Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________

Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

ACTIVITY 1
THE MICROSCOPE

A microscope is an instrument equipped with a system of lenses designed in a manner

that when an object is placed under it, the object is magnified several times. The study of
biology often requires examination of structures that are too small to be seen by the naked eye.
Thus, it is important to learn the parts and functions of this instrument to facilitate biological
studies requiring its use.

I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, students will be able to:

1. Identify the parts of the microscope and to give the use of each part.
2. Demonstrate how to correctly use, and take care of the microscope.
3. Estimate the sizes of objects under the microscope.
II. MATERIALS:
compound microscope
glass slides
cover slips
hair strand
cotton fibers
smallest letter e cut from a newspaper
III. PROCEDURE:
A. Parts and Functions of a Compound Microscope
Your laboratory instructor will show you the basic parts of the compound
microscope and will discuss their functions.
1. Optical parts
a. Ocular or eyepiece
b. Objectives
Scanning 4x
Low power objective 10x
High power objective 45 x
Oil immersion objective 100x

1
 c. Condenser
d. Mirror
2. Mechanical parts
a. Draw tube
b. Body tube
c. Coarse adjustment knob
d. Fine adjustment knob
e. Arm
f. Dust shield
g. Revolving nosepiece
h. Stage
i. Stage aperture
j. Stage clips
k. Iris diaphragm
l. Inclination joint
m. Pillar
n. Base
B. Manipulation of the Compound Microscope
Your instructor will demonstrate how to focus a specimen under the different
objectives of the microscope. Follow exactly the demonstration using the cotton
fibers, hair strand and letter e. Add a drop of water to the slide and place a
cover slip and mount on the stage and observe the specimen under each
objective.
C. Magnification Power of the Microscope
Determine the total magnification of a microscope by multiplying magnification
of eyepiece lens with objective lens. (NOTE: Magnification is inscribed on metal
surface of magnifying parts.)
MAGNIFICATION TOTAL MAGNIFICATION
Ocular or eyepiece:
Objectives:
Scanner =
LPO =
HPO =
Oil Immersion =

D. Care of the Microscope

Your instructor will discuss and demonstrate the proper ways of handling the
microscope and tips in preventing damage of its parts.

2
IV. DRAWINGS/ QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:
1. Draw the compound microscope and label the parts.

3
2. Draw the hair strand, cotton fibers and letter e as seen under LPO and HPO.

LPO HPO

a. hair strand

b. cotton fibers

c. letter e

3. Compare the images seen under LPO and HPO.

4. Why is the image of letter e inverted?

5. Give at least 5 ways of properly handling and caring a microscope.

4
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 2
FRESH SPECIMEN PREPARATION
The study of biology often requires examination of structures/ organisms that need to
be observed in their living state. The following is a technique that provides a view of the
structural details of a plant cell particularly that of an onion (Allium cepa) skin.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, the students will be able to:
1. Perform a technique of fresh specimen preparation.
2. Explain why such preparation is essential to biological studies.
II. MATERIALS:
Onion bulb
Microscope
Scalpel/ blade
Glass plate/ cutting board
Glass slide
Cover slip
Stain (Iodine/ Methylene blue)
III. PROCEDURE:
1. Remove the thin inner lining of an onion skin. Cut into a neat rectangular piece.
Mount on a slide. Cover with a slip.
2. Observe under LPO and HPO. Do you see rectangular cells?
3. Remove the cover slip, and put a drop of stain on top of the specimen. Allow the
stain to stay for a few minutes. Replace the cover slip. Remove excess stain with
tissue paper, or by running water on the edge of the slide held between your
two fingers.
4. Observed stained specimen under LPO, then HPO. What do you observe? Is the
specimen clearer? What are visible now?

5
IV. DRAWINGS/ QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:
1. Draw your observations.
ONION (UNSTAINED) ONION (STAINED)

2. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of fresh specimens from

permanent slide preparations.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Fresh specimen

Prepared slide

3. Why is staining important in fresh specimen preparation?

6
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 3
EXAMINATION OF LIVING MICROORGANISMS
Beyond the naked eye, the Earth hosts to millions of living organisms. Appearing either as
single-celled or as multi-cellular organisms, their existence has played an important role in such
a great collaboration in sustaining life. With the microscope, the structures and characteristics
of these microorganisms could be thoroughly observed.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, the student will be able to:
1. Locate and observe microorganisms present in pond water
2. Observe and compare motility of different microorganisms
II. MATERIALS:

1 compound microscope dropper or pipette

2 glass slides bakers yeast

2 cover slips hay infusion/ pond water

III. PROCEDURE:
1. Using a dropper or pipette, transfer a drop of pond water in the slide.
2. Place the cover slip into the pond water 45 angle and allow it to drop gently onto
the slide, forming a thin layer of water without air bubbles between the cover slip
and the slide.
3. Mount the slide on the stage. Observe some motile organisms using LPO and HPO.
Describe how they move.
4. Using bakers yeast, make a wet mount in a separate slide. Observe motility of yeast
cells under LPO and HPO. Compare motility with organisms seen in pond water.

7
IV. DRAWINGS/ OBSERVATIONS/ QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:

LPO HPO

1. Microorganisms in
pond water

Describe the characteristics of organisms and its motility.

