Wednesday, 28th October 2015 4th Lecture

Conservatism
Context
In the middle ages, conservatives meant those who tried to maintain intact the city.
In the 19th century, the word became an ideological position, a moderate attitude regarding
a certain fact or situation.
In France, the term was first coined by Chateaubriand in the newspaper Le Conservateur,
while in Britain, the term was first acquired in the journal Quarterly review in 1830.
By 1835, the term became the official term of the Tory party.
The conservatives tent to reject the idea that they represent an ideology. They are defined by an
anti - political philosophy, meaning that conservatives usually go against theories and obstructions.
Conservatives support the common sense against intellectuals and theories. According to them,
ideas oversimplify social reality.
The conservatives do not reject change in itself, as we accept the fact that we need to adapt in
time. We change in order to preserve. It is not necessary to change something, it is necessary not
to change anything.

Features of conservatism (features changed in time their meaning):

Tradition: According to Edmund Burt or Christian Democrats, tradition has a divine source.
In 19thcentury, there is a new interpretation, a Darwinist interpretation, in which God has
no place.
On the Darwinist theory, there is a tradition of selecting those institutions and customs that
are best adapted to human needs. Tradition offers the feeling of belonging (gives you an
identity). We should preserve tradition because they are tested by the time.
According to Edmund Burke tradition means an aristocratic order, while in neo-
conservatism, tradition implies preserving economic and political liberalism.

Human imperfection: Conservatives are influenced by Christianity and the idea of Sin.
They usually have a pessimist view on human nature, marked by several limits, for instance,
psychological limits, such as a fear of unknown, moral limits we tend to be selfish and
excessive, or intellectual ones we know reality only in certain limits. For conservatives
human nature doesnt change, despite the fact that human nature is influenced by society.
Earlier conservatism was influenced by Christianity and religion, while contemporary
conservatism might use religion, but it also understands individuals as following their own
interests in economic competition
Organic society:
A metaphor of organism
- Hierarchy organism
- Mutual dependence
 - Division of labor (every part has its own function, which reflects on all other parts)
- Harmony
- Change is very slow
For liberals the basic thing of society is individual, we are like atoms. While for
conservatives we are thrown in the social environment/society, and that environment
shapes us, educates us, and we become a part of society.

Contemporary conservatives try to avoid using the term organism or organic society.

Hierarchy and authority: According to them there is a natural inequality between men
(physical, intellectual, social). Society needs elites that should govern from above, should
take care of the people paternalistic attitude (father/parent means protection; has an
authority, but gives love, support)
Relation: noble peasants. Peasants work for nobles, but nobles should protect and take
care of their people.
Contemporary conservative elites are not aristocratic, but meritocratic (based on
meritocracy).

Property: It is a source of stability and psychological and social motivation, an expression of

your identity; about your place in society, self-respect, your meaning in society and your
social status.

Private property and social redistribution neo-conservatives today reject social

redistribution. Private property is based solely on meritocracy.

Branches of Conservatism
1. Traditionalist conservatism
Context
Economic capitalism that created bourgeoisie. This class tries to replace the aristocracy.
Political French revolution (was born as a reaction to this revolution)
We see this clear in the book of Edmund Burke (1729 1797), Reflection of the Revolution
in France. In his book he makes a comparison between French revolution and Glorious
revolution (Britain 1688). This revolution (glorious) had as basic principle moderation and
pragmatism (this is a better one), the idea to change in order to preserve.

They didnt break the monarchy, they saved it, but it wasnt now an absolute one, but a
constitutional, in contrast to French, were the monarchy was replaced. In contrast of
Glorious revolution, French one is about the radical change of reality (according to Burke).
Change began and end in itself.
French revolution set free unlimited human passions. It tries to destroy the continuity with
past.
 Organic reality, social reality governed by aristocrats and monarchs, but this is not an
absolute, it is limited.
Burke also criticizes the liberal idea of the social contract. He redefines the social contract in
the sense that this social contract is not signed by individuals; rather it is a social contract
between generations (between the living people, death and those who are not born yet).
2. Modern conservatism
Context
Economic: industrialization, modernization and economic inequalities.
Political: the revolutions (from 1830s 40s). the political arrests had an impact.
According to Benjamin Disraeli (1804 1881) prime-minister of Great Britain (Jewish
origins), advocates that Great Britain is divided in two nations rich and poor, the idea that
Britain should become one nation. In this modern world we should find again an organic
relationship between individuals, because otherwise everything goes apart. The wealthy
people have not only rights but also obligations towards the poor (again with comparison
with father child). In 1867 he gives the right to vote to workers. In the same time he
introduces social reforms in order to enhance the living conditions. He tries to think of
conservatism as being the middle way between liberalism (based on free commerce, less
affair, etc.) and socialism.

