#sec1listings)
Molock and others (2008, p. 323) noted that, To date, there appear to be
no published studies of effective suicide prevention programs or treatments
specifically tailored for African American youth. We couldnt find any
published studies of evidence-based prevention programs, although we do
know that there is ongoing research on this topic.
One-size-fits-all and tailored are terms that describe how clothing fit.
One-size-fits-all approaches and cultural tailoring work on the surface. They are
the outer clothing of suicide prevention and not the deeper descriptions of
the cultures and values described in the EBI Manual (2nd edition). These surface
approaches, which are often developed by researchers and interventionists who
are not part of these cultures, can be harmful to Native American and African
American communities.
There is evidence that not only do the needs of Native American youth
differ from the general population, but also there is variation among Native
American tribes. A study conducted by Bolton and colleagues titled A
Comparison of the Prevalence and Risk Factors of Suicidal Ideation and Suicide
Attempts in Two American Indian Population Samples and in a General
Population Sample found that, Suicide attempts without suicidal ideation
were found to be more common in the American Indian samples than in the
general population (Bolton, Elias, Enns, Sareen, Beals & Novins, 2014, p.4). As
stated by Goldston et al, 2008, p. 21), There are major cultural differences
between different Native American groups. Not surprisingly, Bolton and
colleagues (2014) also discovered differences in suicidal behaviors, including
ideation and attempts among the Northern Plains and the Southwest tribes they
studied. In comparison, the Southwest tribe was significantly more likely to
report suicide attempts than the Northern Plains tribe. Culturally specific
programs are needed. According to Medicine (2001), Native Americans should
not be categorized as a single group. With more than 562 federally recognized
tribes in the United States and Canada, the one-size-fits-all approach to
suicide prevention will not work for all Native American youth.
The 2008 article by Goldston and others (p. 14) includes these cultural
considerations that are similar to those highlighted by the poets Joy Harjo and
Ntozake Shange, Several cross-cutting issues are discussed, including
acculturative stress and protective factors within cultures; the roles of religion
and spirituality and the family in culturally sensitive interventions; different
manifestations and interpretations of distress in different cultures; and the
impact of stigma and cultural distrust on help-seeking. As suggested in the
2014 article by White and Kral, we are rethinking youth suicide and embracing
multiple frameworks for making sense of youth distress and suicide (p. 131).
While stressful events occur daily for most individuals, the word
trauma is used to describe emotionally painful and distressing experiences or
situations that overwhelm peoples ability to cope, leaving them powerless
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Although the terms intergenerational
trauma and historical trauma have been used interchangeably, community
health experts make distinctions. Both forms of trauma span multiple
generations, but intergenerational trauma refers to familial trauma and historical
trauma is on a larger scale. Experiences and events associated with historys
traumatic impact are the experiences of American Indians after European
colonization and the experiences of African Americans during slavery (Coyle,
2014; Mohatt, Thompson, Thai, & Tebes, 2014). Historical trauma theory
proposes that populations historically subjected to long-term, mass trauma
colonialism, slavery, war, genocide exhibit a higher prevalence of disease even
several generations after the original trauma occurred (Sotero, 2006, p. 93).
prevention for three reasons. First, African American churches have a long
history of helping community members. Second, African Americans report that
they are highly religious and religiousness is associated with positive mental
health outcomes. Third, the Black Church is influential and can engage and
retain families. Churches are the sociocultural context in which many African
Americans already engage in help-seeking behaviors (Molock et al., 2008, p.
326). In churches youth receive moral direction, access to important role models,
and opportunities to enhance social skills. In addition, sermons, listening to
religious music, and reading religious texts, all provide messages of optimism,
hope, existential meaning, and personal worth and salvation which may help
individuals cope with difficult life circumstances and protect again suicidality
(Chatters et al., 2011, p. 349).
The protective effects of social support for African American youth are
well documented. A mixed methods study of African American male
adolescents found that, social support among African American boys may play
an important role in lowering depressive symptoms, particularly when these
youth face stigma regarding mental illness and service use (Lindsey, Joe, &Von
Nebbit, 2010, p. 9). Key protective factors for suicidal behavior in Black
adolescents include family support, peer support, and community
connectedness (Matlin et al., 2011). Better mental health and psychosocial well
being for Black adolescents are predicted by family, school, and religious
integration (Rose, Joe, Shields, & Caldwell, 2014).