2. Bakers yeasts

Describe the characteristics of the cells and compare its motility with organisms in
pond water.

8
QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean when you say that organisms exhibit true
motility?

2. Which of the cells observed above exhibit true motility?

9
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 4
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules are organic compounds present in living cells. They are categorized into
four major classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Each compound exhibits
structural and functional properties which distinguish them from each other, and account for
their respective roles in the metabolic activities taking place inside cells.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of this activity, the students will be able to:
1. Test for the presence of organic compounds in plant and animal products.
2. Describe properties of organic compounds.
II. MATERIALS: vegetable oil, glucose, starch, albumin (egg white), iodine solution,
Biurets reagent, Benedicts reagent, 10 test tubes, test tube holder, stirring rod, test
tube rack, 10 ml-graduated cylinder, masking tape, marker pen
III. PROCEDURE:
Testing for Carbohydrates
1. An indicator is a substance that changes color in the presence of a particular type of
molecule such as carbohydrates and proteins.
2. Use masking tape to make labels for 5 test tubes. Label the test tubes vegetable oil,
glucose, starch, egg whites, and water.
3. For each test tube, add a small amount of the substance indicated on the masking-
tape label.
4. To test for glucose, add an equal amount of Benedicts reagent into each samples and
heat for a minute on a water bath with boiling water. A color change of copper red to
brown indicates for the positive presence of glucose.
5. Put a plus next to those samples testing positive for glucose and a minus for those
testing negative.
6. Rinse test tubes and repeat Steps 2 and 3.
7. In the presence of starch, iodine will change color from yellow-brown to blue-black.
Add 5 drops of iodine solution to each container. Stir the contents of each container.
CAUTION: Be careful when handling iodine; it can stain hands and clothing.
8. In the data table, record the color of the iodine solutions. Put a plus next to those
samples testing positive for starch and a minus for those testing negative.
10
9. Did your test for glucose indicate there was glucose in the starch sample? Explain.

10. Different food sources yield varying intensities of the yellow-brown test result for the
presence of starch. Explain.

Testing for Proteins

1. Repeat steps 2 and 3 as in above.
2. The indicator Biuret reagent turns from blue to purple in the presence of protein
(Biuret reagent is done by mixing an equal amount of Sodium Hydroxide and Copper
Sulfate). Add 20 drops of Biuret reagent to each container. Stir the contents of each
container. CAUTION: Biuret reagent contains sodium hydroxide, a strong base which is
caustic and dissolves clothing, skin and bench tops. Neutralize it at once with an equal
volume of dilute hydrochloric acid and wipe dry. Do the same for clothing but wash
with water afterwards instead of wiping. If spilt on the skin do not add acid but wash
under the tap until the soapy feeling is removed.
3. Record the color of each Biuret solution in the data table. Put a plus next to those
samples testing positive for protein and a minus for those testing negative.
4. Rinse all ten containers thoroughly.

Testing for Lipids

1. If a food that contains lipids is put on brown paper, it will leave a spot that lets light
through. Divide a piece of a brown paper bag into 5 sections. Label the sections
vegetable oil, glucose, starch, egg whites, and water. In each section, rub a
small amount of the substance onto the brown paper. With a paper towel, rub off any
excess that may stick to the paper. Set the paper aside until the spots appear dry.
2. After all the sections of the brown paper are dry, hold it up to a bright light or window.
You will notice that at least one sample has left a spot that lets light through on the
brown paper. The spot indicates the presence of lipids.
3. Complete the last column of the data table below. Put a plus for any samples which
tested positive for lipids and a minus for the samples which tested negative.
4. What property of lipids was observed in your result?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

11
 Carbohydrate Tests Protein Test Lipid
test
Sample iodine Biuret
Benedicts glucose test starch test Protein Lipid
test color present color present color present present

Vegetable oil

Glucose

Starch from corn

or potatoes
Powdered egg
whites

Water

QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:

1. Describe the building blocks of each organic compounds studied in the lab
(carbohydrates, lipids and proteins).

2. What are the principal functions of these biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins) in the cell?

12
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 5
DNA ISOLATION
Nucleic acids are among the biomolecules present in living cells. Among its compound,
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is of prominence concerning individual identification. With how it
is so could be attributed to the significant structure and characteristic of DNA and the role it
played in every organism.

I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity the students will be able to:
1. Perform simple method of isolating DNA molecule.
2. Describe DNA molecule.
II. MATERIALS:
2 test tubes, 10 ml 25% soap solution
2 test tubes, 25 ml 95% ethy alcohol (refrigerated/ immersed in ice)
1 plastic cup 8% sodium chloride solution
1 Glass rod distilled water
Graduated cylinder
Dropper
Test tube rack
III. PROCEDURE:
1. Add 20 drops of the 8% sodium chloride solution to the larger test tube. Set
aside in a test tube rack.
2. Pour 20 ml of distilled water into a plastic cup.
3. Put the water in your mouth and swirl the water around for at least 30
seconds. Spit the water back into the plastic cup. (The swirling of the water
washes cells from the inside of your cheeks into the water).
4. Pour 10 ml of the cheek cell water into the test tube containing the salt
solution from Step 1.
5. Add 20 drops of 25% soap solution to the cheek mixture in the test tube.
6. Mix the contents of the tube by gently inverting the test tubes several times.
Do not shake the test tube.

