THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES FOR AN IDEAL GAS

PVn = Constant

Process Isobaric constant Isothermal Adiabatic

Quantity P = 0 V = 0 T = 0 Q=0
Constant =>

n 0 1 = Cp/Cv

First Law U = Q - W U = Q U = 0 U = -W
W=0 Q=W Q=0

Work

Heat Flow

Q 0

Heat
Capacity
0
Internal Energy

Enthalpy

Entropy

0*

Ideal Gas
Relations
 Cp Cv =R

= Cp/Cv = Ratio of Specific Heats

Cp = Constant Pressure Specific Heat Capacity (1.005 kJ/kg oC)

Cv = Constant Volume Specific Heat Capacity ( 0.717 kJ/kg oC)

R =8.314 kJ/kmol 0k Rair=0. 287 kJ/kg 0k

Mair= 28.97

Constant volume process

Constant pressure process

 Isentropic process

Isothermal process

Polytropic process
 The Idealized Otto Cycle
An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a
typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found
in automobile engines.

Pressure-Volume diagram

Temperature-Entropy diagram
The Otto cycle is a description of what happens to a mass of gas as it is subjected to
changes of pressure, temperature, volume, addition of heat, and removal of heat. The
mass of gas that is subjected to those changes is called the system. The system, in this
case, is defined to be the fluid (gas) within the cylinder. By describing the changes that
take place within the system, it will also describe in inverse, the system's effect on the
environment. In the case of the Otto cycle, the effect will be to produce enough net work
from the system so as to propel an automobile and its occupants in the environment.
The Otto cycle is constructed from:
The isentropic process of compression or expansion implies that there will be no
inefficiency (loss of mechanical energy), and there be no transfer of heat into or out of the
system during that process. Hence the cylinder, and piston are assumed impermeable to
heat during that time. Heat flows into the Otto cycle through the left pressurizing process
and some of it flows back out through the right depressurizing process, and the
difference between the heat added and heat removed is equal to the net mechanical
work generated.
The processes are described by:

Process 0-1 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder arrangement at

constant pressure.
Process 1-2 is an adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the air as the piston
moves from bottom dead Centre (BDC) to top dead Centre (TDC).
Process 2-3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the working gas from an
external source while the piston is at top dead Centre. This process is
intended to represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture and the subsequent
rapid burning.
Process 3-4 is an adiabatic (isentropic) expansion (power stroke).
Process 4-1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume process in which
heat is rejected from the air while the piston is at bottom dead centre.
Process 1-0 the mass of air is released to the atmosphere in a constant
pressure process.
The Otto cycle consists of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant volume,
isentropic expansion, and rejection of heat at constant volume. In the case of a four-
stroke Otto cycle, technically there are two additional processes: one for the exhaust of
waste heat and combustion products at constant pressure (isobaric), and one for the
intake of cool oxygen-rich air also at constant pressure; however, these are often omitted
in a simplified analysis. Even though those two processes are critical to the functioning of
a real engine, wherein the details of heat transfer and combustion chemistry are relevant,
for the simplified analysis of the thermodynamic cycle, it is more convenient to assume
that all of the waste-heat is removed during a single volume change.
Process 0-1 intake stroke
A mass of air (working fluid) is drawn into the cylinder, from 0 to 1, at atmospheric
pressure (constant pressure) through the open intake valve, while the exhaust valve is
closed during this process. The intake valve closes at point 1.
Process 1-2 compression stroke
Piston moves from crank end (BDC, bottom dead centre and maximum volume) to
cylinder head end (TDC, top dead centre and minimum volume) as the working gas with
initial state 1 is compressed isentropically to state point 2, through compression
ratio . Mechanically this is the isentropic compression of the air/fuel mixture in
the cylinder, also known as the compression stroke. This isentropic process assumes
there no mechanical energy is lost due to friction and no heat is transferred to or from the
gas, hence the process is reversible. The compression process requires that mechanical
work be added to the working gas. Generally the compression ratio is around 9-10:1
(V1:V2) for a typical engine.
Process 2-3 ignition phase
The piston is momentarily at rest at TDC. During this instant, which is known as the
ignition phase, the air/fuel mixture remains in a small volume at the top of the
compression stroke. Heat is added to the working fluid by the combustion of the injected
fuel, with the volume essentially being held constant. The pressure rises and the
ratio is called the "explosion ratio".
 Process 3-4 expansion stroke
The increased high pressure exerts a force on the piston and pushes it towards the BDC.
Expansion of working fluid takes place isentropically and work is done by the system on
the piston. The volume ratio is called the "isentropic expansion ratio". (For the
Otto cycle is the same as the compression ratio ). Mechanically this is the
expansion of the hot gaseous mixture in the cylinder known as expansion (power) stroke.
Process 4-1 idealized heat ejection
The piston is momentarily at rest at BDC. The working gas pressure drops
instantaneously from point 4 to point 1 during a constant volume process as heat is
removed to an idealized external sink that is brought into contact with the cylinder head.
The gas has returned to state 1.
Process 1-0 exhaust stroke
The exhaust valve opens at point 1. As the piston moves from BDC (point 1) to TDC
(point 0) with the exhaust valve opened, the gaseous mixture is vented to the
atmosphere and the process starts anew.

