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DESIGN OF PILLARS

MINE-415: Strata Control

Outline
Introduction

Failure Mechanism

Mining Method

Design Method

Case Histories

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PILLARS
DEFINITION
A column of coal or ore left to support the overlying strata or
hanging wall in a mine,

Pillars are normally left permanently to support the surface

or to keep old workings water tight.

Coal pillars, such as those in pillar-and-stall mining, are

extracted at a later period.

PILLARS
Pillars are the load bearing
elements between two stopes

Pillars are left to achieve local

and global ground control

Leaving pillars reduces

recovery

Thus pillar dimensions must be

optimized

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PILLARS

PILLARS

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PILLARS

PILLARS

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PILLAR TYPES

Based on
functions
Support pillars and
Protective pillars

Mine Pillars
Pannel pillar
Pillars between Sill pillar
parallel tunnels Barrier pillar
Crown pillar

PILLAR TYPES

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FAILURE MECHANISM

FAILURE MECHANISM

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PILLARS
Understanding of the properties and performance of pillars
and pillar systems is essential to achieve the maximum,
safe economic potential of an ore body

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PILLAR MINING METHODS

Any
Block other
Sublevel caving
Chevron stoping
Stope mining
and method
Room
and pillar
pillar

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PILLAR MINING METHODS

Clear differences exist between the ways in which pillars
are created and state of loading and confinement

Pillars in flat-lying, stratiform orebodies are frequently

isolated on four sides, providing resistance to imposed
displacement

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PILLAR MINING METHODS

Interaction between the pillar ends and the country rock
results in heterogeneous, triaxial states of stress in the
body of the pillar, even though it is uniaxially loaded by
the abutting rock

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PILLAR MINING METHODS

Failure of pillars to sustain the
imposed states of stress may
result in extensive collapse of
the adjacent rock.

If the volume of the unfilled

mined void is high, the risk is
that collapse may propagate
through the pillar structure.

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PILLAR MINING METHODS

In an orebody that is extensive
in two dimensions, this
possibility may be precluded
by dividing the deposit into
mine districts, or panels,
separated by barrier pillars

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PILLAR STATE OF STRESS

Stoping activity in an orebody causes stress redistribution
and an increase in pillar loading

For states of stress in a pillar less than the in situ rock

mass strength, the pillar remains intact and responds
elastically to the increased state of stress

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PILLAR STATE OF STRESS

Mining interest is usually concentrated on the peak load-
bearing capacity of a pillar.

Subsequent interest may then focus on the post-peak, or

ultimate load-displacement behaviour, of the pillar

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PILLAR STRUCTURAL RESPONSE

The structural response of a pillar to mining-induced load
is determined by
the rock material properties,
the geological structure,
the absolute and relative dimensions of the pillar and
the nature of surface constraints applied by the country rock

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PILLAR DESIGN ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS

sp = pzz (wo + wp)/wp

r = wo/(wo + wp)

p = pzz[1/(1 r )]

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PILLAR DESIGN ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS

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PILLAR DESIGN
The effects of pillar volume and geometric shape on
strength S are usually expressed by an empirical power
relation of the form

S = So va(wp/h)b = Sova Rb

So is a strength parameter representative of both the orebody rock mass

and its geomechanical setting

v = pillar volume R = pillar width/height ratio

wp = pillar width a = geo-structural
h = height respectively b = geo-mechanical conditions in the
orebody rock

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PILLAR DESIGN
For square pillars
S = So ha wpb

a =(a + b)/3 b =(b - 2 a)/3

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PILLAR DESIGN
The effective width, wpe of a pillar of irregular shape, given
by

wpe = 4 Ap /C

where
Ap is the pillar operating area and C is the pillar circumference

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PILLAR DESIGN
Average pillar confinement
Cpav = 0.46[log(w/h) + 0.75]

S = 0.44 sc (0.68 + 0.52 k )

k = tan{a cos [(1 Cpav)/(1 + Cpav)]}

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CASE HISTORIES

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CASE HISTORIES

CASE HISTORIES
Uniaxial compressive strength of stone mine rocks collected
at mine sites

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CASE HISTORIES

CASE HISTORIES
the maximum horizontal stress vary from 7.6 MPa (1,100
psi) through 26 MPa (3,800 psi) up to depths of 300 m
(1,000 ft) [Dolinar 2003]

The orientation of the maximum horizontal stress for 80% of

the sites in these regions is from N60E to N90E.