13
 7. Hold the test tubes at a slight angle; carefully add 5 ml of 95 % cold ethyl
alcohol down the side of the test tube so that it forms a layer over the
cheek mixture in the test tube.
8. Hold the test tube upright for 1 minute and observe what happens at the
interface between the ethyl alcohol and the cheek solution.
9. Add 20 drops of 95% ethy alcohol to the test tube.
10. Place a clean glass stirring rod in the test tube containing the DNA. Collect by
winding it on the rod in one direction.
11. Carefully remove the rod and the DNA from the solution and transfer it to a
smaller test tubes containing 95% ethyl alcohol. Observe the DNA strands
floating in the alcohol.

QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:

1. Describe the DNA molecule.

2. Why DNA molecule is often referred to as blueprint of life?

3. Where do the molecules that make up a DNA strand come from?

14
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 6
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL
All living organisms are composed of cells. They occur singly as unicellular or as subunits
of tissues or organs in multicellular organisms. In both cases, the cell is considered as the
organisms basic unit of structure and function. Any attempt to study and understand the
complexity and uniqueness of a living organism requires the complete understanding of the
cells basic structure and function.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity the students will be able to:
1. Investigate the structure of a plant and animal cell.
2. Identify the structural similarities and differences between plant and animal
cells.
II. Materials:
Microscope
Prepared slide:
Allium skin (onion)
Squamous epith. (cheek smear)
III. Procedure:
1. Observe the prepared slides under the microscope and draw what is seen.

Plant Cell Animal Cell

15
 2. Locate for the following easily distinguishable plant and animal cell structures.
a. Nucleus
When viewed under the microscope, it appears as a dark spot within the cell.
It is usually the largest in the cell that consists of three readily distinguishable
parts. The nuclear envelope separates the nuclear material from the
cytoplasm. Inside the nuclear envelope, the nucleus contains a granular-
looking material called chromatin and a darker region called the nucleolus. It
contains the cell genetic material.
b. Cell membrane
It is the outer membrane of a cell, composed of a bilayer of phospolipids n
which proteins are embedded. Each cell is surrounded by a thin plasma
membrane that acts as gatekeeper, allowing only specific substances in or
out and passing chemical messages from the external environment to the
cells interior.
c. Cytoplasm
The internal volume of the cell exclusive of the nucleus and is occupied by
the organelles and by the semifluid cytosol in which they are suspended.
d. Cell wall
The outer surface of a plant cell composed of cellulose and other
polysaccharides. Walls are produced by the cells they surround. Plant cells
secrete cellulose through their plasma membrane.
3. Label the parts of the cells in your drawings.

IV. QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:

1. What are the similarities and differences between the structure of a plant and
animal cell?

2. How do these significant defining features between a plant and animal cell
attribute to the make-up and characteristics of plants and animals?

16
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 7
MITOSIS
After a cell has grown to a size that hinders transport processes via the cell membrane
due to disproportionate surface area-volume increases, it undergoes a process of cell division
called mitosis. The resulting increase in number of cells in a multicellular organism account for
the living characteristic referred to as growth. Since mitosis results to new cells, it could also be
a means for cellular reproduction.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, the students will be able to:
1. Recognize the stages of plant and animal mitosis.
2. Describe the characteristics of the stages of mitosis.
3. Differentiate between plant and animal mitosis.
II. MATERIALS:
Microscope
Prepared slides:
Allium cepa root tip
Ascaris uterus
Models of plant and animal mitosis
III. PROCEDURE:
1. Examine under the LPO a prepared slide of Allium cepa and Ascaris uterus.
Observe the numerous rectangular cells found in the elongated root tip, and
rounded cells of the ascaris.
2. Shift to HPO. Cells will be observed in various stages of mitotic division.
3. Locate and study cells undergoing stages described below:
a. INTERPHASE
Characterized by having a distinct nucleus bounded by a nuclear
membrane. Nucleolus is readily identifiable, and immediately
adjacent to the nuclear membrane is the centrosome, which contains
centrioles.

17
 b. PROPHASE
Chromosomes appear as thin, coiled filaments but gradually shorten
and thicken as mitosis progresses. Each chromosome consist of 2
sister chromatids which are joined together at a point called the
centromere. Centrioles migrate until they reach the opposite sides of
the cell. Their positions mark the poles toward which the
chromosomes will move. When the nuclear envelope breaks down,
the region between the centriolesbecome visible as a relatively
transparent region called the spindle, composed of microtubules
known as spindle fibers. Fibers radiate from each pair of centrioles,
forming the aster.

c. METAPHASE
Chromosomes move toward the middle of the cell called the equator,
through spindle fibers attached at the centromere of each
chromosome.

d. ANAPHASE
Centromeres of the doubled chromosome divide and the 2 sister
chromatids separate and become daughter chromosomes when they
finally reach the opposite poles of the cell.

e. TELOPHASE
The spindle disappears, 2 daughter nuclei are recognized, nucleoli and
nuclear membrane reappear. The cytoplasm also becomes divided by
a cell plate, which gives rise to new cell wall when telophase is
completed. In animal cell, the cytoplasm becomes pinched in the
middle, and the cleavage furrow thus formed progressively deepens
until 2 daughter cells are formed. This process is known as
cytokenisis.

