The plasma membrane (cell membrane) forms the cells surface

boundary. The material enclosed by the plasma membrane is

the cytoplasm,7 and the material within the nucleus
(usually the
cells largest organelle) is the nucleoplasm.
The cytoplasm contains
the cytoskeleton, a supportive
framework of protein filaments and
tubules; an abundance of organelles, diverse structures that perform
various metabolic tasks for the cell; and inclusions, which are
foreign matter or stored cell products. The cytoskeleton, organelles,
and inclusions are embedded in a clear gel called the cytosol.
The cytosol is also called the intracellular fluid (ICF). All
body fluids not contained in the cells are collectively called the
extracellular
fluid (ECF). The ECF located between the cells is
also called tissue (interstitial) fluid. Some other extracellular
fluids
include blood plasma, lymph, and cerebrospinal fluid.
2.2 The Cell Surface
Expected Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this section, you should be able to
describe the structure of the plasma membrane;
explain the functions of the lipid, protein, and
carbohydrate components of the plasma membrane;
describe the processes for moving material into and out
of a cell; and
describe the structure and function of microvilli, cilia,
flagella, and cell junctions.
A great deal of human physiology takes place at the cell surface
for example, the binding of signaling molecules such as hormones,
the stimulation of cellular activity, the attachment of cells to each
other, and the transport of materials into and out of cells. This,
then, is where we begin our study of cellular structure and function.
Like explorers of a new continent, we will examine the interior
only after we have investigated its coastline.
The Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane defines the boundaries of the cell, governs
its interactions with other cells, and controls the passage of materials
into and out of the cell. The side that faces the cytoplasm is the
intracellular
face of the membane, and the side that faces outward
is the extracellular face.
Membrane Lipids
The plasma membrane is an oily, two-layered lipid film with proteins
embedded in it (fig. 2.6b). By weight, it is about half lipid
and half protein. Since the lipid molecules are smaller and lighter,
however, they constitute about 90% to 99% of the molecules in the
membrane.
About 75% of the membrane lipid molecules are phospholipids.
A phospholipid (fig. 2.7) consists of a three-carbon backbone called
glycerol, with fatty acid tails attached to two of the carbons and a
phosphate-containing head attached to the third. The two fatty acid
Table 2.1 Sizes of Biological Structures in
Relation to the Resolution of the Eye,
Light Microscope, and Transmission
Electron Microscope
Object Size
Visible with the Eye (Resolution 70100 m)
Human egg, diameter 100 m
Visible with the Light Microscope (Resolution 200 nm)
Most human cells, diameter 1015 m
Cilia, length 710 m
Mitochondria, width length 0.2 4 m
Bacteria (Escherichia coli), length 13 m
Microvilli, length 12 m
Visible with the Transmission Electron Microscope
(Resolution 0.5 nm)
Nuclear pores, diameter 30100 nm
Ribosomes, diameter 15 nm
Globular proteins, diameter 510 nm
Plasma membrane, thickness 7.5 nm
DNA molecule, diameter 2.0 nm
Plasma membrane channels, diameter 0.8 nm
7cyto = cell; plasm = formed, molded
(a)
Plasma membrane
of upper cell
Intercellular space
Plasma membrane
of lower cell
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus
100 nm
Carbohydrate
chains
Extracellular
face of
membrane
Intracellular
face of
membrane
Glycolipid
Cholesterol
Extracellular fluid
Transmembrane
protein
(b)
Channel
Glycoprotein
Proteins of
Intracellular fluid cytoskeleton
Peripheral
protein
Peripheral
protein
Phospholipid
bilayer
Chap t e r Two CytologyThe Study of Cells 31
away from the surrounding water as possible. The phospholipids are
not stationary but highly fluiddrifting laterally
from place to place,
spinning on their axes, and flexing their tails.
About 20% of the lipid molecules are cholesterol. Cholesterol
has an important impact on the fluidity of the membrane. If there is
too little cholesterol, plasma membranes become excessively fragile.
People with abnormally low cholesterol levels suffer an increased
incidence
of strokes because of the rupture of fragile blood vessels. On
the other hand, excessively high concentrations of cholesterol in the
membrane can inhibit the action of its enzymes and other proteins.
The remaining 5% of the lipids are glycolipidsphospholipids
with short carbohydrate chains bound to them. Glycolipids
occur
only on the extracellular face of the membrane. They contribute to
the glycocalyx, a sugary cell coating discussed later.
An important quality of the plasma membrane is its capacity
for self-repair. When a physiologist inserts a probe into a cell, it
does not pop the cell like a balloon. The probe slips through the
oily film and the membrane seals itself around it. When cells take in
matter by endocytosis (described later), they pinch off bits of their
own membrane, which form bubblelike vesicles in the cytoplasm.
As these vesicles pull away from the membrane, they do not leave
gaping
holes; the lipids immediately flow together to seal the break.