Murphy 1

Lydia Lorraine Murphy

Discussion Questions and Reading Responses to

Several Chapters of Psychology of Learning for Instruction (4th edition)

Table of Contents
Discussion Questions: Chapter 2 Radical Behaviorism..............2
Reading Response: Chapter 2 Radical Behaviorism...3
Discussion Questions: Chapter 3 Cognitive Information Processing..4
Reading Response: Chapter 3 Cognitive Information Processing...5
Discussion Questions: Chapter 4 Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory.7
Reading Response: Chapter 4 Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory..8
Discussion Questions: Chapter 5 Situated Cognition..9
Reading Response: Chapter 5 Situated Cognition.10
Discussion Questions: Chapter 6 Cognitive and Knowledge Development..11
Reading Response: Chapter 6 Cognitive and Knowledge Development...12
Discussion Questions: Chapter 7 Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development...13
Reading Response: Chapter 7 Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development15
Discussion Questions Chapter 9 Motivation and Self-Regulation in Learning.16
Reading Response Chapter 9 Motivation and Self-Regulation in Learning..17
Discussion Questions Chapter 11 Constructivism.19
Reading Response Chapter 11 Constructivism..20
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Discussion Questions: Chapter 2 Radical Behaviorism

1. Can physical conditioned reinforcers (ie. stimuli like money, gold stars, treats) be
overused? Will a student be less motivated if they receive the same reward time and time
again? Is continuous reinforcement necessary to maintain a desired response?

2. If forms of self-control were taught to children in elementary school, could behavior

modification be avoided when they reach higher grades? Can children be taught to change
their own behavior? Which children would struggle with this idea, and which children
would have an easier time?

3. Can a person form worse behaviors with the principles of behavior management? How
might this happen in the school system? For example, if a childs outbursts in class cause
their peers to laugh, the child will view this as positive and keep making others laugh by
disrupting class. How can this type of behavior be modified?
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Reading Response: Chapter 2 Radical Behaviorism

In the section about strengthening a response with either positive or negative

reinforcement, I struggled to understand how negative reinforcement can adjust ones behavior.
The term itself suggests an adverse and unfavorable subject matter - however with a more in depth
view, I discovered that it was quite the opposite. In the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
Brian A Iwata from University of Florida, offers his perspective and research in an article titled,
Negative Reinforcement In Applied Behavior Analysis: An Emerging Technology. Iwata
defines negative reinforcement involving, ...removal, reduction, postponement, or prevention of
stimulation. As an advancement of his idea, Iwata adds, Removal and reduction of ongoing
stimulation typically produce behavior that is called "escape," whereas postponement and
prevention of stimulus presentation produce behavior that is called "avoidance. The words I have
underlined in his definition, are not included in our text, and I will clarify them here.
Escape is the response to the presence of stimulation, whereas avoidance is the response to
the absence of stimulation. An individual may decide to escape or avoid an unfavorable
environment or situation by physically running away or mentally throwing a tantrum. Iwata
describes also more harmful methods like self-harm or destruction. To clarify further,
postponement is the act of delaying or deferring an action or event, whereas prevention is the
action of stopping an action of event from occurring. Iwata proposes a few action plans to prevent
escape and avoidance which include negative reinforcement strategies like behavior replacement
(the act of eliminating forms of escape by negatively reinforcing appropriate alternatives, ie.
replacing one behavior with another) and overcorrection (a group of techniques whose common
feature is repetitive performance which targets a certain behavior.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1286076/pdf/jaba00102-0062.pdf
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Discussion Questions: Chapter 3 Cognitive Information Processing

1. Atomicity happens when tasks are overlearned or sources of information become natural, to
the extent that their attention requirements are minimal.
Encoding refers to the process of relating incoming information to concept and ideas already in
memory in such a way that the new material is more memorable.
There are numerous advertisements that come on the television that I can recite by heart (ie.
Stanley Steamers makes your home cleaner). Do you believe that advertisers and media tap into
or relate to other concepts in your memory so that they encode their own messages? Are there any
specific commercials or advertisements that you automatically know when they come on? If big
advertisers can forcefully make their way into our memory, can teachers perhaps learn from their
messages, and apply their techniques in class? Would this be beneficial to the students?