4. Draw a plant and animal cell in ech stage of mitosis side-by-side and label your
observations:

18
IV. DRAWINGS:
INTERPHASE EARLY PROPHASE

LATE PROPHASE METAPHASE

EARLY ANAPHASE LATE ANAPHASE

19
 EARLY TELOPHASE LATE TELOPHASE

QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:

1. Compare and contrast plant and animal mitosis in the bases of the stages they both
undergo.

2. Enumerate at least three reasons why mitosis is significant to an organism.

3. Why are researchers on mitosis of importance to cancer treatment?

20
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 8
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Every cell, whether it is of a single-celled plant or animal, or one of the billions of cells in
man, must be continuously supplied with nutrients in order to perform its various metabolic
functions. In this activity, the transport and passage of substances in a cell will be observed.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, the students will be able to:
1. Observe Brownian movement and simple diffusion.
2. Observe what happens to cells when placed in varying concentrations of
solutions.
3. Explain the mechanisms involved in osmosis.
II. MATERIALS:
Microscope
Glass slides
Cover slips
Blood cells
0.9% salt solution
5 % salt solution
Distilled water
III. PROCEDURE:
A. BROWNIAN MOVEMENT
Put a drop of water on a glass slide. Slowly put a small amount of dye (powdered
carmine dye) on a drop of water and cover with a cover slip. Observe a few
particles under the microscope at high power objective. Do you see the particles
moving? Describe the movement observed.

21
B. DIFFUSION
Half fill a test tube with water. Add a small pinch of potasium permanganate
crystals into the test tube. Observe how the color spread. (Do not move the test
tube). Which part has the darkest color? the lightest color? Where is the general
direction of the spreading color in the test tube?

Define diffusion.

C. OSMOSIS
Prepare the salt solutions (0.9% and 5%) and distilled water. Put each solution in
separate beakers. To each solution, put several drops of human blood (students
may be asked to donate drops of blood). Stir the mixture and allow to stand for 5
minutes before sampling. Get a drop of each solution and place in separate glass
slides with cover slips. Observe the appearance of the individual cells closely.
Draw a few cells. Compare the appearance of the blood cells in each solution.
Describe the cells tonicity in relation to the particular solution it was added.
1. 0.9 % salt solution

2. 5% salt solution

3. Distilled water

Define osmosis and osmotic pressure.

22
D. ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND BULK TRANSPORT
Differentiate simple diffusion from active transport.

Describe endocytosis and exocytosis.

23
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 9
ANIMAL TISSUES
Cells that group themselves together to perform similar functions and share similar
morphological characteristics and locations are called tissues. The animal body is consists of
several types of tissues, grouped and named on the basis of their characteristics such as shape
of cells, number of cell layers, or unique functions.

I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, the students will be able to:
1. Describe types, location and functions of animal tissues.
2. Identify the distinctive parts of individual tissues.
II. MATERIALS:
Prepared slides (see slides in parentheses indicated in each section)
III. PROCEDURE:
1. Study prepared slides indicated for each tissue. Examine cell characteristics and
parts of tissues found in each slide using the description below.
2. Draw 3-5 cells comprising a tissue. Label parts seen. List beside each drawing the
organ from which the tissue was derived.

EPITHELIUM forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, both external
and internal. Cells are packed tightly together, with very little intercellular material
between, except at the point of their origin. The latter is known as the basement
membrane. Some types of epithelia have specialized surfaces, such as presence of
cilia.

A. Simple Epithelium cells form a single layer

1. Squamous (squamous epithelium/ cheek smer) cells are much broader than
they are thick and have the appearance of thin, flat plates.
2. Cuboidal (cuboidal epithelium/ kidney, c.s.) cells are roughly as thick as
they are wide, and have a square or cuboidal shape when viewed in cross-
section or perpendicular to the tissue surface.

24
 3. Columnar (columnar epithelium/ small intestine, c.s.) cells are much thicker
than they are wide. In longitudinal section, they appear as rectangles set on
end. Found between some columnar cells are broad-based cells with
openings to the surface. These goblet cells contain mucus for lubricating
internal surfaces of digestive organs.
B. Stratified epithelium (stratified squamous epithelium/ human skin c.s.) two or
more layers of cells, with only the cells in the lowest layer in contact with the
basement membrane.
C. Pseudostratified epithelium (pseudostratified columnar epithelium/ trachea
c.s.) tissue looks stratified but actually is not; all cells are in contact with the
basement membrane.
D. Transitional epithelium (urinary bladder/urethra c.s.)- cells do not have fixed
shape. It changes whenever the organ is dissented or contracted, as in the case
of the urinary bladder.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE- cells are embedded in an extensive intercellular matrix, which

maybe solid, semisolid, or liquid.

Vascular Connective Tissues atypical connective tissues with liquid matrices

A. Blood (human blood smear) made up of blood cells and a liquid matrix known
as the plasma. Found in the plasma are formed elements of the following types:
1. Red Blood Cells (RBC) or erythrocytes disc-shaped, biconcave cells that
contain hemoglobin for oxygen transport. Human RBCs are anucleated.
2. White Blood Cells (WBC) or leukocytes cells are amorphous, with no
definite shape, nucleated.