The minimum horizontal stress is approximately equal to

the vertical stress.

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CASE HISTORIES

CASE HISTORIES

Naturally stable 13.4-m (44-ft) wide roof span in a stone mine.

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CASE HISTORIES

Bolts, straps, and injection grouting used to rehabilitate the roof at the
site of a major roof fall.

CASE HISTORIES
Support Practices
Grouted rock bolts are the most widely used form of support.
Rock bolts of various types are used to reinforce the roof.
Fully-grouted bolts are the most commonly used bolts; friction
bolts and mechanical anchor bolts are also used, but are less
prevalent.

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CASE HISTORIES
Support Practices
Bolt lengths vary from 0.9 m (3 ft) to 2.4 m (8 ft) with 1.8-m and
2.4-m (6-ft and 8-ft) long bolts making up 67% of the bolts
included in the survey.
Bolt spacing of 1.5 m (5 ft) and 1.8 m (6 ft) are the two most
commonly observed spacings, and the maximum bolt spacing
was 2.4 m (8 ft).

CASE HISTORIES
Support Practices
As with most other roof bolting designs in strong rocks, high
strength and stiff bolts are more likely to provide the desired
rock reinforcement than low strength and low stiffness systems
[Iannacchione et al. 1998].
In extreme situations cable bolts and sealant injection have
been used to stabilize the roof; but roof screen is rarely used.
These items are considered special applications and were not
included in the study.

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CASE HISTORIES

Chart showing the effect of the thickness of the roof beam on excavation
stability in mines that did not experience horizontal stress related instability.

CASE HISTORIES
Horizontal Stress Issues
Shear failure and buckling of roof was observed [Iannacchione
et al. 2003].

Failure initiated as guttering in one corner of an excavation

Falls related to horizontal stress typically line up in the direction

perpendicular to the regional maximum horizontal stress and are
oval shaped when seen in plan view

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CASE HISTORIES

Roof guttering at the pillar-roof Large stress-related, oval-shaped fall

contact. that has propagated upwards into
weaker, overlying strata in a
limestone mine.

CASE HISTORIES

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CASE HISTORIES

CASE HISTORIES

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CASE HISTORIES

Diagram showing room and pillar layout modified to counter horizontal stress

CASE HISTORIES
Roof Support
The support system is expected to: Provide suspension
support for a potentially unstable roof beam.
Provide local support to potentially unstable blocks in the roof.
Combine thinly laminated roof into a thicker, stronger unit.
Provide surface control when progressive spalling and small
rock falls occur.

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CASE HISTORIES
Roof Support
The above support functions can usually be achieved by the
1.8-m (6-ft) and 2.4-m (8-ft) bolts used in the stone mines.
When poor ground is encountered locally or when horizontal
stress-related roof failures occur, supplementary bolting, steel
straps and screen, and longer cable bolts
From a design point of view, a stone mine is unlikely to be
economically feasible if heavy support such as cable bolts and
screen would be required on a daily basis.

CASE HISTORIES
Roof Support
Such rock conditions would probably require reduced
excavation spans, and the support costs would be prohibitive.
The first objective in designing an underground stone mine
should be to confirm that the rock mass quality is adequate for
creating the typical 13 m (43 ft) roof spans without resorting to
elaborate support systems.

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DESIGN GUIDELINES
The roof spans affect the pillar stress, and the pillar layout
can have a significant impact on roof stability.
The design, therefore, should be conducted by considering
the ability of both the pillars and the roof spans to produce a
stable overall mine layout.
Start with developing a clear understanding of the
geotechnical characteristics of the rock mass
Next, an appropriate roof span and roof horizon must be
selected.

DESIGN GUIDELINES
The main development direction for the production areas
should then be determined, based on rock structures and
the likely horizontal stress direction.
Support needs are addressed next.
Once the roof design components are complete, the
dimensions of the pillars are set, and any possible changes
to the pillar layout for horizontal stress are made.
Once a design has been implemented, the pillars and roof
are checked to verify that they are performing as expected.