3. The New Right (end of 20th century)

Context
Economic: Oil crisis of1973, which undermines the belief in welfare state and allows
Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan to reach power.
Political and social: Social protest from 1960s, which created a panic in the Western
Countries. They feared that this protest will lead to communism or social chaos.
Neo-conservatism or neo-liberalism combines classical economic liberalism with
conservatism (the idea of law order, justice)
4. Neo - liberalism
Neoliberalism means the return to the classical liberalism, but with one important change:
while classical liberals were preoccupied with politics and political rights, the neo-liberals are
interested in economic initiative.

Robert Nozick (1938 2002): In his book Anarchy, state and utopia, Nozick tries to give a
reply to John Rawls, emphasizing the idea of a minimal state, interested only in preserving
social peace (army, police).
Social redistribution is unjust, because goes against one fundamental natural right: the right of
having private property.

Murray Rothbard (1926 1995): He defends that we should privatize everything (even
tribunals) because of competition which creates fairness.
 5. Neo conservatism
There is an important difference between conservatism in America and Europe. Meanwhile in
America, neo conservatism tries to preserve liberalism, which is part of American identity; in
Europe there is not preservation of traditions but rather the preservation of aristocracy.

Irving Kristol and Daniel Bell

They both criticize L. Johnson (American president democrat), because in his policy there is a
strong social assistance. They are against this type of state intervention and the minimal state.
They want to save American culture and traditions. Reagans and Bushs administration
succeed to put in practice this idea.

Summary
1. Traditional conservatism
- Pragmatism
- Paternalism
- Traditionalism (preserve the old aristocratic world)
- Organic society
- Hierarchy
- Social responsibility
- Middle way in economy (between liberalism and socialism)
2. Modern conservatism
- Pragmatism
- Paternalism
- Synthesis between traditions and modernity
- The need for organic ties (in a selfish competitive world)
- Hierarchy, but also openness towards the working class
- Social responsibility
- Middle way in economy
3. New Right (tensions)
- Individualism, but also Organicism
- Radical modernism, but also traditionalism
- Meritocracy, but also social hierarchy
- Minimal state (state no longer intervenes in economy, or health, or education), but also
a maximal state (powerful state, heavily intervened in policy, army, secret service)
- Internationalism (globalization), but also nationalism (ant globalization)

Wednesday, 4th November 2015 5th Lecture

Social Catholicism
Context
Economic point of view: Inequality, Industrialization, Urbanization.
Political: the spread of Socialism and Nationalism.
In 1873, the new reborn of Italian Armies concurred Vatican and the Pope became a prisoner.
Only, in 1929 Vatican became independent again. The Catholic Church lost its political
influence, but it still tried to preserve its social and spiritual influence against the interference
of the national state and the spread of socialist movement among the working class.

Wilhelm Emmanuel Von Ketteler (1811-1877) founded further the social Catholic thinking.
He was against the Christianism Absolutism, but also criticized liberalism. According to him,
liberty cannot be achieved if it is an absolute value. Liberty should be balanced with anything
else, too.
In contrast with liberalism, Ketteler rejects the idea of an indefinite progress, a contextual
circumstantial development. We cannot radically change humans. We are limited beings so
that we should give up utopian projects.
The state should intervene at the local level only when it is necessary, as we need a balance
between central authorities and local communities.
In order to stop the possible abuses of the central authorities, the society needs the existence
of strong intermediary groups, namely associations, church and family.
Ketteler was influenced by a German socialist, Ferdinand Lassalle who wrote about the labor
problem and Christianity.
From his point of view, the Church should protect human dignity and the poor. He supported
the rights of the working class against employers.