Polymorphonuclear Granulocytes - nucleus has one or more lobes;

cytoplasmic granules present.
a. Neutrophil - 3 or more lobes in the nucleus joined by threadlike
structure; very fine granules in cytoplasm.
b. Basophil nucleus S-shaped, not lobulated; granules may cover the
nucleus.
c. Eosinophil 2 lobules in the nucleus and large granules in the
cytoplasm.
Agranulocytes - no granules present in the cytoplasm.
a. Lymphocyte smallest WBC with a large nucleus almost occupying
the entire cell.

25
 b. Monocyte leukocytes with bean-shaped nucleus.
3. Thrombocytes precursor cells of blood platelets. They become fragmented
before their release from the bone marrow.

B. Lymph the liquid matrix known as lymph contains lymphocyres which are
migratory cells.
Connective Tissue Proper- intercellular matrix contains numerous fibers. Both cells
and fibers are embedded in a ground substance which is a mixture of water,
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
A. Fibrous Connective Tissues
1. Loose or areolar fibrous connective tissue (areolar tissue)
Loose, irregularly arranged fibers, extensive amount of ground substance, and
presence of numerous cells of a variety of types: leukocytes, adipocytes (fat
cells), fibroblasts (fiber-forming cells), macrophages (large phagocytes), and mast
cells (with pale-staining nuclei and large heparin-containing granules). Fibers are
of two kinds: collagenous (thick fibers running in all directions in a wavy course);
and elastic (thin, darkly-stained fibers that can be stretched to a certain degree).
2. Dense fibrous connective tissue- fibers are compactly arranged, limited amount
of ground substance, and relatively few cells found among fibers.

a. White or collagenous (tendon) occurs principally in tendons. Thick, pale-

staining fibers are arranged in wavy, parallel rows and in a closely packed
manner. Between the bundles are found fibroblasts, and small blood vessels.
b. Elastic (yellow elastic connective tissue) tissue appears yellowish in color
with the naked eye due to predominance of elastic fibers. Stained specimens
have dark fibers arranged compactly. Fibroblasts and small blood vessels are
found between fibers.
3. Adipose tissue (adipose tissue) this tissue is a type of loose connective tissue.
Cells known as adipocytes store fat in large vacuoles, causing the nucleus to be
displaced to the side. If the fat is not stained in the slide, the cells in adipose
tissue appear like ghost cells.

Supportive Connective Tissue cells and their products form the structural
support of the vertebrate body.

A. Cartilage- relatively few cartilage-forming cells, known as chondrocytes, are

located inside cavities or lacunae in the matrix. Covering of tissue is a dense
fibrous connective tissue known as the perichondrium.

26
 1. Hyaline cartilage (hyaline cartilage) a somewhat elastic, semi
transparent tissue with an opalescent bluish-gray tint. Lacunae with
chondrocytes are widely spaced in a homogenous matrix, which actually
contains a dense network of thin fibrils.
2. Fibrocartilage (fibrocartilage) contains dense network of irregulary
arranged collagenous fibers among chondrocytes lodged inside lacunae. It has
no perichondrium.
3. Elastic Cartilage (elastic cartilage) differs from hyaline variety in its
greater opacity, flexibility and elasticity. Fibers are often so dense they
obscure the ground substance. Cells inside lacunae are fewer but larger
compared to fibrocartilage.
B. Bone (ground or decalcified bone) has a hard, relatively rigid matrix
impregnated with inorganic calcium salts. Osteocytes, or bone-forming cells are
found inside lacunae arranged in concentric rings called lamellae. Channels,
known as canaliculi connect lacunae of one lamella to another, and to the cental
canal known as Haversian canal. Tha Haversian canal, lamellae, lacune and
canaliculi make up the basic unit of bony tissue called the Haversian system or
osteon. The dense fibrous connective tissue covering of bony tissue is called the
periosteum.

MUSCULAR TISSUE- elongated cells bound together into sheets or bundles by

connective tissue. Three principal types of muscles are recognized in vertebrates:

A. Striated or skeletal muscle (striated muscle, I.s) made up of long, cylindrical

fibers containing many nuclei (syncytium). Conspicuous cross-striations are
observed in these fibers and the nuclei lie beneath the surface of the plasma
membrane, known as the sarcolemma. The unit of organization of skeletal
muscle is the fiber, large numbers of which are grouped into fascicles, which
in turn are associated with a connective tissue sheath known as the
epimysium; the perimysium surrounds the fascicle, while the endomysium
invests individual muscle fibers.
B. Smooth or visceral muscle (smooth muscle, l.s.) made up of spindle-shaped
cells with single nucleus located in the middle bulging portion (belly) of the
cell. Striations are absent.
C. Cardiac muscle (cardiac muscle, l.s.) composed of elongated, branching
fibers that unite with other fibers to form a continuous network of muscle
fibers. Cardiac muscle contains cross-striations like striated muscle, but the
fibers of cardiac muscle are divided into many cell-like units by intercalated

27
 disc which partially divide the fibers. Nucleus is single and located centrally in
the interior of the fiber, the branches generally having no nucleus. Like
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle is involuntary.