Thermal efficiency

Thermal efficiency is the quotient of the net work to the heat addition into system. Note:
the heat added is assigned a positive value as negative values of efficiency are
nonsensical.

Equation 1:

Alternatively, thermal efficiency can be derived by strictly heat added and heat rejected.

Equation 2:

In the Otto cycle, there is no heat transfer during the process 1-2 and 3-4 as they are
isentropic processes. Heat is supplied only during the constant volume processes 2-3
and heat is rejected only during the constant volume processes 4-1.

Inserting the specific heat equation into the thermal efficiency equation (Equation 2)
yields.

Upon rearrangement:
noting from the diagrams . The equation then reduces to:

Since the Otto cycle uses isentropic processes during the compression (process 1 to 2)
and expansion (process 2 to 4) the isentropic equations of ideal gases and the constant
pressure/volume relations can be used to yield Equations 3 & 4.

Equation 3:

Equation 4:

where

is the specific heat ratio

Further simplifying Equation 4, where is the compression ratio :

Equation 5:

From inverting Equation 4 and inserting it into Equation 2 the final thermal efficiency
can be expressed as:[7]

Equation 6:

From analyzing equation 6 it is evident that the Otto cycle efficiency depends directly
upon the compression ratio . Since the for air is 1.4, an increase in will produce
an increase in . However, the for combustion products of the fuel/air mixture is
often taken at approximately 1.3. The foregoing discussion implies that it is more
efficient to have a high compression ratio. The standard ratio is approximately 10:1
for typical automobiles. Usually this does not increase much because of the
 possibility of auto ignition, or "knock", which places an upper limit on the compression
ratio. During the compression process 1-2 the temperature rises, therefore an
increase in the compression ratio causes an increase in temperature. Auto ignition
occurs when the temperature of the fuel/air mixture becomes too high before it is
ignited by the flame front. The compression stroke is intended to compress the
products before the flame ignites the mixture. If the compression ratio is increased,
the mixture may auto-ignite before the compression stroke is complete, leading to
"engine knocking". This can damage engine components and will decrease the brake
power of the engine

The Idealized Diesel Cycle

p-V Diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction.

The drawing above shows a p-V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle;
where is pressure and is specific volume. The ideal Diesel cycle follows the following
four distinct processes (The color references refer to the color of the line on the
diagram.):

Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression of the fluid (blue)

Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant pressure heating (red)
Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion (yellow)
Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling (green)[1]

The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work. The isentropic processes
are impermeable to heat: heat flows into the loop through the left expanding isobaric
process and some of it flows back out through the right depressurizing process, and the
heat that remains does the work.
 Work in ( ) is done by the piston compressing the working fluid
Heat in ( ) is done by the combustion of the fuel
Work out ( ) is done by the working fluid expanding on to the piston (this
produces usable torque)
Heat out ( ) is done by venting the air
Maximum thermal efficiency
The maximum thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle is dependent on the compression ratio
and the cut-off ratio. It has the following formula under cold air standard analysis:

where
is thermal efficiency

is the cut-off ratio (ratio between the end and start volume for the
combustion phase)

r is the compression ratio

is ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)

The cut-off ratio can be expressed in terms of temperature as shown

below:

can be approximated to the flame temperature of the fuel used. The flame
temperature can be approximated to the adiabatic flame temperature of the fuel with
corresponding air-to-fuel ratio and compression pressure, . can be approximated to
the inlet air temperature.

This formula only gives the ideal thermal efficiency. The actual thermal efficiency will be
significantly lower due to heat and friction losses. The formula is more complex than the
Otto cycle (petrol/gasoline engine) relation that has the following formula;
The additional complexity for the Diesel formula comes around since the heat addition is
at constant pressure and the heat rejection is at constant volume. The Otto cycle by
comparison has both the heat addition and rejection at constant volume.

Comparing the two formulae it can be seen that for a given compression ratio (r), the
ideal Otto cycle will be more efficient. However, a diesel engine will be more efficient
overall since it will have the ability to operate at higher compression ratios. If a petrol
engine were to have the same compression ratio, then knocking (self-ignition) would
occur and this would severely reduce the efficiency, whereas in a diesel engine, the self-
ignition is the desired behavior. Additionally, both of these cycles are only idealizations,
and the actual behavior does not divide as clearly or sharply. And the ideal Otto cycle
formula stated above does not include throttling losses, which do not apply to diesel
engines.

The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In

it, fuel is ignited by heat generated by compressing air in the combustion chamber, into
which fuel is injected. This is in contrast to igniting it with a spark plug as in the Otto
cycle(four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines (heat engines using the Diesel cycle) are
used in automobiles, power generation, diesel-electric locomotives, and submarines.