Conclusion
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1 Introduction
The ATR feature was first attested in Niger-Congo languages in 1960s, and it
was later found in the overwhelming majority of Nilo-Saharan languages which
is, nowadays, considered as the main feature in its compatibility with their
vowel systems as of most languages in the family (Aralova, 2015). In the earlier
times before the ATR terminologies were introduced, description of vowels were
done by using raised/unraised distinctions claiming the raising of the
tongue in production of the vowels, but the studies afterwards came up with the
notion of ATR not only with raising of the tongue but also advancement and
larynx expansion on the basis of phonetic and phonological aspect of describing
the vowel sounds in particular language(s). Ladefoged, (1964:39f) addresses the
enlargement and expansion of opening between back of the mouth and throat,
retraction or raising of the tongue body for distinguishing the vowels on the
basis of phonetic characteristics by using the acoustic and articulatory records of
cine-radiology film, and the distinction corresponds to [ATR] feature of the
present day.
1
The term has been spelt differently in different languages varying as Anuak, Agnwa, Anyua,
Anywa, and this paper uses the spelling Anywa throughout the writing.
Some descriptions like Ladefoged and Maddieson, (1996), and Duerksen, (2004)
indicate that ATR distinction goes with some particular phonation type as
auditory characteristics of vowels. Stewarts (1967) [ATR] distinction connects
the [+ATR] vowels with creaky, and the [-ATR] ones with breathy voice qualities
(Stewart, 1967 cited in Aralova, 2015). Indicating the attempts so far to connect
ATR feature and voice quality in languages, Aralova, (2015) and Casali, (2008)
state that auditory distinction (voice quality) is much more complicated than
that of [ATR] distinction so that these features are worth said to be parallel
features in vowel systems because the [ATR] contrasts do not clearly
correspond to particular and separate phonation type in languages.
1.2 Objectives
The present paper tries to address the following specific objectives in relation to
some studies of ATR contrast and harmony in Ethiopian Nilo-Saharan
languages:
a) Assessing the ATR contrast and harmony systems and types described in
the languages.
b) Comparing the coverage level and depth of the studies concerning ATR
systems.
c) Identifying gaps or the overlooked parts of the ATR harmony
descriptions.
d) Forwarding recommendations for the gaps in the descriptions (if any).
1.3 Significance
Even though the paper work seems to deal with a broad issue referring to
studies on Nilo-Saharan languages of Ethiopia, the comparative consideration of
the studies on these languages puts a precious asset for the future researchers of
2
The term dominant-recessive is a compound noun that conveys dominant (the harmony
triggering vowel or the couse) and recessive the changed vowel in ATR harmony.
these languages because this paper provides the general picture of the proto-
language in terms of their ATR harmony. It also adds knowledge to the
language users, students and teachers. In addition, it can be a base for the
classificatory and/or structural typological studies that might be conducted on
Ethiopian Nilo-Saharan languages in the future. The countrys curriculum,
especially the local educational institutions may make use of this paper as
holistic information of the languages.
2 Methodology
Procedural structure was followed to assess the nationally and internationally
available studies conducted on ATR system of Ethiopian Nilo-Saharan
languages going through comparative form of analyzing the relevant studies.
First, survey of the available works was carried out, and identified for putting
them under analysis. The identified works are hierarchically considered under
analysis on the basis of their content and breadth so that descriptions of vowels
that focused on individual languages were treated before the comparative works
that involve more than one language. Based on the compiled inferences, the gaps
within and among the studies were then identified for which recommendations
were forwarded.
In the description of Anywa vowel system, Bender, et. al. (1976), Lusted, (1976)
and Reh, (1996) identify the vowel system as voice quality distinction between
breathy and plain sets instead of ATR contrast, but Reh slightly touches the
concept of ATR and its connection with voice quality. Bender, et. al. (1976)
identifies the language as seven vowel system /i, e, , a, , o, u/ in which all
have long correspondents except /e/ which Lusted omits it out claiming the
language as six vowel system. Studies of Bender and Lusted show the plain and
breathy vowel distinction for four of the vowels in the language as /i, / /, /
/a, / /o, / with two diphthongs /ie/ and /i/; however, they dont say
anything about ATR system of Anywa. On the other hand, Reh, (1996) states that
[BRV] in Anywa embodies breathiness/[BRV] itself and ATR feature
considering that they go hand in hand. According to Reh, [+ATR] vowels which
involve breathy voice correspond to neutral (non-breathy) vowels in the ten
vowel system identified has [+BRV] /i, e, , o, u/ and [-BRV] /, , a, , u/.