2. In the classroom teachers battle with latest fads, toys, gossip, sports, etc for their students
attention. If human beings have selective attention, which refers to the learners ability to select
and process certain information while simultaneously ignoring other information, how can a
teacher compete? What are ways that teachers can take back control and the attention of individual
students and the class? What if the student has a disability that causes them to get distracted; what
resources could the teacher take advantage of to help the student focus?

4. To retrieve learned information, one can recall or recognize what is desired. In recall
learners must retrieve previously stored information with no cues or hints to help
remember them. Cued recall are those tasks in which a hint or clue is provided to help
remind learners of certain information. Recognition involves a set of pre generated stimuli
presented to learners for a decision or judgement. In your own classroom, which type of
questions on assessments would you personally ask? Justify your reason using the
background of your subject and age group you will be teaching. How might students
respond to each type of question? Would you offer hints to a student who does not get the
problem? How would you distinguish if someone does not understand the problem, or is
simply looking for a hand out because they forgot to study?
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Reading Response: Chapter 3 Cognitive Information Processing

In Cognitive Information Processing under the topic of Working Memory, the following
span of letters were shown,
JFKFBIAIDSNASAMIT
I tried to memorize the entire line, but could not. As individual letters they far exceeded
the working memory capacity (more than the 72 recollection rule demonstrated by Miller).
However when the book broke the line into five chunks - JFK, FBI, AIDS, NASA and MIT- I
felt trivial that I did not recognize the five chunks. I proceeded to easily process this information
and even remember the whole line minutes later.
Chunking is the process of increasing working memory capacity by creating larger bits, as
proposed in the book. I felt the need to use this topic to research more about. I find it interesting
that I can easily remember the line by breaking it up and still keeping the integrity of the order of
letters, whereas I could not when the line was whole.
In an article titled The Power of Chunking: How to Increase Learning Retention, Ben
Nesvig gives an in depth look at the method that drastically improves ones learning retention.
Nesvig writes about three different ways to chunk. The first way, is the most common and
traditional way of grouping, or separating a string of information into arbitrary groups that are
easier to recall. Not mentioned in the book, were the use of patterns and organization. Spotting
patterns is useful because one can find redundancy in the information, and one can capture the
repetitions as a rule. Nesvig gave an example of how chess masters do not necessarily have
photographic memories, but they have over the years recognized, stored and memorized different
patterns. The third method of chunking can come in the form of organization. Organizing occurs
when a group is divided into categories based on meaning. For example, when learning about the
periodic table, one may separate the table into alkaline metals, alkaline earth metals, metals, non-
metals, halogens or noble gases.
Nesivig includes tips for applying chunking as well in his article. One must build on
understanding, but not overwell a learner with too large of chunks, and find the balance of chunk
size so that small chunks are not repetitive. Once chunking takes place, one must build on existing
knowledge. When one relates new information to previously learned concepts, Nesvig writes, it
shrinks the emotional learning barrier and shows the context of the new information. He also
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suggests to focus on one chunk at a time, as well as make time for practice. One must actively
practice and use repetition to shift information from working memory to the unconscious.

http://www.dashe.com/blog/learning/chunking-memory-retention
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Discussion Questions: Chapter 4 Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory

1. Advance organizers are relevant and inclusive introductory materials, provided in

advance of the learning materials, that serve to bridge the gap between what the learner
already knows and what he needs to know before he can meaningfully learn the task at
hand (Ausebel et al., 1978, pp.171-172). How will you employ different organizers in
your classroom? Will you make only one or will you consider different learning types
like, spatial, auditory-musical, linguistic and, kinesthetic? How will you be inclusive to
all students? Consider students who need modifications and adjustments.