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GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
Adequate geotechnical investigations should be conducted
before the design phase.

Such investigations should include rock strength testing,

core logging, bedding layering assessment, joint orientation
assessment, and rock mass classification.

If horizontal, stress-related issues are expected, stress

measurements can assist in providing an indication of the
orientation and magnitude of the maximum horizontal
stress.

GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
The absence of weak, softening bands within the mining
horizon should be confirmed.
Similarly, the presence or absence of large, angular
discontinuities should be identified.
During initial scoping studies, the geotechnical data, such
as the rock strength, rock mass rating, and presence of
angular discontinuities may be unknown.
In these cases, conservative estimates should be used;
however, the appropriate site-specific geotechnical data
must be obtained for the final design.

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ROOF SPAN SELECTION

Past experience has shown that stable roof spans in the
range of 10 m to 15 m (33 ft to 50 ft).
For an initial design it might be prudent to design for no
more than 12 m (40 ft) spans.
There is limited experience with spans that are greater than
15 m (50 ft).
The need for roof support is strongly related to the
thickness of the first rock bed in the roof of the excavations.

SELECTING THE ROOF HORIZON

Experience has shown that if the immediate roof is less than
1.2m (4 ft) thick, it is highly likely that it will be unstable.
Thicker roof beams may be required if excessive horizontal
stresses are encountered.
Mines where horizontal stress problems exist, tend to have
roof beams that are in the range of 2.7 to 5 m (9 to 16 ft).

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SELECTING THE ROOF HORIZON

Persistent parting planes can be selected to form the roofline
if they are present at a convenient location in the formation
Using a preexisting parting plane as the roofline helps
provide a clean breaking surface for blasting operations.
Many of the mines that do not use roof supports have a
natural parting as the roofline.

ORIENTATION OF HEADINGS
The direction of the headings in the production areas
should be favorably oriented to any expected horizontal
stress and the prevalent jointing.
As with any underground excavation layout, it is preferable
to intersect the main joint strike direction as near to
perpendicular as possible.

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ORIENTATION OF HEADINGS
Because room-and-pillar mines have two orthogonal
directions of mining, the heading direction should be
favored over the crosscut direction when selecting the
orientation of the layout.
If the orientation of the maximum horizontal field stress is
known, and stress-related problems are anticipated, the
heading direction should be oriented parallel to the direction
of major horizontal stress, with due consideration of joint
orientations and crosscut stability.

ROOF SUPPORT CONSIDERATIONS

Depending on the characteristics of the immediate roof,
support in the form of patterned rock bolts may be required.
The importance of the thickness of the first beam in the
roof, the orientation of excavations relative to the maximum
horizontal stress, and characteristics of rock joints will
determine whether and how much support is required.

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ROOF SUPPORT CONSIDERATIONS

Rock bolts in the range of 1.8 to 2.4 m (6 to 8 ft) are most
commonly used in stone mines.
Mines that do not use bolting are located in formations with
a favorable combination of geological conditions, and they
conduct blasting practices that maintain an unbroken roof
horizon.

MONITORING AND VERIFICATION

Once the roof span and pillar design has been finalized and
mining is underway, monitoring should be implemented to
verify the stability of the roof and pillars.
Monitoring results can be used to identify potential stability
problems before they occur and may indicate that a change
in the design is required.

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MONITORING AND VERIFICATION

Monitoring technologies that are available include borehole-
video logging [Ellenberger 2009], roof deflection monitoring
[Marshall et al. 2000], roof stability mapping using the Roof
Fall Risk Index (RFRI), [Iannacchione et al. 2006] and
microseismic monitoring of rock fracture [Iannacchione et
al. 2004; Ellenberger and Bajpayee 2007].

PILLAR DESIGN SOFTWARE

All numerical modelling softwares
C-Pillar - RocScience
S-Pillar - NIOSH
ALPS - NIOSH
ARMS - NIOSH

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REFERENCES
Brady and Brown Chapter 13

Pillar and Roof Span Design Guidelines for Underground Stone

Mines by CDC (NIOSH)

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