NERVOUS TISSUE neurons are cells that compose organs of the nervous system
(brain, spinal cord, and nerves). They are primarily involved in transmitting
stimulus and response messages to various body parts for coordination functions.
1. Neuron (spinal cord, c.s.) a nerve cell, together with its branches or
processes, is called a neuron. These processes include a long axon, which
carries impulses away from the cell body, and shorter processes called
dendrites which receive impulses from other nerve cells and carry them
toward the cell body. The latter contains a nucleus, and numerous fine fibrils,
the neurofibrils, in its cytoplasm.
2. Nerve (nerve, c.s.) a nerve is a group of nerve fibers or processes bound
together by connective tisue. A group of nerve fibers, a fascicle, is
surrounded by a connective tissue sheath known as the periniurium; the
epiniurium surrounds the whole nerve and holds the fascicles together, and
the endoniurium separates individual nerve fibers from one another. The
nerve fibers in cross section will appera as small dark spots, each surrounded
by a clear area, the myelin sheath.

REPRODUCTIVE TISSUE this tissue is found in repoductive organs or gonads of

the male and female individuals of a species.
1. Testis (mammal testis, c.s.) the male gonad in cross-section contains
round, tubular structures known as seminiferous tubules. Between the
tubules are interstitial cells which are responsible for secreting the male
hormone testosterone. Inside each tubule are found reproductive cells in
different stages of development:
a. Spermatogonia dark-staining cells near the periphery
b. Spermatocytes dark-staining cells in varying stages of cell division
c. Spermatids small cells with a hint of a tail
d. Spermatozoa tadpole-shaped cells near the lumen of a tubule
2. Ovary (mammal ovary, x.s.) the female gonad contains numerous round
cells called follicle cells. These cells surround the maturing egg cell or
ovum, and are responsible for secreting the female hormones estrogen
and progesterone. Inside each follicle is a cell in varying stages of maturity:
a. Oogonia small cells at periphery of gonad
b. Primary oocyte surrounded by one or more layers of follicular cells

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 c. Secondary oocyte follicular cells begin to form a cavity called the
antrum around the oocyte
d. Ovum mature oocyte with big antrum. After ovulation, or release of
the mature ovum, the remaining follicular cells become the corpus
luteum.
IV. DRAWINGS:
SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

STRATIFIED EPITH. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITH. TRANSITIONAL EPITH.

ERYTHROCYTE MONOCYTE LYMPHOCYTE

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 NEUTROPHIL EOSINOPHIL BASOPHIL

AREOLAR CT WHITE FIBROUS CT YELLOW ELASTIC CT

ADIPOSE BONE HYALINE CARTILAGE

FIBROCARTILAGE ELASTIC CARTILAGE SMOOTH MUSCLE

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 STRIATED MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE NEURON

NERVE OVARY TESTIS

V. QUESTIONS TO ANSWERS:
1. Cite at least 3 examples of structure-function relationship observed from
different tissue types.

2. What is tissue culture? What is its role in modern biotechnology?

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Course/ Section: ___________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
Date: _____________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

ACTIVITY 10
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG
To study the morphology of a typical vertebrate, the frog, Rana sp is most commonly
used due to its availability and ease of handling in the laboratory. This activity, introduces
student to the study of anatomy, which focuses on the identification of the most salient parts
of the organ systems found in a typical vertebrate body.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, the students will be able to:
1. Identify external anatomical parts of the vertebrate body
2. Determine the sex of a frog
II. MATERIALS:
Frog
Chloroform/ether
Dissecting tools: scalpel, scissors, probe, forceps, pins
Dissecting pan
III. PROCEDURE:
1. Wash the frog thoroughly on running water.
2. Use a cotton ball moistened with chloroform / ether to immobilize your
specimen. Pin the frog on a dissecting pan. (Note: DO NOT CUT OPEN YOUR
SPECIMEN AT THIS POINT!). If your specimen is a preserved one, wash it
thoroughly with water until the formalin fumes no longer bothers you.
3. Go over the list of terms that follow, and using your specimen, locate what is
described by each.
4. Draw and label your observations.

Take note of some of these descriptive terms used in morphological study being used in
this activity:
1. Dorsal the back
2. Ventral the region opposite the back; in the frog, this refers to the belly side
3. Lateral the right and left sides of the body
4. Anterior front or forward
5. Posterior opposite anterior; away from the front
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 6. Proximal near the referred point of the body
7. Median passes through the center from head to tail; divides the body into left and
right halves

EXTERNAL FEATURES
The frogs body is divided into three major parts: head, trunk, and appendages (limbs).
Study the following structures, from head to the appendages:
1. Snout, protruding region of the head ending in a more or less triangular border.
2. Mouth, large anterior opening of the head with teeth and a tongue.
3. Eyes, two, on the dorsal side of the head.
4. Nostrils or external nares (sing. naris), two small openings near the tip of the snout.
5. Tympanic membrane (tympanum), small round area of thickened membrane behind
each eye.
6. Browspot, lightly-colored spot at the median dorsal part of the head in front of the
eyes. This may be concealed in darkly pigmented specimens.
7. Hump, marked elevation on the middorsal surface of the trunk near the posterior
end.
8. Anus, small opening at the dorsal end of the trunk which serves for the exit of
reproductive and excretory products.
9. Forelimbs, two on the anterior end of the trunk. Each consists of the upper arm,
forearm, wrist and manus or hands with four digits or fingers.
10. Hindlimbs, two on the posterior end of the trunk. Each consists of the thigh, shank
or middle portion, ankle and pes or foot with five webbed toes. A sixth toe, known
as the prehallux may be felt in the inner side of the foot near the most proximal toe
or hallux.