2. Children who are culturally diverse relative to their classmates have different cognitive
structures owing to the difference in their life experiences and prior learnings. How can
you as a teacher, promote culturally diversity in your classroom? How can you use
schemas to to activate meaningful learning? Do you believe this will encourage more
cognitive thinking?

3. The amount of prior knowledge possessed by learners and their interests can affect their
interpretation and recall of information as well as their ability to solve problems. What
if a childs past experiences or interests is causing a problem in meaningful learning?
What if the parents/guardians and the child do not recognize this? Can you fix a child?
How can you encourage growth?
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Reading Response: Chapter 4 Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory

In Chapter 4, the two concepts that I found most difficult to understand were derivative
and correlative subsumption as processes of meaningful learning. Virginia Tech offers lessons
online through their Theoretical Foundations of TEL course. The instructor provided examples of
Ausubels derivative and correlative subsumption.

Derivative subsumption : You know that a tree has a trunk, branches, green leaves, and
that, when fully grown is likely to be at least 12 feet tall. Now you learn about a kind of
tree that you have never seen before, let's say a persimmon tree that conforms to your
previous understanding of tree.

Correlative subsumption: Suppose you encounter a new kind of tree that has red leaves,
rather than green. You have to alter or extend your concept of tree to include the
possibility of red leaves.

In the example for derivative subsumption it describes a situation when one learns new
information that is connected to a previously learned concept. The persimmon tree matches the
concept of tree and it does not alter the concept of tree in any way. However, in the second
example of correlative subsumption one discovered that the encountered tree has red leaves, and
this does not match previous knowledge. So the person has to accommodate for this new
information, and ask himself, Is this thing with red leaves a tree? Because the thing with red
leaves is a tree, that person extended their knowledge about the whole concept of trees. A new
kind of tree was learned.
Correlative subsumption is viewed as more valuable learning because it creates more
connections and richer higher concepts of learning. It also modifies and extends previous
knowledge. Correlative subsumption is viewed as a two way street, learners have the opportunity
to acquire new knowledge while they are aggregating previous knowledge into their long-term
memory.

http://www.itma.vt.edu/courses/tel/lesson_4.html
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Discussion Questions: Chapter 5 Situated Cognition

1. Wegner proposed myths about communities of practice in Communities of Practice: A

Brief Introduction. Here is one myth focused on,
There are no leaders in a true community of practice: Mostly false. In many
communities of practice decisions need to be taken, conditions need to be put in
place, strategic conversations need to be had. Not all members see value in being
involved in these processes. Whether you call them leaders, coordinators, or
stewards, someone needs to do it and it is as well to recognize them for the role
they play.
Do you agree with Wegner that there always needs to be a leader in a community of
practice? Explain. How would a community of practice look in your classroom?

2. Apprenticeship is the idea that students get to have an opportunity to practice skills and
knowledge in an environment that does not expect rigorous expectations. How can you
apply apprenticeship in your classroom? What expectations will you have for students in
your subject area and grade level?

3. When was there a situation in your life when you were a newcomer? How have you
transitioned from this state? What are responsibilities you have now that you didnt
before? In your own classroom, how can you increase the responsibility of your students?
Consider the subject you teach, and different age levels you may teach - a 7th grade
students responsibilities will differ greatly from an 11th grade students responsibilities.
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Reading Response: Chapter 5 Situated Cognition

We need to think of education not merely in terms of an initial period of socialization into a
culture, but more fundamentally in terms of rhythms by which communities and individuals
continually renew themselves - Wenger 1998