Although, Rehs description somehow involves the ATR feature in the language
as a vowel distinguishing system in the language, connecting ATR feature with
voice quality tends to remain controversial as stated in Casali, (2008) and
Aralova, (2015). It also conveys the notion of vowel harmony in terms of voice
quality harmonization process instead of ATR feature indicating that [+BRV] is
extended to the adjacent vowel in the domain of root or stem in Anywa. Both of
the descriptions seem to be focusing on voice quality with little acoustic
characterization without ATR contrasts of the vowels; perhaps, that may be the
reason for their difference in setting the number of vowel phonemes in the
vowel systems.
Otero, (2015) described the concept of ATR and its harmony in Ethiopian Komo
in a relatively detailed way. It identifies the language as a seven contrastive
vowel system /i, , , a, , , u/ that separating into two sets as [+ATR] vowels-
/i, u/ and [-ATR] vowels-/, , a, , /. It also states the existence of phonemic
contrast in the language with ATR feature of the seven vowel system as
uncommon property which is mostly found in languages of East Africa. Besides
the phonemic seven vowels, Otero considers the phonetic surface [+ATR]
vowels [e, , o] as allophonic correspondents of the [-ATR] vowels /, a, / so
that the language becomes a ten vowel system on phonetic ground.
Nuer is better considered for the significant distinction of voice quality rather
than ATR systems as described in Duerksen, (2004) and Moges, (1995). They
identify the language as seven vowel system /i, e, , a, , o, u/-plain/non-
breathy vowels with their corresponding breathy vowels, but the latter
description contains three more centralized breathy vowels having no
corresponding plain vowels with the absence of breathy-high-back vowel which
makes the number of breathy vowels exceed that of the plain ones.
As stated in Turton and Bender, (1976), Mursi is a language with five vowel
system with the lax counterpart for each plain vowel in allophonic distinction as
/i, e, a, o, u/ and [, , , , ]. The so called allophonic variations are equivalent
with the present days [-ATR] vowels in the genetically related languages. On the
other hand, Triulzi, et al. (1976) considers Berta as a language with basically five
vowel system; however, there exists the tense and lax contrast for each vowel
which is considered as allophonic variation just in the same way with Mursis as
described in Turton and Bender. In connection with the up-to-date dominance of
ATR feature in contrast with those two works of the year 1976, their description
can be construed to be controversial because of the unpopular ATR feature in
time and scantiness of the studies.
The change of vowel // of phonemic word into // in the phonetic word is the
partial regressive or anticipatory assimilation of vowels. The focus is on the
vowel harmony without describing the ATR system in few languages like
Gumuz as described in the above studies maybe due to sketchiness of the works
or the real language structure. Tefera, (1989) provides a simple and sketchy
description of vowel systems in Shabo identifying its [eight] vowels /i, e, , , a,
, o, u/ five of which occur with the long correspondents. The five vowels /i, e,
a, o, u/ having the long forms are considered tense in the study. This is all
about vowels as conveyed herewith, but any in depth investigation may find it
exhibiting ATR system because the so called tense in this study is perhaps
empirically [+ATR] type that somehow is a gap just like most earlier literature
distinguishing tense/lax sets instead of [ATR] in the relevant languages.
The study indicates that the phonemic vowel length is also attested in Murle.
Regarding vowel harmony, the study explains that the vowels are harmonized
comprising the [+ATR] and [-ATR] sets in which [a] happens with both sets. The
dominant vowel type [+ATR] triggers the harmony in both directions
(progressive and regressive) changing the [-ATR] vowels in root, stem and
word. In addition, the [+ATR] vowel suffixes are dominant over the [-ATR]
vowel roots and stems in harmonizing them.
The [+ATR] suffix vowel is the dominating set over the [-ATR] vowels in the
roots, and the root vowels are harmonized with the vowels of the suffixes as
shown in example set (1) above. Moges indicates the second set of examples as
the plural structure through the prefix and suffix in the discontinuous
morpheme VVC in which the suffix containing [+ATR] vowel triggers the
harmony by changing the [-ATR] vowels in the roots; the vowel prefixes are just
formed through duplicating the first vowel in the roots.