THE BUCCAL CAVITY

Open the mouth of the frog as wide as possible. Severe the lower and upper jaws at
their joint to expose the mouth cavity. Beginning from the roof of the mouth, study the
following structures:
1. Maxillary teeth, row of small, conical teeth on the margin of the upper jaw.
2. Upper lip, fleshy fold closely adhering to the upper jaw.
3. Sulcus marginalis, groove at the inner side of the row of maxillary teeth which
receives the lower jaw when it is closed.
4. Median subrostral fossa, deepening of the sulcus marginalis at the tip of the upper
jaw.
5. Pulvinar rostrale, low elevations on each side of the median subrostral fossa.

33
6. Lateral subrostral fossa, two other depressions of the sulcus marginalis lateral to the
pulvinars.
7. Eyeballs, pair of big rounded prominences.
8. Choanae or internal nares, two oval openings above the eyeballs leading to the
external nares.
9. Vomerine teeth, two small batches of fine teeth between the internal nares
projecting from the vomer bones.
10. Openings of the eustachian tube, two at the buccal cavity, one near each angle of
the jaws leading outward to the tympanum.
11. Tongue, large, bilobed, non-muscular structure occupying a great part of the floor of
the buccal cavity and attached to the anterior tip of the lower jaw.
12. Tuberculum prelinguale, elevation at the tip of the lower jaw which fits into the
median subrostral fossa when the mouth is closed.
13. Prelingual fossa, two shallow depressions, one on each side of the tuberculum
prelinguale.
14. Pharynx, most posterior part of the mouth cavity.
15. Laryngeal prominence, circular elevation behind the tongue.
16. Glottis, narrow, longitudinal slit at the middle of the laryngeal prominence. This is
the opening of the larynx or voice box into the mouth cavity.
17. Opening of the esophagus, large opening posterior to the pharynx.
18. Opening of the vocal sac (found in the male frog only), two, at the posterior part of
the floor of the mouth cavity, close to the angle jaws, opposite the openings of the
Eustachian tube.

SEX OF THE FROG

Determine the sex of your specimen by noting the following features:
1. The male frog is generally smaller than the female.
2. The male frog has a black band at the ventral surface of the lower jaw.
3. During breeding season, the males forearm is relatively thicker for greater muscular
development required for clasping the female. The inner digit or thumb is larger and
swollen at the base due to glandular secretions of the skin.

34
IV. DRAWINGS:
1. External Anatomy of the Frog

2. Buccal Cavity

35
Course/ Section: ___________ Date: _____________
Group No.:__________
Members:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

ACTIVITY 11
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG
The body of higher animals is organized into organ systems which perform separate vital
physiological processes. Each organ system is composed of organs which perform their
functions individually but integratedly with the other organs. Most of these organs make up the
internal composition of a vertebrate body.
I. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the activity, the students will be able to:
1. Dissect properly an animal specimen
2. Locate and identify the internal organs of the frog
II. MATERIALS:
Frog
Dissecting pan
Dissecting tools
Pins
III. PROCEDURE:
1. Pith the frog to prepare it for dissection. Locate a soft spot at the base of the
dorsal roof of the skull, and insert a needle at this point. Rotate the needle at its
handle to hit the spinal cord. If the frog pulls its leg back when stretched, repeat
the procedure until there is no more response.

THE BODY CAVITY

Pin the frog on a dissecting pan with the ventral (belly) side up. Make an incision
through the skin and muscles from between thighs to the base of the head. Extend the
incision to the middle of the forearms and thighs. (NOTE: Do not cut the anterior
abdominal vein if you do not want a bloody specimen). Fold out the skin and muscle
flaps and pin them on the pan to expose the pericardial and pleuro-peritoneal cavities.
Note the web-like connection of the skin to the underlying muscles. Keep your specimen
moist during dissection. Study the following structures:
1. Body wall - made up of the skin, muscles, bone and peritoneum (innermost
lining); encloses the coelom.

36
 2. Lymph sacs or subcutaneous lymph spaces - four (one dorsal, one ventral,
two lateral) large spaces between the skin and the muscles, filled with lymph.
3. Subcutaneous connective tissue web-like partitions that separate the four
lymph sacs.
4. Coelom the body cavity; divisible into2 regions: pleuro-peritoneal cavity
which holds most of the internal organs or viscera, and the pericardial cavity
which holds the heart. The lining of the former is the peritoneum, while the
latter is lined by the pericardium.
5. Coelomic fluid watery fluid in the coelum.
6. Parietal peritoneum covers the walls of the coelum.
7. Visceral peritoneum or serosa covers the viscera.
8. Ligament or mesentery thin, transparent, double-walled membrane that
suspends the internal organs from the body wall.
9. Omentum portion of the mesentery that connects one organ to another.
10. Transverse septum partition that separates the two compartments of the
coelum.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Pin the body wall on the pan in such a way that the internal organs are fully
exposed. Note the following structures of the digestive tract:
1. Tongue occupies a large part of the buccal cavity. Its narrow font is
attached and its free end behind gradually widens. It is long and sticky, and
can be extended from the mouth when the frog catches insects for food.
2. Pharynx posterior portion of the mouth cavity where the openings of the
larynx and esophagus are found.
3. Esophagus a very short distensible tube which joins the pharynx to the
stomach.
4. Stomach large, whitish, expanded portion posterior to the esophagus. It
maybe U or J shaped. Its anterior or cardiac end is smaller than its
posterior or pyloric end. It is suspended from the body wall by a fold of
peritoneum, the mesogaster.
5. Small intestine whitish, slender, irregularly coiled portion divided into a
short anterior portion, the doudenum and a long posterior portion, the
ileum. It is fastened to the body wall by the mesenterium.
6. Large intestine a short, large tube extending from the ileum to the anus. It
is suspended from the dorsal wall by the mesorectum. Its posterior part is
the cloaca, a common chamber for the openings of the digestive, respiratory,
and reproductive organs.