I find this quote very inspiring and interesting. A community is not built overnight, and the
people who belong to the community continually grow inside them. I decided I wanted to search
this quote and find other perspectives and opinions, but I ended up stumbling upon Communities
of Practice: A Brief Introduction by Etienne and Beverly WengerTrayner (the author of this
quote). In the introduction, there was section that focused on where the concept of communities of
practice is applied. Community of practice has found various practical approaches in
organizations, government, education, associations, social sectors, international development, the
web - and Wegner gave examples of how. I wanted to focus on the government and the web
because these places seemed a bit far-fetched for me.
Government, like businesses of other communities, face challenges on a complex scale.
Government indeed adopted communities of practice so that the bureaucracy can knowledge share.
Although knowledge sharing may not be very well coordinated at times, there are so many
connections between the people of the government. They must be able to communicate about
education, health and security, as well as organization.
As for, the web, the use of technology has greatly impacted the reach of interactions beyond
traditional communities. The web offers a new terrain for community based practice.
Communities can communicate faster and also gain new members at an increasing rate from
Facebook, to public online forums, chat rooms, computer games, etc.

http://wenger-trayner.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/07-Brief-introduction-to-communities-
of-practice.pdf
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Discussion Questions: Chapter 6 Cognitive and Knowledge Development

1. Jean Piagets theory of genetic epistemology brought about much criticism and
alternative perspectives on cognitive development that gave rise to new theories and
thinking. Although Piagets theory was recognized, it was not widely accepted after some
time. Explain why theorists did not agree wholly with is claims, and briefly explain other
views and models that was different than Piaget's. In theoretical thinking do you believe
one should accept the first theory that is proposed, or is it beneficial to challenge different
theories and offer new insights?

2. In the componential analysis theory proposed by Stenberg, feedback is essential for the
developmental process to provide a self-correcting function. How might you provide
enough feedback to your students if you end up teaching a large class? What are
examples of assignments or classwork that students can get feedback from you and also
his or her peers? What is an activity that will reinforce this idea in your subject area? Will
you allow students to give you feedback on your teaching style?

3. Piagetian educators encourage play as a pedagogic strategy for active self discovery
because the environment supports the activity of the child. How can play be encouraged
in the classroom? Is there an age when play is inappropriate in a school setting? In many
schools systems, including Pulaski Middle School in New Britain, recess has been taken
away. Does this affect the development of children?
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Reading Response: Chapter 6 Cognitive and Knowledge Development

In the beginning of the chapter a scenario was presented with Nan, a 6 year old,
participating in a study on childrens logical thinking. She was given a 2 by 2 matrix puzzle with
one empty square, and her task was to choose the object that would result in the bottom two
objects being related in the same way as the top two objects. By the end of the study, Nan
performed much better than any other 6 year old, as well as some 8 year olds (187). I wanted to
explore the relationship between puzzles and cognitive development more.
The Child Development Institute published an article by Pam Myers, BSEd, called Why
Puzzles Are Good For Your Child's Development. In the article, different reasons were given as
to why puzzles and games involving problem solving helped the process of cognitive
development in children. Psychologists determined that a childs brain development is influenced
when a child manipulates things around him or her, and puzzles provide this opportunity.
Children flip, turn and remove pieces of a puzzle to learn the connection of the environment
while also learning shape recognition and hand eye coordination. By movie pieces around and
specializing movements, fine motor skills are reinforced, as well as gross motor skills. Different
types of puzzles like jigsaws also help enhance a childs memory.
In addition to these skills, a child working on a puzzle also develops the strategy of
working on a puzzle faster and more efficiently. A child can set small goals that can lead towards
larger goals. Puzzles offer many skills and opportunities for a child learner and greatly improves
or enforces cognitive development.

https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-activities/why-puzzles-are-good-for-your-childs-
development/#.WdzVJk0Um7
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Discussion Questions: Chapter 7 Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development

1. Piaget believed that developmental stages proceed in a fixed sequence -- transitions

among stages occur at certain approximate ages, and certain logical operations develop at
each stage. Bruner, in contrast to Piaget, believed in the invariant sequence of stages
through which children pass but not in their age dependency. He argued instead that
influences from the environment play a significant role in amplifying the internal
capabilities that learners possess.Which theory reflects your own development as a
child? Have you met students who develop in stages in a fixed sequence or by
environmental factors? Are there some findings that you like or dislike from each theory?

