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Jayashankar
itself a capacitance change is insufficient for further processing. Such is the case
R1
V1 = Vs
R1 + R2
R4
V2 = Vs
R3 + R 4
Vo = V1 V2
Vo R1 R4
=
Vs R1 + R2 R3 + R 4
At balance, Vo = 0.
R1 R4
= (1)
R1 + R 2 R3 + R 4
Vo R1 + R4
= ( assume is small)
Vs R1 + + R2 R3 + R 4
From (1),
Vo R + R1
= 1
Vs R1 + R2 R1 + R 2
R1
= 1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
R2
=
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
R 2
=
(R1 + R2 )
2
R 2 R3
Let a = =
R1 R 4
Vo R 2 a
= =
R1 (1 + a )
2 2
Vs R
R 1 + 2
1
2
R1
Therefore,
Vo / Vs a
= = S0
/ R1 (1 + a )
2
Sensitivity:
dS (1 + a ) 2 (1 + a ) a
2
= =0
(1 + a )
2
da
(1 + a ) 2 (1 + a ) a = 0
2
(1 + a ) = 0 ( or ) a =1 and
1
So = = 0.25
4
One problem:
Vo changes with Vs . Therefore it is not possible to figure out if change in
- Correct for Vs .
R1 = R +
Vo R + R
=
Vs 2R + 2R
Vo /R
=
Vs 2 2 + ( / R )
- not linear.
- not symmetric.
1
Vo
= 1+
Vs 4R 2R
2 3
= 1 + 2
3
+ ...
4R 2R 4R 8R
Vo
= 1
Vs 4R 2R
0.04
=
2R 100
In periodic ----------------- ( 0.1 0.2%)
R
R1 = R3 = R + and
R2 = R 4 = R
1
Vo
= = 1
Vs 2R + 2R 2R
1
Vo / Vs 1
S= = 1 +
/R 2 2R
Vo 2 3
= 1 + 2 3 + ...
Vs 2R 2R 4R 8R
Now consider the case where R1 and R3 change in the opposite direction
R1 = R + ,
R3 = R and R2 = R4 = R
2
Vo 1 R
= 2
Vs 4 1
1
4R
1 1
2 2
= 1 + .
4 R 4 R
R 2 = R3 = R
Vo = 0
environment.
R4 = R +
R 2 = R3 = R
1
V / V ' 1
2
S = o 1 = 1
/R 2 2R
1
1
2
S = 1
2 2R
1
2 4
= 1 + + + .....
2 2R 2R
2
- non-linear effect due to and increases linear range.
2R
R2 = R4 = R
S =1
Example : Strain-Gauge.
AC Bridges
When the bridge is balanced,
Vo = 0 and
Z1 = R1 + jX1, Z2 = R2 + jX2
R1 + jX1 R 4 + jX 4
=
R 2 + jX2 R3 + jX3
Each impedance can have different phase angles. Angles other than 0D and 90D
Ratio N .
impedance.
Z1 Z4
Vo = Vs
Z1 + Zo Z3 + Z 4
Z3 Z 2
a= =
Z 4 Z1
Assuming Z Zo
Vo a Z 1 Z
2
=
Vs (1 + a )2 Zo 1 + a Zo
retaining as 1 to
Vo a Z
=
(1 + a ) Zo
2
Vs
V / Vo a 1 1
S = = = = .
Z / Zo (1 + a ) 2
a + 2 + (1/ a ) T
a
S is maximum when is maximum.
(1 + a )
2
1
T =2+a+ is minium.
a
Let a = .e j
1 1
T = 2 + + cos + j sin
is cons tan t.
If = 1,T0 = 2 + 2 cos
For any other , real part or T > T0 and imaginary pole is non-zero.
Therefore, T0 is minimum of T.
T0 min= 0.When = ,
For = 90 ,
1
1. max = .
2
2
z
2. non linearity ....
Z0
Instrumentation amplifier:
IA is a difference amplifier meeting following specification
Instrumentation amplifier
V V2
V01 V02 = (R3 + RG + R3 ) 1 [or ]
RG
2R
V01 V02 = 1 + 3 ( V1 V2 )
RG
10
R2
V0 = ( V2 V1 ) .
R1
V0 = A ( V2 V1 )
2R R
A = A I A13 = 1 + 3 2
RG R1
vary RG .
11
R
V0 = 1 + 2 ( V2 V1 )
R1
C4 = 10nF, f = 500Hz.
Eg. PMMC T l to ki = f ( )
M.I T l to kT2
12
Type of functions:
y = k1x1 + k 2 x 2 ;kx1x 2
d
( x )dt
1
dt
( x1 )
Symbol:
V0 R
= 2
Vi R1
13
2. Inverting amplifier:
Inverting amplifier
3. Summing amplifier:
Summing amplifier
14
i1 + i 2 + i 3 = i F
V1 V2 V3 V
+ + = o
R1 R 2 R3 RF
R R R
Vo = F V1 + F V2 + F V3
R1 R2 R3
4. Difference amplifier:
Differential amplifier
V0 = V01 + V02
V01 = V0 with V2 = 0.
V02 = V0 with V1 = 0.
R2
V01 = V1
R1
R
V02 = 1 + 2 Vp
R1
R R 4
= 1 + 2 V2
R1 R 4 + R3
R2
1 +
R2 R1
V0 = V2 V1
R1 R3
1 +
R 4
R R
If 3 = 1 ,
R 4 R2
R2 15
V0 =
R1
[ V2 V1 ]
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar
R2
V0 =
R1
[ V2 V1 ]
V2 + V1
VCM common mode ---------------- ( 2)
2
VDM V
V1 = VCM and V2 = VCM + DM
2 2
If we tie the inputs together VDM = 0 and we apply VCM 0 , a true differential
A DM
Ratio CMRR .
A CM
A DM
CMRR dB 20log10
A CM
ideal A CM = 0 and CMRR =
16