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 7. Liver large, reddish brown gland ventrally located in the anterior portion of
the pleuroperitoneal cavity. It has 3 lobes: left, right and median. Between
the right and left lobes is a rounded sac, the gall bladder, which serves to
store bile secreted by the liver. The bile ducts of the liver, the cystic duct of
the gall bladder, and the pancreatic duct form the common bile duct which
empties into the duodenum.
8. Pancreas small, irregularly shaped, yellowish gland lying in the gastro-
hepato-duodenal omenta. Its secretions are carried into the duodenum by
the pancreatic ducts via the common bile duct.

Draw and label the parts of the digestive system of a frog:

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. In addition to the skin, external nares, pharynx and buccal cavity already noted,
locate also the following structures:
a. Larynx located in front of the heart and below the pharynx. It is supported by
the hyoid cartilage, and roofed dorsally by the valve-like arytenoid and ring-like
cricoids cartilage. Cut the ventral wall of the larynx longitudinally to expose the
vocal cords, a pair of elastic bands ventral to the glottis.

38
 b. Lungs a pair of thin-walled sacs. Its inner wall is divided into small sacs or
alveoli which are richly supplied by blood vessels. The outside wall of the lungs is
lined by the pleural membrane which is continuous with the parietal
peritoneum.

Draw and label the parts of the respiratory system of a frog:

THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM

The urinary and reproductive systems are usually taken together because of
their close reltionship in origin and function. Study your specimen, and exchange it with
the opposite sex from your classmates when through. Locate the following parts:
MALE:
1. Testes a pair of yellowish, elongated or ovoid structures upported from the dorsal
body wall by the mesorchium.
2. Vasa efferentia tiny tubules found in the mesorchium extending from the testis to
the kidney. They serve as passages of the spermatozoa when they are discharged
from the testis to the mesonephric ducts.
3. Kidneys - a pair of flat, oval, dark-red organs that lie in the subvertebral lymph
sinus or cisterna magna, a space between the mucles of th dorsal body wall and the
peritoneum.
4. Mesonephric or Wolfian duct runs on the lateral margin of each kidney, entering
the cloaca separately at its dorsal body wall. It serves as the passageway of
spermatozoa and urine to the cloaca.
5. Fat bodies or corpora adiposa a pair of yellowish finger-like organs attached at
the anterior end of the testis. They are stored food, and they become larger in
reproductively mature or hibernating animals.

39
6. Adrenalis or suprarenal glands thin, bright-yellow bodies that run throughout the
entire length of the kidneys. They regulate blood pressure.

FEMALE:
1. Ovaries a pair of lobulated organs located ventral to each kidney, and suspended
dorsally by a double membrane, the mesovarium. Within the ovaries are black and
white specks, the eggs or ova.
2. Oviduct or Mullerian ducts coiled, white tubes lateral to the ovaries. The anterior
end of each tube opens into the coelom by a funnel-shaped ostium which servesas
the passageway for the eggs from the ovaries to the outside. The mesotubarium
suspends the oviduct from the dorsal wall of the body cavity.
3. Uterus the widened posterior end of the oviduct which enters the cloaca
separately at its dorsal wall anterior to the openings of the mesonephric ducts.

Draw and label the urogenital system of a male and female frog.

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THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The Heart
1. Make two parallel longitudinal cuts through the abdominal muscle on either side of
the anterior abdomin vein. Cut across this strip of muscle just anterior to where the
anterior abdominal vein dips down to enter the liver. Then cut through the sternum
to expose the heart. Spread the walls by pinning them down on the dissecting pan.
2. Remove the pericardium to expose the parts of the heart. Note the following parts:
a. Ventricle a conical structure at the posterior end of the heart.
b. Right and left auricles lie anterior to the ventricle
c. Conus arteriosus or bulbus cordis lies on the ventral side of the right auricle
3. Remove the ventral walls of the heart to expose the internal structures. Note that
the ventricle has thicker muscular walls than the auricles.
4. Unlike other vertebrates, the ventricl of the frog has a centrl cavity not separated
into two chambers. The auricles are separated by an inter-auricular septum,
preventing the mixture of venous and arterial blood. Several openings connect the
different heart chambers which are guarded by valves tht prevent the backflow of
blood in the opposite direction. Locate the following:
a. Sinu-auricular aperture and valve between the sinus venosus and right auricle.
b. Auriculo-ventricular aperture and valves between both auricles and ventricle
c. Semilunar valve between the conus arteriosus and ventricle
d. Truncus arteriosus common base of arteries leaving the heart

Draw and label the parts of the dissected heart of a frog.

41