Leo XIII (1810-1903)Rerum Novarum (in latin meaning revolutionary change) It was an open
letter, an encyclical issued by Leo XIII, passed to all Catholic bishops, that addressed the
condition of the working classes. He had an influence in Ketteler. He also tries to envision a
political alternative to liberalism and socialism.
According to Leo XIII, human nature and private property have a divine source because humans
need to have access to resources. What distinguish us from animals is the capacity to work and
the access to these resources.
There are natural differences between humans such as those related to social class, capacities,
abilities, intelligence, existing a hierarchy among people as society is like an antagonism in
which each individual fills a certain position, function in this organism. However, the imbalance
should be prevented, because otherwise, economic inequalities cam damaged this social
organism.
Leo XIII thought about the possibility of having syndicates in an attempt to win over the social
class. Against socialists who believe that there is a classification and struggle in the society, the
Pope advocates a harmonious relationship between workers and employers. Neither capital
can do without labor; nor labor without capital
Individual and family are older than the state, so the function of the state is to intervene only
when it is necessary at the local level, according to the principle of the subsidiary.
Pope Pius XI (1857-1939) issued an encyclical called Quadragesimo anno. The Pope tries to
connect the social thinking to the present and as the Pope Leo XIII did, he attempts to offer a
middle way between liberalism and socialism. Despite the fact, that private property is
legitimate, individuals should pay attention to public matters and to those vulnerable from the
social point of view. Pius XI gives a great emphasis on social poverty.
He advocates the need for social redistribution, defending that workers should become
stakeholders. Also, he advocates a minimal age which should allow an individual to support its
family. He criticizes the economic abuses on children and supports charity to reduce inequality,
emphasizing the need for Catholic Syndicates. In order to avoid social antagonism, we need
intermediary groups such as corporations, to manage and support not only the welfare of its
members but also the need for social recognition- the self respect of individuals as they are
integrated in a certain group.
The Pope mentions explicitly the principle of subsidiary (theoretical innovation of this thinking).

Personalism
Context
In the 20th century, authors wrote their texts during the intermediary period.
From the economic point of view, the economic crisis of 1929 takes place.
There is the rise of fascism, Nazism, socialism and atheism.
Emmanuel Mounier (1905-1950) In 1936, he wrote A Personalist Manifesto in which he
denounces the bourgeois character of society indifferent to poverty or ideals.
Mounier, influenced by Marx, criticizes liberalism for generating desire for profit, selfishness,
the gap between real human needs in the name of production and consumption,
marginalization.
Collectivism and Liberalism are connected as both of them cut off the connection with God,
nature and humanity.
He tries to offer a new vision called Personalism, according to which we should transform
human being in an absolute value, the centre of the universe.
The distinction between collectivity and community is that only in the community, individuals
are treated as persons. Family and individual is the most basic social form of community.
Also, he defended that there should be a balance between local community and central
authority. For instance, education should be a mixture between state intervention and private
efforts.
Mounier criticizes capitalism and believes that we should subordinate economy to the needs of
human person or capital to the labor. Labor should not be a commodity as it is a natural
feature of our humanity. If you work, you should have the capacity to have a good life. Those
who do not work do not have the right to eat or survive.
Also, he rejects all modern versions of the state: fascist, communist, liberalist state, proposing
instead a pluralist state based on interpersonal, regional, national communities. The state has
enough space to intervene at the social level in order to make sure that the rights of persons
are respected.
Mounier defended the vision of subsidiary: the state intervene at the local level when
necessary. After solving the problem, the state should retreat, as it is a decentralized state.
He influenced the European federal vision, after the II World War. Schuman, being a Christian
democrat, has in mind a European federation.

Jacques Maritain (1882-1973): According to him, there is a great misunderstanding in

modernity. Modernity tends to associate personality with the individual but these two are
separated.
The individual designates only the material sight which makes individual to be different from
the others.
Individuals are not only human beings, but also plants and animals. Only persons are human
beings because personality points to a spiritual dimension- laugh freedom, etc.
Then, he was seduced by a French Fascist reaction (Actin Franaise) that later on rejected and
became a supporter of a pluralist democracy.
Maritain coins the term integral Humanism against an anthropocentric Humanism. He criticizes
the idea of an individual as being autonomous or sovereign, thus we deny the spiritual side,
limiting it to the biologic level.
Also, he rejects liberalism, individualism and socialist collectivism. He proposes a civilization
based on Christianity, in accordance with two fundamental principles:
-Balance between local communities and the central authority
-Plural Democracy and Federalism

Summary
- Rooted in the Catholic thinking, adapting to the French Revolution and to Modern Society.
- After the II World War, Social Catholicism fully accepted representative democracy.
- It is based on certain Christian values, such as the social market, the principle of subsidiary
and the distribution of wealth (liberalism and less affaire vs. communism and socialism).
- Social Catholicism supports federalism. Schuman had in mind a political federation for the
European Union. However, the parties are not anymore based on Christian values, they are
pretty secular. They do not relate to Christianity as they used to do.
- Central Ideas:
* The idea of personhood or human person avoided the liberal individual and the socialist
collectivism.
*Dignity is the highest value of Christian Democracy.
*Emphasis put on intermediary groups
*The tendency of modernity is to erase the mediation between the state and the
individuals
* Social Market in economic terms
*Principle of subsidiary
*Federalism