2. Bruner believed that the process of discovery contributes significantly to intellectual

development and that the heuristics of discovery can only be learned through exercise of
problem solving. He proposed discovery learning as a pedagogic strategy with such
important human implications. Will you practice discovery learning in your
classroom? If yes, what would it look like relating to your subject and how will it benefit
your students? If no, propose another strategy besides discovery based learning and
describe how it will look like relating to your subject and how will it benefit your
students?

3. In the article I read in EDF 415, Before Today I Was Afraid of Trees: Rethinking Nature
Deficit Disorder by Doug Larkin, the author describes an inner city high school student
who was not engaged in science classes. She admitted that before the teacher took them
on a field trip about maple syrup trees, she was afraid of trees. Journalist Richard Louv
described this situation as nature deficit disorder-- however the use of the word
deficit can cause negative connotations. How does this relate to the following
paragraph in our book?
Black ghetto children and white middle class children become evidence of
underlying capability differences. The black child is then seen as having a deficit
in learning caused by cultural deprivation. Instead, Bruner argued, performance
differences evident in the classroom should be viewed in the context situational
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differences in how the children have learned to apply these skills outside of
school
How will you as a teacher better understand that skills are influenced by culture? How
will you prioritize and capitalize on your students performances? Will you teach new
skills, or help students transfer their own skills to other situations relevant to the school
context?
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Reading Response: Chapter 7 Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development

I was very interested in the section about sociocultural history. Both Bruner and Vygotsky
consider that tools of ones culture shape the development of intelligence. Expanding on this idea,
the tools of ones culture develop and change over time; this led to Vygotskys idea that historical
perspective is as important as cultural perspective. The article, Nursing Assessments Must Include
Sociocultural History, reports,

When taking a sociocultural history, it's important to obtain information on the patient's
living/work environment, activity patterns, rest and sleep patterns, economic status,
recreational interests, social patterns, diet, use of substances such as drugs, alcohol, and
tobacco, coping mechanisms, and patterns of health seeking. A look at these key factors
will help you gather the necessary information in a logical order

I find it interesting that in the Nursing field, professionals are highly encouraged if not told
to adhere to a predetermined and consistent sequence for finding out patients information. Nurses
and examiners are less likely to omit an important measure when they consider sociocultural
history. I relate this article back to the teaching profession as well. I believe, in my own
experiences, teachers should take time (like nurses) to learn of their students sociocultural history.
This will create informed teachers. A teacher must know what tools their students have or do not
have in order to assign them appropriate homework, projects and assignments. A teacher can also
help a student with lack of skills or tools so they may flourish.

http://www.hcpro.com/HOM-67530-4910/Nursing-assessments-must-include-sociocultural-
history.html
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Discussion Questions Chapter 9 Motivation and Self-Regulation in Learning

1. Goals and goal orientation were of high importance in our reading. How will you
promote goal setting in your classroom? Will you have goals for the class as a whole, or
have goals for each individual? How will you regulate goal setting if a student does not
agree with the goal you have in mind for them? How will certain goals in your subject
influence task persistence and problem solving efforts?

2. A student is performing not up to standard and each week they hand in an assessment and
say, Its not my fault, Im sorry I studied the wrong thing, I just dont get this
subject. If attributions about learning and performance constitute an important influence
on continuing motivation to learn, how will you help the student turn these negative
attributions into something more positive? How will encourage the students abilities and
not their disabilities in the topic?