Moges, (2001) asserts the predominance of ATR distinction and ATR harmony in
almost all Nilo-Saharan languages extending to the wider range of East African
vowel systems as a common linguistic feature. For instance, it recognizes the
commonest nine-vowel system /i, , e, , a, , o, , u/ for Baale and Murle in
southwest Surmic languages dividing into [ATR] sets with mutual exclusion in
one morpheme. The vowel /a/, in Baale, has the surface form [a] because it
doesnt have a [+ATR] counterpart so that it is not restricted from free co-
occurrence with the [+ATR] vowels in the same root. For the rest of the vowels
in the language, ATR harmony takes place with dominance of [+ATR] feature in
the domain of root, stem or words with dominant suffix [+ATR] spreading to a
preceding root with [-ATR] vowel. The study identifies the southeast Surmic
languages like Chai, Mursi and Meen as seven vowel system languages with
absence of the vowels // and // from the nine vowels indicated for the
southwestern Surmic. As stated in Moges, (2001), the Ethiopian Nilo-Saharan
languages, with some exceptions whose vowel systems are not synchronically
and diachronically well treated in the descriptions, involve the ATR contrast and
ATR harmony in their phonological systems of vowels.
Universality of the ATR distinction of vowels and ATR harmony across the Nilo-
Saharan languages in Ethiopia is under question because of some non-exhibiting
languages in the same family. Perhaps, such irregularity arises from diachronic
background of the language in sociolinguistic (contact) phenomena. A case in
point, the presence of ATR contrast in Majang with the absence of vowel
harmony process as stated in Moges, (2001) can, perhaps, be considered as a
token for some missing features overtime. Another point of concern to have
remained subtle is the connection between ATR contrast and voice quality
distinction in Nilo-Saharan languages realizing if they are the co-occurring
features or autonomous properties in a given language. As stated in Reh, (1996)
for Anywa, the two features occur together which is partly supported by Moges,
(2001) saying that the voice quality follows the ATR distinguished vowels (eg.
+ATR vowel is followed by breathy voice) with the claim of less commonality in
all languages. Thus, it is worth considered under the controversy until sufficient
studies provide justifications on this regard.
5 Conclusions
In the vowel systems of Nilo-Saharan languages in Ethiopia, ATR distinction
and its harmony systems are less studied on the basis of phonetic (acoustic,
articulatory and somehow auditory) properties; even the phonological studies
are scanty and seeming incomplete in most cases so that the available resources
do not suffice for trustworthy generalizations. However, it is proto-linguistically
intuitive that ATR feature is compatible in the Nilo-Saharan languages from the
existing descriptive indications. ATR harmony can occur within a morpheme or
in the form of cross-morphemic process; affixal dominant ATR sets trigger
harmonizing the recessive vowels in the root or stem. The binary vowel feature
ATR distinguishes the two sets in terms of tongue advancement, and it usually
is an indication that the languages also exhibit ATR harmony in which vowels of
different ATR sets never co-occur in a word. The [+ATR] vowel sets usually
happen to be the dominant ones in the ATR harmony processes whether the
harmony is within a morpheme or across morphemes. The overwhelming
majority of the languages are nine-vowel systems with few ten-vowel and seven-
vowel system languages all of which are phonologically compatible for ATR
contrast and hence ATR harmony processes. There are still few other languages
described to be deviating from such vowel system commonalities like Gumuz
and Kunama whose grounds need to be explored.
6 Recommendations
A comprehensive research needs to be conducted particularly on ATR systems
of the Nilo-Saharan languages in Ethiopia because there is no separate and
detailed description on this specific issue; the existing ones all just treat the ATR
system in the other broader topics like phonology of a language or even the
broader topic, Grammar. On the same concept, the feature ATR system, the
general languages of Nilo-Saharan family need to be comparatively studied and
typologically well identified by characterizing the common and different ways
of behaving among the languages.
Another interesting issue that attracts more research is the historical and
sociolinguistic phenomena for justifying the few languages that deviate from the
regular forms of ATR systems in the family. Identifying and classifying the
occurrence patterns on the basis of synchronic and diachronic studies equips the
researchers and other concerned bodies with the overall picture of the family
and its sub-groups as well. Hence, effective and efficient educational syllabuses
as well as books can be prepared accordingly for the benefit of native speakers of
the languages and the country, Ethiopia.
Since the languages are spoken in the remote areas of Ethiopia around the
border of the country, it needs researchers to sacrifice much effort and money so
that the national and international research funds should be mobilized towards
studying these languages and bringing them to their standard level, at least, in
relational concept. In addition, I suggest establishment of a research center in the
language areas (if there is no any) so that the interested individuals can get to
work on studying and characterizing the languages and contributing to the
growth and structural well-being (like maintaining the structure protecting
from change overtime).
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