3. The first day as a new teacher is nerve-wracking and exhilarating at the same time. But it
is very important in how a teacher presents themselves to the class so that they are well
respected the rest of the year. How will you on the first day, or first week of class
promote instructional strategies for stimulating motivation as suggested by the ARCS
model? Will you and/or your students benefit from this?
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Reading Response Chapter 9 Motivation and Self-Regulation in Learning

While reading this chapter, I reflected on a math class I took in high school. In geometry
my teacher would give assessments to my peers and I, and then proceeded to grade them in the
following days. When she handed them back students would glance at their score, and the
assessment was never talked about again. In fact, at the end of class many if not all assessments
were thrown away. This became the norm, however it was not beneficial to us. The attributions
we all made about learning and our performances on tests influenced our motivation in a
negative way. Why take a test if we never talk about it again?
So I was interested in finding ways that our experience could be avoided, and I decided to
look more into the topic of self- regulation and in my research found an article, Meta-Cognition
and Self-Regulation: High Impact for Very Low Cost, Based on Extensive Evidence from the
Education Endowment Foundation which states a few steps teacher consider before
implementing meta-cognition and self-regulation strategies (which are listed below).

1.Teaching approaches which encourage learners to plan, monitor and evaluate their
learning have very high potential, but require careful implementation.
2.Have you taught pupils explicit strategies on how to plan, monitor and evaluate specific
aspects of their learning? Have you given them opportunities to use them with support
and then independently?
3.Teaching how to plan: Have you asked pupils to identify the different ways that they
could plan (general strategies) and then how best to approach a particular task (specific
technique)?
4.Teaching how to monitor: Have you asked pupils to consider where the task might go
wrong? Have you asked the pupils to identify the key steps for keeping the task on track?
5.Teaching how to evaluate: Have you asked pupils to consider how they would improve
their approach to the task if they completed it again?

My focus is examining strategies 4 and 5. In my example earlier of my personal math

class, my teacher could have had us monitor our progress in assessments and consider where our
mistakes were made. For example, there could have been a class dedicated when the assessments
 Murphy 18

were handed back to make self-corrections to enhance learning and to identify key steps for
keeping on tack. The teacher, as in step 5, could have also had the pupils to write an explanation
of how one could perform on other questions of the like. This could improve their approach on
other assignments and tasks.
I believe after reading more on different ways to implement self-regulation in the
classroom, teachers will see rise in motivation from their students. Students will be invested in
their own work and make goals from their interests and curiosities.

https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/evidence-summaries/teaching-learning-
toolkit/meta-cognition-and-self-regulation/
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Discussion Questions Chapter 11 Constructivism

1. How will you introduce multiple modes of learning in your future classroom? Give 3-4
examples in your field of study. How will this promote critical thinking and create
students with a larger scope of perspectives?

2. According to the constructivists conditions for learning it is expected for student to take
ownership of their learning. How will you take ownership of your teaching? Describe 2
ways in which you will self reflect before, during, and after the school year.

3. Constructivist methods of instruction include goal based scenarios and problem based
learning. Will you help your students create goals for themselves in the beginning of the
year? How often do you think the goals should be reflected upon and changed if need be?
Is there such a goal that is unrealistic in the classroom? How will you encourage a student
to form goals that are in their realm of reach?
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Reading Response Chapter 11 Constructivism

While reading the chapter, I was most interested in the social negotiation condition for
learning. I enjoy learning in communal activities and flourish in group settings. Constructivists
emphasize collaboration as critical feature in the learning environment. In an article, Social
Negotiation as a Central Principle of Constructivism, Michael Atkisson explains that,

social negotiation of knowledge is a key part of knowledge construction in that it allows

individuals to test their constructions against one another and to gain new understandings
from one another

In my classroom I want to promote social interactions and discussion. I do not want to hush
a student for having opinions or concerns about a topic in their community or in their world. Instead
I want to have an open classroom in which students can talk about the issues they face on a day to
day basis, and share their feelings and emotions. To do this, I need to model respect and dignity in
the classroom. I must connect with each student and find an avenue in which I can approach a
student in a manner they find comfortable. I realize that this may be difficult because every child
feels differently and comes into the school with various experiences, but it is necessary in order to
have a classroom of acceptance.

https://woknowing.wordpress.com/2010/10/14/social-negotiation-as-a-central-principle-of-
constructivism/